Professional Documents
Culture Documents
M us e um o f S ci e nc e a nd T e c h no l o g y – B e l g r a d e
Музеј науке и технике – Београд
м узеј науке и технике – београ д
M u s e u m o f S c i e n c e a n d T e c hnolog y – B e lg r a d e
PHLOGISTON
31
ЧАСОПИС ЗА ИСТОРИЈУ И ФИЛОЗОФИЈУ
НАУКЕ И ТЕХНОЛОГИЈЕ
Београд – Belgrade
2023.
ФЛОГИСТОН
Број 31 – 2023 / Issue Nо. 31 – 2023
Издавач / Publisher
Музеј науке и технике – Београд
Скендербегова 51
тел: 30 37 962; факс: 32 81 479
E-пошта: phlogiston@muzejnt.rs
Museum of Science and Technology – Belgrade
51 Skenderbegova Street
Tel: +381 11 30 37 962; Fax: +381 11 32 81 479
E-mail: phlogiston@muzejnt.rs
Лектура / Proofreading
Катарина Спасић (KAUKAI) / Katarina Spasić (KAUKAI)
Превод / Translation
Катарина Спасић (KAUKAI) / Katarina Spasić (KAUKAI)
Прелом / Layout
Кранислав Вранић / Kranislav Vranić
Штампа / Printing
BiroGraf Comp doo, Зeмун
13 Vladimir B. Ladinski
The Forgotten First Women Architects of North Macedonia
Владимир Б. Ладински
Заборављене �рве архи�ек�иње Северне Маке�оније
45 Marija Šegan-Radonjić, Stevo Šegan
Calendar as a Criterion in the Study of Culture
Марија Шеган-Радоњић, Стево Шеган
Кален�ар као кри�еријум за �роучавање кул�уре
61 Ненад Ђ. Лазаров, Драгољуб А. Цуцић, Илија Тепшић
Михајло Пу�ин и ма�ема�ика
Nenad Đ. Lazarov, Dragoljub A. Cucić, Ilija Tepšić
Michael Pupin and Mathematics
97 Снежана Д. Шарбох
Васа Тео�оровић – инжењер, �роналазач и �а�ен�ни зас�у�ник и
његови �а�ен�и
Snežana D. Šarboh
Wasa Theodorović—An Engineer, an Inventor and a Patent Attorney
and His Patents
129 Славко Ментус
На�ре�ни елек�рохемијски сис�еми за акумулацију елек�ричне
енергије
Slavko Mentus
Advanced Electrochemical Systems for Accumulation of Electric
Energy
169 Igor Salom
2022 Nobel Prize in Physics and the End of Mechanistic Materialism
Игор Салом
Нобелова награ�а за физику за 2022. го�ину и крај механис�ичког
ма�еријализма
237 Dragoljub A. Cucić
Henri Poencaré—From the Perspective of Influence on the Knowledge
of Mathematics and Physics on the Territory of Former Yugoslavia
Драгољуб A. Цуцић
Анри Поенкаре, из �ерс�ек�иве у�ицаја на �ознавање
ма�ема�ике и физике на �рос�орима бивше Југославије
255 Давид Флорес, Зорица Циврић, Јован Цветић
До�ринос развоју уређаја за генерисање с�руја �ри високим
на�онима и високим фреквенцијама: уређај Моника Санчеза за
генерисање x-зрака и високофреквенцијских с�руја
David Flores, Zorica Civrić, Jovan Cvetić
A Contribution to the Development of Devices for Generation of High-
Voltage and High-Frequency Currents: Monico Sánchez’s Device for
Generation of X-Rays and High-Frequency Currents
299 Огњен Ш. Миљанић
Енерге�ика као инс�ирација уме�нос�и
Ognjen Š. Miljanić
Energetics as an Inspiration in Arts
ПРИКАЗИ / REVIEWS
Abstract
This research aims to identify the first women architects from the
University of Belgrade and their links to North Macedonia. It focuses
on the women who had enrolled in the period 1896–1940 and prior
to the establishment of the Federal Unit of Macedonia within the
Democratic and Federal Republic of Yugoslavia on August 2, 1944.
The research builds up on the existing work by Divna Đurić-Zamolo
(2017), Vojislav S. Marković (1939), Georgi Konstantinovski (2001)
and others. The aim of this article is not only to identify these pio-
neers and their legacy, but also to call for more in-depth research of
their lives and contribution to architecture of North Macedonia and
the Balkans.
Earlier research by Dr Divna Đurić-Zamolo identified a total of 144
women who studied architecture at the University of Belgrade in the
1 ladinski@uacs.edu.mk
2 This article is a result of ongoing research of the author on the history of
early architects and engineers in North Macedonia and its present territory. It is
not supported by any external or internal institutional, organisational, or other
funding.
The author would like to express his gratitude to all the organisations and
individuals that kindly provided access to information that made this research
possible, including the Museum of Science and Technology in Belgrade, the
Institute for the Protection of the Monuments of Culture at the City of Belgrade,
the Library of the Faculty of Architecture in Belgrade, the University Library
Svetozar Marković in Belgrade, the Museum of West Macedonia in the National
Liberation War in Kičevo, the late Prof. Georgi Konstantinovski, Dr Goran V.
Anđelković, arch. Stanislava Župan-Overholt, Mr Milivoje Dimitrijević and arch.
Ljubica Dimitrijević-Lloyd.
The author would also like to thank Prof. Elizabeta B. Mukaetova-Ladinska for all
her support and having to listen about the histories of the early architects and
engineers.
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1. Introduction
The first annual meeting of engineers and architects within the Skopje
Construction Directorate3 (Ско�ска �рађевинска �ирекција) took
place in the city on the Vardar River, in then Kingdom of Serbs, Croats
and Slovenes, on Sunday, March 21, 1920. The presence of more than
50 engineers and architects who were members of the Association
of Yugoslavian Engineers and Architects (У�ружење ју�ословенских
инжењера и архи�ек�а) working on the territory of the Skopje
Construction Directorate meant that the requirements were fulfilled to
establish the Skopje Section (Секција Ско�ље) of the Association. This
ultimately laid the foundations for the emergence of the Engineering
Institution of Macedonia (Инженерска инс�и�уција на Маке�онија)
that celebrated its centenary in 2020.4
The minutes from the first meeting with a copy of the statute were
signed by the secretary of the Association, engineer Dim. S. Jevtović, and
the vice-president, engineer Nikola Grujić, on March 29, 1920.5 However,
there is no available information regarding the identity of the delegates
who attended this foundation meeting of the Skopje Section. It is unlikely
that any of the attendants of the meeting were born on the territory of
present North Macedonia. Out of the four engineers and architects iden-
tified to have graduated prior to the end of the World War I, only one, ar-
chitect Gligorije Tomić, might have been in attendance. Out of the other
three, architect Petar J. Popović was based in Belgrade, architect Naum
3 It should be noted that the exact administrative boundaries of the Skopje Con-
struction Direction as in March 1920 are yet to be established by further research.
4 Тони Манџуковски и Христина Спасевска, Е�ен век �ар�нерс�во за о�рж-
лив равој (Скопје: Инженерска институција на Македонија, 2020), 8.
5 Ibid., 8.
14
V. B. Ladinski, The Forgotten First Women Architects of North Macedonia
Torbov in Sofia, whilst architect Josif M. Mihajlović was, at the time, most
likely abroad.6
Some hints as to who might have been in attendance could be gained
from Prof. Georgi Konstantinovski’s book on the architects of Macedonia
from the 18th to the 20th century (Гра�и�ели�е во Маке�онија: XVIII-XX
век)7 where an attempt has been made to identify the first architects and
engineers who practised on the territory of present North Macedonia.
Among some familiar names from the history of architecture in former
Yugoslavia, two women architects, Elena Bokus and Mrs Šulentić (maid-
en name Pavlović), were mentioned for the period up to 1944. However,
very little is known about them and whether they have had any links to
the University of Belgrade. Аrchitect Elena Bokus is mentioned as the de-
signer of a private house in Skopje, whilst the entry for engineer Pajo
Šulentić, only states that he was assisted by his architect wife.8
The celebration of the centenary of the foundation of the Engineering
Institution of Macedonia, in conjunction with Prof. Konstantinovski’s
book mentioning two women architects, was the inspiration for this re-
search. As the investigation mostly took place during the Covid-19 pan-
demic, it is based on the documentary material that could have been ac-
cessed remotely or was available in a digital form. To make this research
possible within the available resources, it was necessary that it focuses
on the women architects who had studied architecture at the University
of Belgrade until 1940. With its origins going back to 18469, the University
of Belgrade is the oldest educational establishment on the territory of
former Yugoslavia where architecture could be studied. Considering the
geographic distance from North Macedonia and the fact that the stud-
ies of architecture at the University of Zagreb10 and the University of
Ljubljana11 became possible only in 1919, the likelihood is that the ma-
jority of the first women architects from within former Yugoslavia were
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the nature of their links with North Macedonia, and secondary, by the
month, where known, and year of their graduation shown in brackets
after their name. The 14 hitherto identified first women architect are:
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34 Ibid.
35 Ђурић-Замоло, “Грађа за проучавање дела жена архитеката са београд-
ског универзитета генерације 1896–1940”, 44–45.
36 Снежана Тошева, “Архитект Милица Крстић (1887-1964)”, Го�ишњак �ра�а
Бео�ра�а, XLIV (1997): 96–114.
37 Milena Zindović, “Milica Krstić – An Architect in Civil Service”, Women in Archi-
tecture – Regional forum for women’s work in architecture, accessed on Septem-
ber 17, 2023, https://www.zua.rs/en/research-en/milica-krstic-an-architect-in-civil-
service.
38 Тошева, “Архитект Милица Крстић (1887-1964)”, 96–114.
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of the university and a part of the theatre building. In addition, she took
part in the design and construction of a church in the village of Crniče
near Skopje.42
Since the available copy of the Marković’s directory was partially dam-
aged, this prevented access to the actual date and place of birth as well as
the graduation date for Adela Pinkas-Štajn (Figure 7). It could be assumed
that she graduated at the University of Belgrade either in 1920 or 1921.
It should be noted that her membership card for the Technical Society
at the University of Belgrade (Техничко �руш�во на универзи�е�у у
Бео�ра�у) shows that she was a full member in 1912.43 Taking into con-
sideration this membership date and the anticipated year of graduation,
it can be assumed that her studies might have been interrupted by the
Balkan wars and/or the World War I. The information in Dr Đurić-Zamolo’s
book suggests that she was listed in the directory of women engineers
in Belgrade in 1922, as architect Adela Pinkas-Štajner. After World War II,
she worked in Srbijaprojekt from where she retired around 1953. She was
related to the Pinkas-Štajn brothers who owned a warehouse for metal
furniture on 81 Kralja Milana Street in Belgrade in 1910.44
42 Ibid.
43 “Чланска карта Техничког друштва у Београду (Адека Пинеас-Штајн),
1912”, Музеј науке и технике, accessed on July, 31, 2023, https://www.muzejnt.
rs/strucni-odseci/arhitektura-i-graditeljstvo/arhitektura-i-graditelstvo.
44 Ђурић-Замоло, “Грађа за проучавање дела жена архитеката са београдског
универзитета генерације 1896–1940”, 54, 62.
26
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45 Ibid., 62.
46Марковић, “Именик дипломираних инжењера и архитеката на Техничком
факултету Универзитета у Београду 1919-1938”, 17.
47 Ђурић-Замоло, “Грађа за проучавање дела жена архитеката са београдског
универзитета генерације 1896–1940”, 54, 27.
48 Ibid., 27–31.
49 Ibid., 27–31.
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50 Ibid., 27–31.
51Марковић, “Именик дипломираних инжењера и архитеката на Техничком
факултету Универзитета у Београду 1919-1938”, 18.
52 Ђурић-Замоло, “Грађа за проучавање дела жена архитеката са београдског
универзитета генерације 1896–1940”, 13–18.
53 Ibid., 13–18.
54 Ibid., 13–18.
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Marija Pavlović was born on July 2, 1896 in Niš and graduated at the
University of Belgrade in October 1925.61 She married structural engi-
neer Pajo Šulentić on December 13, 1931.62 The information regarding
Marija Pavlović and her work appears to be limited. The fact that she was
promoted within the Ministry of Construction in 193263 confirms that she
was and remained civil servant at the Ministry up to the World War II. She
passed away before her husband but the exact year is not known.64
Certain indirect information about Marija Šulentić comes from
Konstantinovski,65 who included her husband in the list of prominent ar-
chitects in North Macedonia prior to the World War II. Pajo Šulentić grad-
uated in October 192766 and he was a certified engineer with his own
private practice in Skopje, where he worked on small-scale buildings and
private houses, including his own house (1938), three years before mov-
ing to Belgrade in 1941.67 Considering that his projects in Skopje have
taken place between 1931 and 1938, it could be assumed that Mr and
Mrs Šulentić lived and worked there in the 1930s. Konstantinovski sug-
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V. B. Ladinski, The Forgotten First Women Architects of North Macedonia
gested that,68 whilst in Skopje, Pajo Šulentić was supported in his work
by his architect wife. This suggests that her main source of employment
was her work for the Ministry of Construction whilst she was assisting
her husband and his private practice outside her official working hours.
It is known that after the World War II Pajo Šulentić worked for
Kosovo-Projekt69 and possibly other companies as well. It is also known
that he designed the small hydro power station Raška near the Sopoćani
Monastery.70 However, no information has been found as to what Marija
Šulentić might have been working on after the World War II. Also, no
information has been found in relation to her work within the Ministry
of Construction whilst living in Skopje. Considering the nature of many
of the buildings produced by Pajo Šulentić’s practice, it is possible that
Marija Šulentić might have had a greater input into their design than
what is reflected on the official projects signed by her husband. However,
this is something that requires further research.
Ružica Ilić was born on November 11, 1909 in Belgrade and graduated
at the University of Belgrade in March 1934.71 According to Dr Đurić-
Zamolo,72 she completed postgraduate studies in Italy on a scholar-
ship. Ilić is remembered as collaborator and an unofficial assistant to
Prof. Milan Zloković (between 1934 and 1941). After the World War II,
she worked for the Ministry of Construction, Department for Town and
Country Organisation, for the Institute of Urbanism, from its foundation,
and was head of the Design Office URBS from 1955, before becoming a
freelanced artist-architect.73
68 Ibid.
69 Ђурић-Замоло, “Грађа за проучавање дела жена архитеката са београд-
ског универзитета генерације 1896–1940”, 57.
70 С. Рославцев, “Пут градње ХЕ ‘Рашка’”, ЕПС Енер�ија, 6 (2015): 78–79, acce-
ssed on September 27, 2023, https://www.eps.rs/cir/Nabavke/EE06_decem-
bar%202015.pdf.
71Марковић, “Именик дипломираних инжењера и архитеката на Техничком
факултету Универзитета у Београду 1919-1938”, 93.
72 Ђурић-Замоло, “Грађа за проучавање дела жена архитеката са београд-
ског универзитета генерације 1896–1940”, 34–35.
73 Ibid., 34–35.
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74 Ibid., 34–35.
75 Ђурић-Замоло, “Грађа за проучавање дела жена архитеката са београд-
ског универзитета генерације 1896–1940”, 9, 24–26.
76 Ibid., 24–26.
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V. B. Ladinski, The Forgotten First Women Architects of North Macedonia
6. Discussion
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36
V. B. Ladinski, The Forgotten First Women Architects of North Macedonia
One of the only tangible remains of the work of the first women archi-
tects is probably the County Office (Среско начелс�во), now Municipality
Office, in Bitola, designed by architect Dragomir Tadić in 1924, who was
assisted by Živana Bogdanović. Additionally, certain information might
be available on her commended entry at the Design Competition for the
new Railway Station in Skopje in 1931.
Probably one of the most prominent works by the first women archi-
tects on the territory of present North Macedonia is the Students Hall
in Skopje (1931–1933) demolished after the World War II, and the First
Prize entry at the design competition for the King Peter Square in Skopje
(1930). On both projects, Danica Milovanović Kojić was a co-author with
her husband Branislav Kojić. Considering the professional opus of Prof.
Kojić and the apparent level of professional collaboration between the
couple, it is possible that Milovanović Kojić might have participated in
some other projects, possibly without formal acknowledgement of con-
tribution. Unfortunately, most of Prof. Kojić buildings have been lost in
the 1963 Skopje Earthquake leaving predominantly the archives-related
research open for further investigation.
As we have entered the second century since the foundation of
Skopje Section of the Association of the Yugoslavian Engineers and
Architects, now Engineering Institution of Macedonia, there is still prob-
ably more to investigate about the pioneers of engineering and architec-
ture on the territory of present North Macedonia who laid the founda-
tions for the development of the profession. The schism between the
pre- and the post-World War II view of the world, in conjunction with the
1991 dissolution of the Socialist Federative Republic of Yugoslavia, may
have limited the scope of what is still possible to uncover regarding the
life and work of the early architects and engineers, especially concerning
the professional women. This lacuna marks the future opportunity for
international research cooperation within the Open Balkan framework,
Europe and beyond.
7. Conclusions
This article presents the interim results of the ongoing research on the
first women architects enrolled at the University of Belgrade between
1896 and 1940 with links to the territory of present North Macedonia. Out
of the 144 known enrolled women architects, this research has identified
14 with some links to North Macedonia. Three of them were born and
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two of them lived but did not practice in North Macedonia. The remain-
ing nine lived and worked, or worked on projects for North Macedonia.
It appears that none of the first women architects practised in North
Macedonia. Out of the architects born outside North Macedonia, who
had worked on the projects in or for the sites within its borders, there
are very limited traces left to indicate if their actual projects are still in
existence. As a results, any future efforts should focus on recording what
has remained, and on the archival research that can potentially inform
and shed light on these women’s lives and their struggle to work as
architects.
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V. B. Ladinski, The Forgotten First Women Architects of North Macedonia
Source of Illustrations
Literature
39
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40
V. B. Ladinski, The Forgotten First Women Architects of North Macedonia
41
Владимир Б. Ладински
Универзитет Амерички колеџ Скопље, Факултет за архитектуру и дизајн,
Скопље, Република Северна Македонија
42
V. B. Ladinski, The Forgotten First Women Architects of North Macedonia
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44
original scientific paper
UDC 006.95:008
Marija Šegan-Radonjić1
Mathematical Institute
of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Belgrade
Stevo Šegan2
State University of Novi Pazar,
Department of Mathematics, Novi Pazar
Abstract
This article considers the calendar as a relation of humanity to cos-
mos and introduces it as an instrument for study of culture. It uses
the concept of calendars and calendar systems as a criterion for
recognizing and forming culture. Starting from an assumption that
the calendar is a structurally organized system of phenomena, events
and holidays, it divides the time into days, months and years. Also,
it is assumed that calendars are structural lists of collective memory
within a society, whereby this memory is described in cyclical catego-
ries—calendar (public) holidays, such as state and religious holidays,
and non-calendar holidays, such as anniversaries of personal events.
Furthermore, considering that the method of counting years used in
calendars may differ in different cultures, it discusses how cultural
self-awareness is expressed through the epoch of the calendar era.
Finally, it explores how and to what extent calendars’ formation,
interaction, and reforms, as well as their systems, reflect cultural
changes. The article concludes that the calendar and the calendar
systems represent a specific cultural criterion of a society and serve
as a source of cultural identity.
Keywords: calendar, culture
1 msegan@mi.sanu.ac.rs
2 stevo@segan.org
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1. Introduction
46
M. Šegan-Radonjić, S. Šegan, Calendar as a Criterion in the Study of Culture
the Akan calendar is selected as the criterion for recognizing and forming
the culture.9
The above-mentioned studies usually focus on a specific calendar as
a criterion for defining a particular aspect of culture. In this article, how
ever, we will avoid the too general and too specific definitions of culture
by connecting the natural (astronomical) and social (cultural) cosmolo-
gies, in which the category of time appears as an unavoidable argument
and function. We use the concept of calendars/calendar systems as a
criterion for the recognition and formation of culture in general. Start-
ing from an assumption that the calendar is a structurally organized sys-
tem of events or holidays, we analyze the basic units of a calendar: day,
month and year, and distinguish a calendar holiday from a non-calendar
holiday. We find that the calendar is a structural list of collective memory
within a society, whereby this memory is described in cyclical catego-
ries—calendar holidays. Furthermore, considering that the initial epoch
of year-counting may differ in different cultures, we discuss how cultural
self-awareness is expressed through the epoch of the calendar era. Fi-
nally, we explore how and to what extent calendars’ formation, interac-
tion, and reforms, as well as their systems, reflect cultural changes. We
conclude that calendars and their systems could be used as a criterion in
defining culture.
The rest of the article is organized in the following way: in §2, we ana-
lyze the calendar as a structurally organized collective memory within
human societies. In §3, we explore the connection between the calendar
era and cultural self-awareness. We then analyze certain aspects of cul-
tural interaction and shift by comparing the selected calendars and their
systems in §4 and §5. Chapter 6 concludes with suggestions for future
research.
9 Philip F.W. Bartle, “Forty Days: The Akan Calendar”, Journal of the International
African Institute, 48 (1978), 80–84; Kwasi Konadu, “The Calendrical Factor in Akan
History”, International Journal of African Historical Studies, 45, 2 (2012), 217–246.
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nation) and a year (based on the Earth’s revolution around the Sun) are
adopted as the basic units of a calendar.10
Every calendar recognizes the day as the smallest calendrical unit
of time. It represents a system for organizing the smallest units of time
to reckon the time over extended periods.11 However, regardless of
the smallest, general unit, various methods have been used in creating
calendars, and currently, there are more than 40 different calendars in
use.12 For example, some are replicas of astronomical cycles following
permanent rules (e.g., Julian or Gregorian calendar). In contrast, others
are based on abstract continuous cycles without astronomical meaning
(e.g., Olympiad dating).
If a day is accepted as the smallest calendrical unit of time, then it
includes both repetitive and non-repetitive features. Repetitive features
include, for example, the position of a day within a week (e.g., Wednes-
day is the third day of a week) or a month (e.g., the 20th of October).
Also, a year can be described as the summary of the number of days; for
example, a common year contains 365 days and a leap year contains 366
days. The non-repetitive characteristic of a day arises from the fact that
a day is an ordinal number of the year as a time interval from a starting
point—the initial epoch. Therefore, every calendar has two conceptions
of time: cyclical and linear.
As for the cyclical conception of time, in the existing calendars, a
year reflects natural phenomenon, mostly the cyclicity of the seasons. It
should be noted, however, that the reflection of a natural phenomenon
in a calendar often becomes a metaphysical phenomenon. For example,
the Inundation of the Nile, a holiday introduced in Egypt because of the
actual flooding of the Nile River, at some point stopped corresponding to
the actual event.13 That, however, did not prevent its celebration. Also,
the proclaimed (conventional) cyclicity of the International Astronomical
Union General Assembly does not follow any natural cycle; the year divid-
48
M. Šegan-Radonjić, S. Šegan, Calendar as a Criterion in the Study of Culture
ed into months does not follow the seasons either, weeks do not follow
the lunar phases, etc. What is, then, a calendar year in such a context?
Ancient Romans used the word fasti for the calendar, which usually
contained months and days of the year, holidays (festivals), and other
events.14 Furthermore, in most European languages, there is also a word
almanac used for the calendar, which is said to emanate from the Coptic
word almenichiaká (i.e., astrological charts containing a list of lords of
the ascendant).15 Therefore, the calendar can be seen as a sequence of
holidays/events/phenomena whose duration is approximately equal to
year’s seasons.
If the calendar is accepted as a sequence of holidays or events, then it
is essential to distinguish a calendar (public) holiday from a non-calendar
holiday. A calendar with public holidays contains a ritual repetition of
events from mythology or history. It is, therefore, characterized by a lin-
ear repetitiveness in the framework of the annual cycle. A public holiday
may be celebrated on the same calendar day (e.g., the ancient Roman
holiday, Saturnalia, celebrated on December 17 in honor of the Roman
god Saturn, or the French National Day, Bastille Day, celebrated on July
14), but not necessarily (e.g., the Jewish holiday, Passover, a commemo-
ration of the Jewish people leaving Egypt, which takes place in spring, on
Saturday, on the 15th day of Nissan month, or the Christian holiday, Eas-
ter, celebrating the resurrection of Jesus, also taking place in the spring).
Thus, certain mythological and historical facts of society are reproduced
and celebrated through a calendar, and it serves as a source of “social
order and cultural identity”.16
A non-calendar holiday is a holiday which, though not included in the
official calendar of society, is an integral part of the memory of the mem-
bers of that community, for instance, celebrations of birthdays, wedding
anniversaries, death anniversaries, etc.
Therefore, the calendar can be seen as a structural set of collective
memory within a society, where this memory is described in cyclical cate
gories—calendar holidays. When included in the calendar system, the
calendar is presumed to be complete both in the cyclical and the linear
sense, and it can be regarded as one of the criteria in the study of culture.
49
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17 Pavel Kuzenkov, “How old is the world: the Byzantine Era and its rivals”, in
Proceedings of the 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, ed. Elizabeth
Jeffreys and Fiona Harrer (Hampshire: Ashgate Publishing, 2006), 21.
18John L. Esposito, ed., The Oxford Dictionary of Islam (New York: Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2003), 145.
19 Mary Boyce, “On the Calendar of Zoroastrian Feasts”, Bulletin of the School of
Oriental and African Studies, University of London 33, 3 (1970), 517–518.
20 Here, the notion of a “civilized society” is used in the sense that it is:
“cultural—a vastly complex and always developing series of human thoughts
and feelings, but not of actions, except those very limited actions required to
form and express thoughts and feelings.” Rushton Coulborn, “Structure and
Process in the Rise and Fall of Civilized Societies”, Comparative Studies in Society
and History, 8, 4 (1966), 404.
21 George K. Park, “Animism”, Encyclopedia Britannica (2020), accessed on May
11, 2023, https://www.britannica.com/topic/animism.
50
M. Šegan-Radonjić, S. Šegan, Calendar as a Criterion in the Study of Culture
51
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28 Jaime E. Alvar, Romanising Oriental Gods. Myth, Salvation and Ethics in the
Cults of Cybele, Isis and Mithras, trans. Richard Gordon (Leiden: Brill, 2008), 410;
Michele R. Salzman, The Roman Time. The Codex Calendar of 354 and the Rhythms
of Urban Life in Late Antiquity (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), 127,
150.
29 Steven Hijmans, “Sol Invictus, the Winter Solstice, and the Origins of
Christmas”, Mouseion, 47, 3 (2003), 377–378.
30 Ibid.
31 Frank W. Walbank, “Sources for the Period”, in The Cambridge Ancient
History 7–1, The Hellenistic World, ed. Frank W. Walbank (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1984), 6.
32 Ibid.
33 Dragoljub P. Antić, editor-in-chief, Kalendarsko znanje i doprinos Milutina
Milankovića (Beograd: Udruženje Milutin Milanković, 2012), 1–532.
52
M. Šegan-Radonjić, S. Šegan, Calendar as a Criterion in the Study of Culture
of Orthodox churches have adopted the new calendar, those from Ser-
bia, Russia and Jerusalem have not,34 most likely due to attempts to pre-
serve the long-lasting tradition and avoid possible schism. For example,
Serbian theologian Justin Popović regarded the new calendar “as dan-
gerous non-Orthodox innovation”.35
A modern example of resistance and conflict between cultures is also
the conflict on the territory of former Yugoslavia, where, due to the civil
wars in the 1990s, the religious and cultural space was strictly divided
and where, on a calendar basis, all adaptation and diffusion processes
were stopped. In former Yugoslavia, the Gregorian calendar was in of-
ficial use, and many secular holidays were introduced, which, due to in-
tensive administrative support, excluded some traditional holidays based
on religious and cultural heritage. If one carefully examines the calendars
from that time, it can be noticed that one or two religious holidays in this
unified calendar had the significance of a state holiday but without for-
mal administrative support (namely, holidays were celebrated, but they
were working days).36 After the disintegration of Yugoslavia, numerous
religious holidays, which had been previously excluded, were reintro-
duced in the secular calendars—Orthodox Christian holidays in Serbia,
Republika Srpska, Montenegro and Macedonia, Islamic holidays in the
Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Kosovo, and Catholic holidays
in Croatia and Slovenia. In this way, the calendar has become one of the
bases of cultural, social and political divisions.
It should be noted that the above-mentioned examples have
stemmed from calendars that have been gradually formed through the
process of cultural interaction. Therefore, the calendar can be regarded
as a universal characteristic and form of cultural self-evaluation. It pro-
duces essential cultural elements such as the idea of time and the con-
cept of identity, origin, and action. It also confirms the self-identity of a
given culture and its distinction from other cultures.
53
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54
M. Šegan-Radonjić, S. Šegan, Calendar as a Criterion in the Study of Culture
6. Conclusion
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56
M. Šegan-Radonjić, S. Šegan, Calendar as a Criterion in the Study of Culture
Literature
1. Alvar, Jaime E. Romanising Oriental Gods. Myth, Salvation and Ethics in the
Cults of Cybele, Isis and Mithras. Translated by Richard Gordon. Leiden:
Brill, 2008.
2. Antić, Dragoljub P., editor-in-chief. Kalendarsko znanje i doprinos Milutina
Milankovića. Beograd: Udruženje Milutin Milanković, 2012.
3. Badian, Ernst. “Fasti”. Encyclopedia Britannica (2021). Accessed on May
5, 2023. https://www.britannica.com/topic/fasti-Roman-calendar.
4. Bartle, Philip F. W. “Forty Days: The Akan Calendar”. Journal of the
International African Institute, 48 (1978), 80–84.
5. Boyce, Mary. “On the Calendar of Zoroastrian Feasts”. Bulletin of the
School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, 33, 3 (1970),
513–539.
6. Chatterjee, Commodore S.K. Indian Calendric System. New Delhi:
Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting,
Government of India, 1998.
7. Chattopadhyaya, Debi P. Environment, Evolution and Values. New Delhi:
Concept Publishing Company, 2007.
8. Coulborn, Rushton. “Structure and Process in the Rise and Fall of Civilized
Societies”. Comparative Studies in Society and History, 8, 4 (1966), 404–
431.
9. Dimitrijević, Milan, Efstratios Theodossiou and Petros Mantarakis.
“Milutin Milanković and the Reform of the Julian Calendar in 1923”.
Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage, 11, 1 (2008), 50–54.
10. Doggett, LeRoy E. “Calendars”. In Explanatory Supplement to the
Astronomical Almanac, ed. Kenneth P. Seidelmann, 575–609. California:
University Science Books Company, 1992.
11. Chanchani, Shalin and Paul Theivanathampillai. “Typologies of Culture”.
SSRN. Accessed on May 8, 2023. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.
cfm?abstract_id=1441609.
12. Eidinow, Esther. “Olympiad”. In The Oxford Classical Dictionary, ed. Simon
Hornblower, Antony Spawforth and Esther Eidinow, 1037. Oxford: New
York: Oxford University Press, 2012.
13. Esposito, John L., ed., The Oxford Dictionary of Islam (New York: Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 2003), 145.
14. Fischer, Michael M. J. “Culture and Cultural Analysis as Experimental
Systems”. Cultural Anthropology, 22 (2007), 1–65.
15. Hijmans, Steven. “Sol Invictus, the Winter Solstice, and the Origins of
Christmas”. Mouseion, 47, 3 (2003), 377–398.
57
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58
M. Šegan-Radonjić, S. Šegan, Calendar as a Criterion in the Study of Culture
32. Walbank, Frank W. “Sources for the Period”. In The Cambridge Ancient
History 7–1. The Hellenistic World, ed. Frank W. Walbank, 1–23. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1984.
33. Wilkinson, Endymion P. Chinese History. A Manual. Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Asia Center, 2000.
59
Марија Шеган-Радоњић
Математички институт
Српске академије наука и уметности, Београд
Стево Шеган
Државни универзитет у Новом Пазару,
Департман за природно-математичке науке, Нови Пазар
60
оригинални научни рад
UDC 51:929 Пупин М.
Ненад Ђ. Лазаров1
Универзитет у Београду, Институт за нуклеарне наукe Винча,
Лабораторија за теоријску физику и физику кондензоване материје,
Београд
Драгољуб А. Цуцић2
Регионални центар за таленте Михајло Пу�ин, Панчево
Илија Тепшић3
Регионални центар за таленте Михајло Пу�ин, Панчево
Апстракт
Михајло Пупин је један од првих 15 чланова Њујоршког матема-
тичког друштва, из којег је 1894. године настало Америчко мате-
матичко друштво. Пупин је био образован математичар, што је
у време његове младости, у Америци била реткост. Математику
је примењивао у физици и електротехници, које су биле његова
главна поља делатности. У раду ће бити представљено како се
школовао и која су била његова постигнућа и активности у оба ма-
тематичка друштва чији је био члан. Представљен је део његове
дисертације, из 1889. године, који је и најранији писани документ
у коме се препознаје његово познавање математике. Михајло Пу-
пин је прва особа која је одржала предавање у част Џосаје Вилар-
да Гибса у организацији Америчкоg математичкоg друштвa, фе-
бруара 1924. године.
Кључне речи: Михајло Пупин, математика, примењена математика,
Њујоршко друштво математичара, Америчко друштво матема
тичара
1 lazarov@vinca.rs
2 dragoljub.cucic@rctpupin.edu.rs
3 ilijatepsic@gmail.com
4 Овај рад је подржан од стране Министарства науке, технолошког развоја
и иновација Републике Србије према Уговору број 451-03-47/2023-01/200017.
61
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1. Увод
62
Н. Ђ. Лазаров, Д. А. Цуцић, И. Тепшић, Михајло Пупин и математика
(1894): 153.
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свог оснивача. Такви су били дечаци које сам затекао у Раутовом раз-
реду. На њима се није примећивало да знају толико грчки и латински,
историју и политичку економију, књижевност и физику колико сам
знао ја, али су ми били далеко умакли у математици. Они су били кан-
дидати за строге испите из математике, а ниједан американски колеџ
у то доба није имао такав програм наставе који би пружао оне при-
преме из математике са којом су ови ђаци дошли у Кембриџ.”17
Осим математике, пратио је и друге курсеве, попут курса из мате-
матичке физике коју су предавали лорд Рејли и Џорџ Стокс (George
Gabriel Stokes, 1819–1903): „Припремање из математике под надзо-
ром Раута, кога ми је препоручио Нивен, примицало се крају и ја сам
био задовољан оним што сам био постигао. Лако сам пратио преда-
вања Стокса и лорда Рејлија; знатно лакше ми је било сналазити се
у математичком разрађивању Максвелове теорије о електрицитету.
Али још нисам потпуно схватао његову физику”.18
Занимљив је примерак уџбеника из аналитичке геометрије, који
се налази у Универзитетској библиотеци Све�озар Марковић, на чијој
је насловној страни Пупиновом руком на енглеском језику написано:
„М. Пу�ин Кембриџ, ок�обар 1883. Почео �роучавање ово� �ела 17.
�екуће� �о �е� с�рана �невно”.19 Овај датум се поклапа са временом
његовог доласка у Кембриџ.20 То је једна од многих књига које је по-
клонио Универзитетској библиотеци у Београду.
У часопису Колумбија колеџа, Колумбија с�ек�еј�ор (The Columbia
Spectator), 1886. године, када је Михајло Пупин већ био у Берлину,
пише: „На последњем састанку повереника одржаном у Хамилтон
Холу у понедељак, 1. фебруара, Тиндалова стипендија, недавно до-
дељена колеџу, додељена је Мајклу Пупину, ‘83, који је дипломирао
други у својој класи, а од тада студира на Универзитету Кембриџ,
Енглеска”.21
На интернет-страници База �о�а�ака о алумнима Кембриџа (A
Cambridge Alumni Database – ACAD) – бази података оних који су на
било који начин имали академску припадност Кембриџу, може се
17 Ibid.
18 Ibid., 104.
19 Из личне библио�еке Михајла Пу�ина, каталог изложбе (Београд:
Универзитет у Београду, Универзитетска библиотека „Светозар Марковић”
2014), 20.
20Књига се налази у Универзитетској библиотеци Све�озар Марковић у
Београду.
21 The Columbia Spectator, 17, 9 (1886): 126. (Превод аутора рада.)
68
Н. Ђ. Лазаров, Д. А. Цуцић, И. Тепшић, Михајло Пупин и математика
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70
Н. Ђ. Лазаров, Д. А. Цуцић, И. Тепшић, Михајло Пупин и математика
(3)
(4)
Заменом:
(5)
Следи:
(6)
(7)
Једначина (4) може се написати на следећи начин:
(8)
71
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,
где je U унутрашња енергија раствора, а унутрашња енергија
јединице чисте воде. Обе треба да имају исте температуре .
Унутрашња енергија воде, од које се бесконачно мала количина воде
преноси у раствор соли је умањена за , a код раствора се
повећава за .
Претпоставимо да се пренос извршио без спољашњег рада. Следи
да је:
следи:
72
Н. Ђ. Лазаров, Д. А. Цуцић, И. Тепшић, Михајло Пупин и математика
Следи:
Дакле:
Сада је
Из односа:
или:
следи:
.
73
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.
Овај резултат за слободну енергију је идентичан резултату добије-
ном у докторској дисертацији Михајла Идворског Пупина.
74
Н. Ђ. Лазаров, Д. А. Цуцић, И. Тепшић, Михајло Пупин и математика
Слика 6. Лево: Томас Скот Фиске; десно: Михајло Пупин (око 1890. године)
75
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25 Ibid., 180.
26 “Local College doings”, New-York Daily Tribune, 31. 3. 1890, 12.
27 New-York Daily Tribune, 30. 4. 1890, 12.
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79
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80
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81
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82
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83
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84
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85
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66 Ibid., 14.
67 Ibid.
68 Ibid., 103.
69 Ibid., 105.
70 Ibid., 108.
88
Н. Ђ. Лазаров, Д. А. Цуцић, И. Тепшић, Михајло Пупин и математика
10. Закључак
89
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Извори
4. Annual register of the officers and students of Columbia college for the year
1880–1881 (New York, 1881).
5. Annual register of the officers and students of Columbia college for the year
1881–1882 (New York, 1882).
6. Annual register of the officers and students of Columbia college for the year
1879–1880 (New York, 1879).
7. “Applied Mathematics”, Bulletin of the New York Mathematical Society,
3 (1894)
8. Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society, 1 (1895)
9. Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society, 30, 7 (1924)
10. Cole, F. N. “The Twelfth Annual Meeting of The American Mathematical
Society”, Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society (1906): 223–234.
11. “Local College doings“, New-York Daily Tribune, 31. 3. 1890, 12.
12. New-York Daily Tribune, 30, 4. 1890, 12.
13. “Ninth Annual List of Papers”, Bulletin of the AMS, 6 (1900).
14. “Notes”, Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society, 11 (1905).
15. “Notes”, Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society, 12 (1906).
16. “Notes”, Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society, 13 (1907).
17. “Notes”, Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society, 2 (1896).
18. “Notes”, Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society, 2 (1896).
19. “Notes”, Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society, 6 (1900).
20. “Notes”, Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society, 7 (1901).
21. “Notes”, Bulletin of the New York Mathematical Society, 1 (1892).
22. “Notes”, Bulletin of the New York Mathematical Society, 2 (1893).
23. Michael I. Pupin, „On Polyphasal Generators”. Transaction of AIEE, 8
(1891): 562–585.
24. Roland George Dwight Richardson, „The first Josiah Willard Gibbs
Lecture”, Bull. Amer. Math. Soc, 30, 7 (1924): 289–291.
25. School of mines quaterly, Journal of Applied Science, 11 (1889/90).
26. School of mines quaterly, Journal of Applied Science, 12 (1890/91).
27. “The April Meeting of the American Mathematical Society”, Bulletin of
the AMS, 6 (1900).
28. The Columbia Spectator, 10, 9 (1882).
29. The Columbia Spectator, 17, 9 (1886).
90
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Литература
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Nenad Đ. Lazarov
University of Belgrade, Institute of Nuclear Sciences Vinča,
Department of Theoretical Physics and Condensed Matter Physics, Vinča
Dragoljub A. Cucić
Regional Centre for Talents Mihajlo Pupin, Pančevo
Ilija Tepšić
Regional Centre for Talents Mihajlo Pupin, Pančevo
Мichael Pupin is one of the first 15 members of the New York Mathemati-
cal Society, from which the American Mathematical Society (AMS) emerged
in 1894. Michael Pupin was an educated mathematician, which was rare in
America in his youth. He applied mathematics in physics and electrical engi-
neering which were his central fields of interest. This article presents how he
was educated, his achievements and activity in both mathematical societies,
of which he was a member. A part of his doctoral dissertation from 1889,
which is the earliest written document in which his knowledge of mathemat-
ics is recognized, is also presented. In February 1924, Мichael Pupin was the
first person to give a lecture in honor of Willard Josiah Gibbs in a series of
lectures organized by the American Mathematical Society.
In this article, we have tried to create a chronology of significant people
who had influenced Michael Pupin during his education, so that mathematics
became an important normative discipline for him, which later shaped his
professional development and achievements. Although he was considered
the best mathematician of the 83rd class at the Columbia College, the knowl-
edge he acquired there was insufficient to help him develop in his desired
direction. He acquired real knowledge of mathematics only at Cambridge,
following a three-semester course of mathematical “tripos”, which was
considered the strongest mathematics course at the time. The reasons why
he did not take the exams at Cambridge are unknown and the research on
this topic is still ongoing. A special chapter of the article presents the fourth
chapter of Pupin’s doctoral dissertation Osmotic Pressure and Its Relationship
to Free Energy, titled “General characteristics of the free energy of salt so-
lutions”. The doctoral dissertation, defended in Berlin in 1889, is the earli-
est document in which, among other things, Michael Pupin’s knowledge of
mathematics is clearly recognized. We presented the act of joining the New
York Society of Mathematicians, from which the American Society of Mathe-
maticians stemmed, as well as the chronology of his activities at various gath-
erings of mathematicians, which were held several times a year, his works
94
Н. Ђ. Лазаров, Д. А. Цуцић, И. Тепшић, Михајло Пупин и математика
and lectures. His works, which he published in the journals of the Society of
Mathematicians, are particularly noteworthy.
Also, in a separate chapter, we presented an insight into the lectur-
esthat Michael Pupin gave, first at Columbia College, and then, from
1896,at Columbia University, to indicate the importance of mathematics
in his work. The knowledge of mathematics he acquired while studying
in Cambridge and Berlin enabled him to teach the subject Mathemati-
cal Theory of Electricity, as well as to be an instructor in Mathematical
Physics.
A special importance was given to the first lecture held in honor of the
famous American mathematician, theoretical physicist and chemist, Josiah
Willard Gibbs. The lectures continue today and have an extraordinary history.
The list of lecturers is really impressive, and the first one of them was Mi-
chael Pupin. The lecture entitled Coordination was published in Scribner’s
Magazine, titled From Chaos to Cosmos, and it was later published as part of
Pupin’s book The New Reformation: From Physical to Spiritual Reality.
Keywords: Michael Pupin, mathematics, applied mathematics, New York
Mathematical Society, American Mathematical Society
95
оригинални научни рад
UDC 62:929 Теодоровић В.
Снежана Д. Шарбох1
Завод за интелектуалну својину, Београд
Апстракт
Име Васе Теодоровића данас није шире познато осим унутар
уског круга љубитеља историје ватреног оружја. Они га првен-
ствено знају као конструктора једног од првих полуаутоматских
пиштоља, који је у литератури познат као Рот-Теодоровићев
пиштољ. Међутим, осим каријере инжењера-конструктора, Васа
Теодоровић je упоредо изградио још две различите каријере
у којима није био ништа мање успешан: као проналазач и као
патентни заступник. Иако се Теодоровић у већини литературских
референци помиње као аустријски проналазач, испоставило се
да је био свестан свог српског порекла и да је одржавао везе
са Кнежевином (каснијe Краљевином) Србијом, што потврђује
и чињеница да је био патентни заступник два српскa научника
и инжењера – Љубомира Клерића и Тодора Селесковића.
Стога је, у циљу утврђивања чињеница везаних за живот Васе
Теодоровића, а нарочито за његове патентиране проналаске,
спроведено истраживање усмерено на расположиве архивске
изворе који су, између осталог, обухватили различите архиве и
базе података појединих завода за патенте, у циљу проналажења
патената којима је Теодоровић заштитио своје проналаске. Ово
истраживање је резултирало евидентирањем преко тридесет
Теодоровићевих патената који потичу из десет различитих
1 sarbohs@yahoo.com
2 желела бих овим путем да изразим захвалност Вилхелму Коринеку
(Wilhelm Korinek) из Аустријског завода за патенте, који ми је обезбедио
копијe аустријских привилегија, Зори Фотиаду (Zora Fotiadou) из Немачког
завода за патенте и жигове на помоћи у претраживању немачких патената,
и Стиву Галицији (Steeve Gallizia) и Амандин Габријак (Amandine Gabriac)
из француског Националног института за индустријску својину, који су ми
обезбедили копијe француских патената.
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102
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Датум
Бр. Број патента Назив проналаска Датум објаве
подношења
Brandscheiben für
1. AT44/000909 Rundbrenner von 22. 3. 1894. 9. 4. 1894.
Petroleumlampen.
2. AT45/004166 Brandscheibe. – 2. 11. 1895.
Une arme à feu à répétition
3. BE118443 19. 9. 1895. 19. 11. 1895.
automatique.
Arme à fou à répétition
4. FR251848 19. 9. 1895. 24. 6. 1896.
automatique.
Selbsttätige
5. AT46/000296 4. 11. 1895. 24. 1. 1896.
Mehrladefeuerwaffe.
HU5308
6. (поверљива önműködő ismétlő lőfegyver. – 29. 1. 1896.
пријава)20
Selbstthätige Feuerwaffe,
bei welcher der Vershcluʃs so
7. DE91313 18. 11. 1895. 9. 4. 1897.
lange erhalten bleibt, als der
Abzug zurückgezogen ist.
104
С. Д. Шарбох, Васа Теодоровић – инжењер, проналазач и патентни заступник
Improvements in Automatic
8. GB189522018 Magazine Pistols and other 19. 11. 1895. 4. 4. 1896.
Fire Arms.
Selbstthätige
9. CH11334 19. 11. 1895. 15. 6. 1896.
Mehrladefeuerwaffe.
Arme à fou à répétition
10. IT40266 2. 12. 1895. 6. 3. 1896.
automatique.
Un arma de fuego de
11. ES18368 7. 12. 1895. 16. 2. 1896.
repetición automática.
US616260
12. (носилац Георг Automatic firearm. 15. 7. 1897. 20. 12. 1898.
Рот)
IT61646 Arme à fou à répétition
13. (продужење 15. 11. 1901. 21. 8. 1902.
automatique.
важења)
14. BE118537 Lame-chargeur avec poussoir. 25. 9. 1895. 25. 11. 1895.
105
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Szívókosár vízemelő
32. HU10213 12. 7. 1897. 25. 12. 1897.
készülékek számára.
Verblockungseinrichtung an
33. AT49/000658 – 11. 1. 1899.
Fahrpreisanzeigern.
106
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Слика 6. Оквир за
метке са потискивачем
из немачког патента
DE86754
26 Ibid.
110
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111
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Слика 8. Уређај
за аутоматску
промену тарифе
на таксиметру
из аустријске
привилегије
AT46/003226
112
С. Д. Шарбох, Васа Теодоровић – инжењер, проналазач и патентни заступник
које је 1888. године изумео и патентирао Џон Бојд Данлоп (John Boyd
Dunlop), нагло проширило изван Велике Британије и убрзо постало
масовно прихваћено.27 Међутим, због неконзистентног квалитета
гума, а вероватно и због стања путева по којима су се бицикли кретали,
убрзо се појавио проблем у вези са њиховим пуцањем или бушењем.
Ово је подстакло Васу Теодоровића да осмисли гуме за бицикле које
се не би могле пробушити, али које би истовремено биле довољно
еластичне да возачу обезбеде удобну вожњу.
Еластична гума за бицикле се, према његовом проналаску, састоја-
ла од челичних опруга (означене позивном ознаком а на слици 9) рас-
поређених попречнo по обручу точка, једна поред друге, а које су се
могле делимично преклапати. Поменуте опруге су могле имати отво-
рен или затворен попречни пресек, односно њихов попречни пресек
је могао имати облик лука или кружнице спљоштене с једне стране,
а биле су спојене и међусобно и са обручем помоћу вијака и матица.
Овако распоређене и повезане опруге образовале су еластични омо-
тач точка бицикла, који је по свом облику одговарао гуми за бицикл,
али се није могао пробушити а уједно је био и еластичан.
Иако је Теодоровић очекивао да овај његов проналазак буде успе-
шан, због чега га је заштитио прво у Белгији, где је 14. септембра 1896.
године добио патент BE123511, а затим у још три земље, испоставило
се да је његово решење имало бројне недостатке. Наиме, у поређењу
за гумом за бицикле на надувавање коју је овај проналазак требало да
org/wiki/John_Boyd_Dunlop.
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114
С. Д. Шарбох, Васа Теодоровић – инжењер, проналазач и патентни заступник
ру, на једној половини обима има три, или, алтернативно томе, по-
менути урези могу бити изведени на спољашњем зиду, при чему их,
у овом случају, има пет. Било да су изведени на унутрашњем или на
спољашњем зиду кошуљице, ови урези су намењени за обезбеђивање
жељеног начина распрскавања кошуљице при активирању експлозив-
ног пуњења.
Иако је свој последњи проналазак из области наоружања Теодо-
ровић заштитио у чак шест земаља, укључујући и Аустрију, где је 18.
августа 1897. године добио привилегију AT47/002996, Белгију, Фран-
цуску, Мађарску, Велику Британију и Италију, расположиви подаци не
указују да је пронашао значајнију примену.
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116
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118
С. Д. Шарбох, Васа Теодоровић – инжењер, проналазач и патентни заступник
дио током друге половине 19. века, при чему је у земљама са развије-
нијим патентним системима постојао већи број патентних заступника.
Што се тиче Васе Теодоровића, о овом делу његове каријере нису
пронађени прецизнији подаци, тако да још увек није утврђено када
је тачно постао патентни заступник. Међутим, његово име, заједно
са још само три друга патентна заступника из Аустрије, налазило се у
регистру патентних заступника Америчког завода за патенте (United
States Patent Office) из 1894. године (слика 12).31 Међутим, страни па-
тентни заступници су ускоро изгубили право да врше заступање пред
Америчким заводом за патенте, тако да се у наредним издањима
овог регистра налазе само имена америчких патентних заступника.
Мада се у регистар патентних заступника код Аустријског завода
за патенте уписао непосредно након његовог оснивања, 1899. године,
нема сумње да је већ имао дугогодишње искуство у овој професији.32
Његово име се налази на стотинама патената различитих аустријских
и страних проналазача, првенствено у Аустрији, али и у Сједињеним
Америчким Државама. Само у 1903. години његово име као патент-
ног заступника се појављује на преко 300 патената и пријава патена-
та.33 Овај податак, као и чињеница да се Теодоровићева патентна
канцеларија налазила у самом центру Беча, на адреси Штефансплац 8
(Stephansplatz 8, зграда постоји и данас), указују да је био веома успе-
шан у свом раду. Био је и члан Удружења патентних заступника (Verein
119
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34 Ibid.
35 Ibid.
36 Ibid.
37Снежана Д. Шарбох, „Љубомир Клерић – први српски проналазач мо
дерног доба и његови патентирани проналасци”, Phlogiston, 30 (2022): 55–90.
120
С. Д. Шарбох, Васа Теодоровић – инжењер, проналазач и патентни заступник
38 Ibid.
39 Ibid.
40 Владимир Шолаја, „Тодор-Тоша Ф. Селесковић”, у Живо� и �ело ср�ских
научника, књига I, ур. Милоје Сарић (Београд: САНУ, 1996), 361–396.
121
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41 Ibid.
42 Ibid.
43 Ibid.
44 Österreichisches Patentblatt, Fünfter Jahrgang, 1903.
122
С. Д. Шарбох, Васа Теодоровић – инжењер, проналазач и патентни заступник
је 27. фебруара исте године као заступник у његово име поднео Васа
Теодоровић. Осим аустријског, Селесковић је за овај проналазак сле-
деће године добио и немачки патент DE70413.
Горенаведени подаци указују да је Васа Теодоровић имао знатно
дужу каријеру патентног заступника у поређењу са каријером прона-
лазача. Мада њен почетак још увек није прецизно утврђен, имајући у
виду да је већ почетком деведесетих година 19. века имао разрађе-
ну праксу и да је радио све до своје смрти 1919. године, следи да је
Теодоровић као патентни заступник радио барем тридесет година, а
вероватно и дуже.
име Васе Теодоровића данас је скоро потпуно непознато у Ср-
бији, док се у иностраној литератури помиње искључиво као аустриј-
ски проналазач. Међутим, имајући у виду да се несумњиво ради о осо-
би српског порекла која се исказала и као проналазач у време када
су били активни и наши великани Тесла и Пупин и која је као патент-
ни заступник сарађивала са Љубомиром Клерићем и Тодором Селе-
сковићем, сматрамо да је било вредно пажње детаљније истражити
живот и дело Васе Теодоровића, који је успешно објединио каријере
инжењера, изумитеља и патентног заступника.
123
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Литература
124
С. Д. Шарбох, Васа Теодоровић – инжењер, проналазач и патентни заступник
125
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Snežana D. Šarboh
Intellectual Property Office, Belgrade
126
С. Д. Шарбох, Васа Теодоровић – инжењер, проналазач и патентни заступник
detail the life and work of Wasa Theodorović, who successfully combined
careers of an inventor and a patent attorney.
Keywords: Wasa Theodorovic, Roth-Theodorovic pistol, inventor, patent
attorney, patents
127
прегледни рад
UDC 621.351:620.92
Славко Ментус1
Српска академија наука и уметности, Београд
Универзитет у Београду, Факултет за физичку хемију, Београд
Апстракт
У сенци светске енергетске транзиције ка широкој употреби об-
новљивих извора енергије одиграва се интензиван истраживачки
рад на испитивању електрохемијских система који би ову транзи-
цију потпомогли. Литијум-јонска батерија, са практичном густином
енергије од око 250 mWh g-1 је, као главни извор енергије у савре-
меним преносивим електронским уређајима, али и као погонско
средство за електричне аутомобиле, у том погледу одиграла зна-
чајну почетну улогу. Услед растуће потрошње све више долази до
изражаја недостатак ресурса за њену производњу: кобалта, никла,
па и самог литијума, поготово стога што увелико расте потреба
за акумулацијом електричне енергије произведене соларним или
ветроелектранама. Због тога се трага за достојним наследником
ове батерије, а у чији састав би ушле компоненте које су заступље-
није у свету минералних ресурса. Изгледи ко ће од могућих кан-
дидата преузети ову улогу мењају се из дана у дан. Полазећи од
критеријума: велика практична густина снаге и енергије, обилност
компоненти у земљиној кори и број циклуса пуњења-пражњења,
тренутно у том погледу предњаче натријум-јонска батерија, алу-
минијум-јонска батерија, проточна редокс-батерија и батерија са
1 slavko@ffh.bg.ac.rs
2 Министарство науке, технолошког развоја и иновација Републике Србије
je подржало овај рад кроз уговор 451-03-47/2023-01/200146 са Факултетом за
физичку хемију. Фонд за науку Српске академије наука и уметности je подр-
жао рад кроз пројект Ф-190, Електрокатализа у савременим процесима кон-
верзије енeргије.
129
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1. Увод
130
С. Ментус, Напредни електрохемијски системи
131
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132
С. Ментус, Напредни електрохемијски системи
12 G. Zubi et al., “The lithium-ion battery: State of the art and future perspec-
tives”, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 89 (2018): 292–308.
13 K. Turcheniuk et al., “Ten years left to redesign lithium-ion batteries”, Nature,
133
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2. Натријум-јонске батерије
134
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рија била око 70% литијум-јонске батерије, оне нису биле конкурентне
литијум-јонској батерији у преносној електроници нити у електрич-
ним аутомобилима.
У новије време, међу катодним материјалима издвојили су се ал-
кални хексацијаноферати (берлинско плаво) и њихови аналози, као и
полифосфати са структуром насикона.
Састав берлинско плавог и његових аналога (Prussian Blue analogs
– PBA), изражава се формулом NаxМ2[М1(CN)6]y·nH2О (са x ограниче-
ним између 0 и 2 и са y ограниче-
ним између 0 и 1), где М1 и М2 оз-
начавају прелазне метале из групе
Mn, Fe, Co, Cu, и Ni, а лако се син-
тетишу из раствора калијум-хекса-
цијаноферата, додатком раствора
соли Mn, Fе, Cо, Ni или Cu. У кри-
сталографском погледу, већина
аналога PBA су кубичне структуре.
Групе CN повезују јоне прелазних
метала градећи тродимензионал-
ну мрежу канала кроз које лако
дифундују Nа јони (слика 2).
Лу и други18 су испитивали
NaxMFe[CN]6 (M: Fe и Mn) као елек-
Слика 2. Структура берлинско плавог.
Дифузија натријумових јона је могућа
тродни материјал у органском
у све три димензије. електролитичком раствору и на-
шли су јасан напонски плато на 3,8
V за пуњење и 3,5 V за пражњење
(слика 3). Састав једињења то-
ком пражњења је варирао од
Na1.4MFe[CN]6 до Na1.72MFe[CN]6.
Структура овог једињења је по-
казала високу стабилност током
50 циклуса пуњења/пражњења.
Замена Mn са Fe у NaxMnFe[CN]6
водила је снижењу напонских пла-
Слика 3. Галваностатске криве тоа на 3,1 V при пуњењу и 2,8 V при
пуњења и пражњења
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С. Ментус, Напредни електрохемијски системи
пражњењу, уз капацитет пражњења од око 120 mАh g-1 који је био ста-
билан током 600 циклуса.
Кристалографску структуру натријум-фосфованадата формуле
Na3V2(PO4)3 који се означава скраћеницом NVP, испитали су Буи и
други.19 Они су нашли да структура Na3V2(PO4)3 одговара ромбоедар-
ском насикону приказаном на слици 4. У њој су структурне јединке
[V2(PO4)3] повезане у тродимензионалну мрежу, коју чине октаедри
VO6 и тетрахедари PO4 спојени заједничким врховима углова дуж
правца c-осе. Угловима спојена три октаедра VO6 и три тетраедра PO4
граде уске хексагоналне канале. Натријумови јони лако дифундују
кроз ове канале у све три димензије. Натријумови катјони се налазе у
два основна положаја: положај типа 1 лежи унутар јединке [V2(PO4)3]
дуж правце c-осе, док три положаја типа 2 леже уз P атоме који имају
исту координату c. Положаји типа 1 и два од три положаја типа 2 су
комплетно заузети и допуштају покретљивост јона у положајима
типа 2.
Ванг и други20 су испитивали електрохемијске особине нанокри-
стала Na3V2(PO4)3(MVP), с тим што су га, ради побољшања електрон-
ске проводљивости, прекрили слојем угљеника. У саставу батерије
овај композит је показао добар полазни капацитет од 98,6 mАh g−1
19 K. M. Bui et al., “Hybrid functional study of the NASICON-type Na3V2(PO4)3:
crystal and electronic structures, and polaron–Na vacancy complex diffusion”,
PhysChemChemPhys, 17, 24 (2015): 30433–30439.
20 E. Wang et al., “Organic cross-linker enabling a 3D porous skeleton-support-
ed Na3V2(PO4)3/carbon composite for high power sodium-ion battery cathode”,
Small Methods, 3 (2019): Art. No. 1800169.
137
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140
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Слика 7. Специфични
капацитет Sn аноде са
различитим везивним
средствима, у функцији
броја циклуса пуњења и
пражњења при густини
струје од 16 mA g-1
31C. Kim et al., “A self-healing Sn anode with an ultra-long cycle life for sodi-
um-ion batteries”, J. Mater. Chem. A, 6 (2018): 22809–22818.
32 K. Dai et al., “Toward high specific capacity and high cycling stability of pure tin
nanoparticles with conductive polymer binder for sodium ion batteries”, J. Power
Sources, 263 (2014): 276–279.
141
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142
С. Ментус, Напредни електрохемијски системи
3. Алуминијум-јонске батерије
4Al2Cl7- + 3e = Al + 7AlCl4-.
Анјон AlCl4- се не може редуковати јер раствор може да издржи
толику разлику потенцијала.
34 R. T. Calin, W. Crawford and M. Bersch, “Nucleation and Morphology Studi-
es of Aluminium Deposited from Ambient-temperature Chloroaluminate Molten
Salt”, J.Electrochem. Soc., 139 (1992): 2720–2727.
143
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(2015): 324–328.
36 Y. Wu et al., “3D graphitic foams derived from chloroaluminate anion interca-
lation for ultrafast aluminum-ion battery”, Adv. Mater., 28 (2016): 9218–9222.
37 S. Jiao et al., “An industrialized prototype of the rechargeable Al/AlCl3-[EMIm]
Cl/graphite battery and recycling of the graphitic cathode into graphene”, Car-
bon, 109 (2016): 276–281.
38 D.-Y. Wang et al., “Advanced rechargeable aluminium ion battery with a
high-quality natural graphite cathode”, Nat. Commun., 8 (2017): 14283.
144
С. Ментус, Напредни електрохемијски системи
односу на алуминијум-
ску аноду. Приликом
пражњења, раскидање
ових веза захтева утро-
шак енергије, што оте-
жава употребу великих
густина струје.
Системи са графит-
Слика 8. Високо оријентисан графен, са ном катодом нису пока-
путањама дифузије хлороалуминатних јона зивали задовољавајуће
(светле куглице) резултате јер се током
циклирања и с порас-
том брзине пуњења и
пражњења капацитет смањивао. Тај проблем је уклоњен у студији
Чена и других.39 Они су висок квалитет батерије постигли прона-
ласком графенског материјала са високо оријентисаним листићима
графена повезаним синтеровањем (слика 8). Графенски филм је до-
бијен из комерцијално доступног раствора графен-оксида (GО) кон-
центрације 10 mg ml−1 разливеног на стаклену плочу, сушењем на
собној температури и скидањем са стаклене подлоге. Тада је филм
преведен у редуковану форму (rGO) редукцијом у пари хидразина,
Н2N4, на 90°C. Да би се графенске траке синтеровањем међусобно
повезале у високо оријентисан филм, он је у пећи за графитизацију у
аргонској атмосфери загрејан на 2.850°C, при чему му је густина рас-
ла на 1,2–1,5 mg cm−3.
Батерија у облику таблете је састављена од катоде од графена,
нанесеног на струјни колектор одниклене пене, са површинском по-
кривеношћу од 1 mg cm−2, аноде од металне Аl фолије (дебљине 20
микрометара), тканине од стаклених влакана (дебљине 435 микроме-
тара) као сепаратора, и еутектичког раствора 1-етил-3-метил-имида-
золијум хлорид–АlCl3 као електролита.
Уз стехиометријски вишак анодног материјала, ова ћелија је слу-
жила за испитивање ефикасности катодног материјала. Показало се
да испитивани графенски филм, високе оријентације слојева, обе-
збеђује брз транспорт јона између графенских равни. Наиме, при ви-
сокој густини струје од 6 А g−1 (пуњење за свега 72 секунди), катода
постиже високи специфични капацитет од 120 mАh g−1 и кулонску
ефикасност од преко 98%. После 16.000 циклуса капацитет катоде
145
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146
С. Ментус, Напредни електрохемијски системи
остаје практично непромењен, односно око 200 mАh g−1 при брзини
од 1000 C, али знатно опада при већим брзинама пражњења. Тест ста-
билности алуминијум-јонских батерија са активираном анодом при
ограничењу разлике потенцијала унутар интервала од 2,45 V показао
је константан капацитет током 45.000 циклуса, при густинама струје
пуњења и пражњења од 40 А g−1, а батерија издржава и ултрависоку
брзину пуњења од 104 C (1000 А g-1, односно време пуњења до дости-
зања пуног капацитета је само 0,35 s).
Иако је специфични капацитет алуминијум-јонских батерија са Аl
анодом знатно мањи у односу на литијум-јонске батерије, што не обе-
збеђује конкурентност у мобилној електроници, њихове предности
су ултрабрзо пуњење које се своди на секунде, као и неометан капа-
цитет у широком опсегу температура, што им, уз високу доступност
сировина и огроман циклични век, даје битне предности у применама
за стабилизацију излаза соларних и ветроелектрана.
41 H. Kim et al., “Liquid Metal Batteries: Past, Present, and Future”, Chemical Re-
views, 113 (2013): 2075–2099.
147
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148
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149
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46 Andy Colthorpe, “Ambri’s liquid metal battery to be used at desert data cen-
tre in Nevada”, Energy Storage News, преузето 10. јануара 2020, https://www.
energy-storage.news/ambris-liquid-metal-battery-to-be-used-at-desert-data-cen-
tre-in-nevada.
150
С. Ментус, Напредни електрохемијски системи
0,6 V,47 међутим, галијум је, слично литијуму, редак метал и стога није
сигурно да ће овакви системи моћи да достигну комерцијализацију.
5. Проточне редокс-батерије
47 Yu Ding, Xuelin Guo and Guihua Yu, “Next-Generation Liquid Metal Batteries
Based on the Chemistry of Fusible Alloys”, ACS Cent. Sci., 6 (2020): 1355−1366.
48 W. Kangro, “Method for storing electrical energy”, German patent DE 914 264
(1949).
49 A. M. Posner, “Redox fuel cell”, Fuel, 34 (1955): 330–338.
50 G. L. Soloveichik, “Flow Batteries: Current Status and Trends”, Chem. Rev., 115
(2015): 11533–11558.
51 C. Jia et al., “High-energy density nonaqueous all redox flow lithium battery
enabled with a polymeric membrane”, Sci. Adv,. 1 (2015): e1500886.
52Z. Li et al., “A high-energy and low-cost polysulfide/iodide redox flow battery”,
Nano Energy, 30 (2016): 283–292.
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153
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154
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55 Joel Hruska, “New vanadium-flow battery delivers 250kW of liquid energy stor-
age”, ExtremeTech, преузето 28. децембра 2018, https://www.extremetech.
com/energy/199440-new-vanadium-flow-battery-delivers-250kw-of-liquid-ener-
gy-storage.
56 H. Zhang, X. Li and J. Zhang, eds., Redox Flow Batteries: Fundamentals and Ap-
plications, 1st ed. (Boca Raton, FL, USA: CRC Press, 2017).
155
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ефика
Активне врсте растварач мембрана напон
сност
Fe(bpy)3(BF4)2/
Ni(bpy)3(BF4)2 PC АЕМ NР 90,760
Fe(bpy)3(BF4)2/
Fe(bpy)3(BF4)2 PC АЕМ 2.66 96,560
[C16H36N]4[S2W18O62]/
бензофенон(BP) АCN АЕМ NP 97 61
тетра-амино DМSО,
антрахинон CЕМ NР 99 63
АCN
Скраћенице: bpy: трис-2,2`-бипиридил; АCN: ацетонитрил; PC: пропилен-
карбонат; DMSО: диметилсулфоксид; ЕC: етилен-карбонат; DМF: диметил-
формамид; DМC: диметил-карбонат; NР: није приказан. АЕМ: анјонски
измењива мембрана; CЕМ: катјонски измењива мембрана.
157
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65 I. Iwakiri et al., “Redox Flow Batteries: Materials, Design and Prospects”, Ener-
gies, 14 (2021): 5643.
66Y. Liu et al., “An Aqueous Redox Flow Battery with a Tungsten–Cobalt
Heteropolyacid as the Electrolyte for Both the Anode and Cathode”, Adv. Energy
Mater., 7 (2017): 1601224.
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160
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Слика 6. Han, X., Y. Liu, Z. Jia, Y.-C. Chen, J. Wan, N. Weadock, K.J. Gaskell, T.
Li and L. Hu. “Atomic-Layer-Deposition Oxide Nanoglue for Sodium Ion
Batteries”. Nano Lett., 14, 1 (2014): 139–147
Слика 7. Dai, K., H. Zhao, Z. Wang, X. Song, V. Battaglia and G. Liu. “Toward
high specific capacity and high cycling stability of pure tin nanoparti-
cles with conductive polymer binder for sodium ion batteries”. J. Power
Sources, 263 (2014): 276–279.
Слика 8. Hao Chen et al., “Ultrafast all-climate aluminum-graphene battery
with quarter-million cycle life”, Sci. Adv., 3 (2017): eaao7233.
Слика 11. Liu, Y., S. Lu, H. Wang, C. Yang, X. Su and Y. Xiang. “An Aqueous
Redox Flow Battery with a Tungsten–Cobalt Heteropolyacid as the
Electrolyte for Both the Anode and Cathode”. Adv. Energy Mater., 7
(2017): 1601224.
Литература
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166
Slavko Mentus
Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Belgrade
University of Belgrade, Faculty of Physical Chemistry, Belgrade
167
Phlogiston 31/2023 http://www.muzejnt.rs
to the lithium-ion battery in terms of all relevant features, which can be used
as a replacement in all aspects of use, i.e., in both portable and stationary
systems. The same can be said for the aluminum-ion battery, but this battery
is still in the research and development phase and its commercialization
is expected only in the near future. Liquid metal batteries and redox flow
batteries are unsuitable for mobile applications due to their high operating
temperature for the former, and relatively low energy density in general,
but their long service life, simplicity of construction, low price and non-
flammability give them great advantages over lithium-ion batteries in high-
capacity systems for the stabilization of the energy of renewable sources,
and, which is also significant, there is already a long enough experience in
their commercial use.
Keywords: climate changes, renewable energy sources, sodium-ion
batteries, aluminium-ion batteries, liquid metal electrodes, redox
flow batteries
168
scientific review
UDC 06.068НОБЕЛ::53“2022”
Igor Salom1
University of Belgrade, Institute of Physics, Belgrade
Abstract
The ideas and results that are in the background of the 2022 Nobel
Prize in Physics had an immense impact on our understanding of
reality. Therefore, it is crucial that these implications also reach the
general public and not only the scientists in the related fields of quan-
tum mechanics. The purpose of this review is to attempt to elucidate
these revolutionary changes in our worldview that were eventually
also acknowledged by the Nobel Committee, and to do it with very
few references to mathematical details (which could even be ignored
without undermining the take-away essence of the text).
We first look into the foundational disputes between Einstein and
Bohr about the nature of quantum mechanics, which culminated in
the so-called EPR paradox—the main impetus for all the research that
would ensue in this context. Next, we try to explain the statement of
the famous Bell’s theorem—the theorem that relocated the Einstein-
Bohr discussions from the realm of philosophy and metaphysics to
the hard-core physics verifiable by experiments (we also give a brief
derivation of the theorem’s proof). Then we overview the experimen-
tal work of the last year’s laureates who had the final say about who
was right in the debate. The outcome of these experiments forced us
to profoundly revise our understanding of the universe. Finally, we
discuss in more detail the implications of such outcomes, and what
1 isalom@ipb.ac.rs
2 This research was supported by the Science Fund of the Republic of Serbia,
grant 7745968, Quantum Gravity from Higher Gauge Theory 2021 — QGHG-2021.
The contents of this publication are the sole responsibility of the author and can
in no way be taken to reflect the views of the Science Fund of the Republic of
Serbia.
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are the possible ways in which our worldviews can be modified to ac-
count for the experimental facts. As we will see, the standard mecha-
nist picture of the universe is no longer a viable option and can never
be again. Nowadays, we know this with certainty unusual for physics
that only a strict mathematical theorem could provide.
Keywords: EPR paradox, Bell’s theorem, Bell’s inequality, foundations of
quantum mechanics, local realism
1. Introduction
The 2022 Physics Nobel Prize was not quite like any other. While the
Nobel prizes in physics are always of interest to the physics community,
by a rule, they are merely a matter of curiosity for the general public.
However, the last year’s Nobel award should pertain to all of us, irrespec-
tive of profession, and remind us that it is time to rethink our basic world-
views. Indeed, the Nobel Committee’s announcement in early October
2022 has elicited some bold titles across journals and news agencies
worldwide, even among those not aimed at scientific circles. For exam-
ple, on October 11, the business newspaper Financial Times came up with
an article titled What quantum physics tells us about reality, while the non-
profit news website The Wire had a piece titled In the 2022 Physics Nobel
Prize, a Test of Your Grip on Reality. Scientific American, in its October is-
sue, brought up the article The Universe Is Not Locally Real, and the Physics
Nobel Prize Winners Proved It. The deep philosophical impact of the 2022
Nobel Prize was particularly nicely emphasized in the title of an article
that last October showed up in The Conversation media network: How
philosophy turned into physics — and reality turned into information. As
we can see, the word “reality” is recurrent in these titles, and few things
should be of more pervasive importance than the calls to reconsider our
notion of the fundamental reality, especially when these calls (essential-
ly) originate from the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.
So, in what sense do the accomplishments of the 2022 laureates Alain
Aspect, John F. Clauser, and Anton Zeilinger challenge our understand-
ing of reality? The Nobel Committee summarizes that they were awarded
“for experiments with entangled photons, establishing the violation of
Bell inequalities and pioneering quantum information science”, but it
takes some time and effort to unwrap this ostensibly simple statement.
To do so, we must start with the achievements of certain people who
could not appear at the last year’s Nobel ceremony.
170
I. Salom, 2022 Nobel Prize in Physics and the End of Mechanistic Materialism
The first act of the deeply philosophical drama that had its (scientific)
resolution in the last year’s Nobel prize begins in the first half of the 20th
century, in the period between the two world wars, when the “new phys-
ics” called Quantum Mechanics has begun to assume its mathematically
well-defined, more or less present-day form. While there essentially ex-
isted a global consensus that the claims of the new theory seemed pre-
posterous, there was a huge disagreement to what extent such a state
of affairs reflected the true properties of nature and to what extent only
the present state of (possibly highly incomplete) scientific understand-
ing of that nature. The opinions ranged from that of the camp of (some
of) the “founding fathers of quantum mechanics”, which included the
likes of Niels Bohr, Werner Heisenberg, and Wolfgang Pauli, all the way
to the staunch criticizers of quantum ideas among whom was no lesser
figure than Albert Einstein himself. While the former insisted that quan-
tum mechanics provides an accurate and complete description of reality
(and if we do not like it, it is nature to blame), the latter were convinced
that quantum physics is, at best, a temporary and approximate model of
some more “reasonable” underlying physics that we are yet to discover.
The new physics seemed to ignore all the cornerstones of the previ-
ously known exact science. One of the more obvious departures from the
previous scientific reasoning was the sudden appearance of randomness
at the most fundamental level of the new theory—prompting Einstein to
famously protest with “God does not play dice”. Namely, we must recall
that one of the main tenets of all the prior physics, including then novel
theory of relativity, was that there can be nothing inherently random in
nature—everything evolves according to strict mathematical laws that
precisely determine the future of any physical system, leaving no room
for chance. Any randomness in the events that we might observe had
to be a consequence of our imprecise knowledge either of the present
state of the universe, or of the laws of nature, or a consequence of our
technical inability to calculate the future from these basic laws. Yet, for
a hypothetical being (so-called Laplace’s daemon) who knows precise
positions and momenta of every atom in the universe, and has both the
complete knowledge of physical laws and sufficient computational ca-
pabilities—the entire future (and past also) was fixed and known. Such
a view was essentially uncontested in science—until this new quantum
theory. Famously, in those days, Max Born put forward his “probabilis-
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solid real. The uncertainty relations were, in this view, technical or epis-
temological limitations and had nothing to do with the true ontology,
which remains to be described by a deeper, more complete theory than
the quantum mechanics. Consequently, Einstein maintained that deep
down “God does not play dice with the universe”, no matter how that
might look to us. Even Heisenberg himself seemed to initially share this
view of his own relations—as can be inferred from his analysis of what
is nowadays known as Heisenberg’s microscope3 (the position he soon
after changed, under Bohr’s influence4).
Yet, it was an entirely different thing to assume that the uncertainty
relations do not merely talk about our inability to reveal the true prop-
erties of nature, but that they actually reflect the vagueness of these
properties themselves, per se—that the problem is not that when the
momentum of a particle is precisely known and defined, we cannot know
the position of this particle, but that this particle position, in a certain
sense, no longer “exists”, i.e., that it is not a well-defined property of
itself. (Alternatively, following the mathematical formalism, we might
then say that this property becomes blurred into a so-called superposi-
tion of various possibilities.) In other words, neither the universe nor the
particle itself really “know” this location. And this was gradually becom-
ing the position of the Bohr’s camp. Bohr, in particular, saw this via his
principle of complementarity, the precursor of the contemporary notion
of contextuality in quantum physics. Knowledge of one of the two “com-
plementary” properties (i.e., of those “incompatible”5 in the context of
uncertainty relations) automatically renders the other one ill-defined:
precise measurement of momentum does not simply make the posi-
tion of the particle unknown or unpredictable (e.g., as a consequence
of mechanically disturbing the particle)—it makes it fully meaningless
and undefinable. In his view, the properties themselves were inseparable
from the experimental context that reveals them: the setup needed to
measure the momentum crucially differs from the one required to find
out the position—these two properties cannot be observed or measured
simultaneously. Thus, it was also wrong to assume that the position ex-
3 Werner Heisenberg, The Physical Principles of the Quantum Theory (Courier Do-
ver Publications, 1949).
4 W. Heisenberg, “Uber den anschaulicken Inhalt der quantentheoretischen
Kinematik und Mechanik”, Z. fur. Physik, 43, 172 (1927). Translated as “The physi-
cal content of quantum kinematics and mechanics”, in Quantum Theory and Mea-
surement, eds. J. Wheeler and W. Zurek (Princeton: Princeton University Press,
1983).
5 Mathematically, operators corresponding to such properties do not commute.
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ists in the context where the momentum was (precisely) measured, and
vice versa.
But such a view was inevitably leading further down the rabbit
hole. It was obviously altering our basic views about reality, to cite F.
Frescura: “In the traditional view, it is assumed that there exists a reality
in space-time and that this reality is a given thing, all of whose aspects
can be viewed or articulated at any given moment. Bohr was the first
to point out that quantum mechanics called this traditional outlook into
question.”6 Moreover, if the position, or momentum (and this also holds
for basically any other property) is not always well-defined, when is it
that it becomes well-defined? Answering this question eventually led to
what is now called the “measurement problem” of quantum mechan-
ics. Namely, it seemed that the properties would become well-defined
and thus fully (i.e., in the traditional/classical sense) real only upon their
measurement, i.e., observation. According to quantum formalism, it was
only upon the measurement that the probabilities of various possible re-
sults would collapse into one truly realized outcome—a mere potentiality
turning into actuality. This idea was often summarized as “measurement
causes collapse of the wavefunction”.
Yet, what would constitute a measurement? Bohr thought it was suf-
ficient, in this context, to note that to have a (communicable) measure-
ment outcome requires the interaction of the measured system with a
macroscopic measurement instrument, where the latter must be de-
scribed in the language of classical physics.7 However, this boundary be-
tween a quantum system and the classical measurement apparatus (that
possessed this crucial “ability” to make system properties well-defined
and thus truly real via measurement)—was itself fluid and vague. Indeed,
what prevented us from seeing the measurement apparatus as yet an-
other (albeit larger and more complicated) quantum system that also
adhered to the principles of quantum mechanics? And if so, then what
makes the properties of the apparatus itself (with or without the system
it is measuring) well-defined, that is, when, in that case, does the reality
becomes truly “real”? Such a chain of thoughts prompted Eugene Wigner,
in a part of his life, to even assume that it must be the consciousness of
the observer (as purportedly the only entity not describable by quantum
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laws) which truly completes the measurement process and grants the
full reality to physical systems. Needless to say, such a view (if seen, as
by Wigner, as a claim that consciousness causes an objective, instead
of merely subjective, wavefunction collapse) would open a number of
other intractable and presumably ridiculous questions (e.g., could a cat,
a mouse, an amoeba or a single neuron cause the collapse?). Overall, to
the present day, there has been no consensus about what a satisfactory
solution to the question when (if ever) the reality becomes well-defined
would be (only a plethora of different views called the interpretations of
quantum mechanics), so the measurement problem remains.
In any case, Einstein would not subscribe to any of this. The novel
roles of the observation and the observer in quantum mechanics, to
whom was granted the ability to cause the “wavefunction collapse”8,
was something abhorred by Einstein. He insisted that physics should de-
scribe objective reality independent of any observation, stressing that
the moon must be there even when we do not look at it.9 Therefore, he
kept attempting to provide arguments that quantum mechanics must be
only an approximate description of a maybe complicated but objective
and deterministic underlying reality. After each of his arguments, Bohr
would consequently make an effort to refute Einstein’s criticism of the
theory, with the aim to show that quantum mechanics was not some
effective approximation, but that the quantum wavefunction provides
a complete description of reality. These exchanges are remembered as
probably the most impressive contest of the two genius minds in the his-
tory of science, aka the Einstein-Bohr debates. Einstein would come up
with a wisely constructed thought experiment, ostensibly violating the
principles of quantum mechanics or demonstrating its logical inconsis-
tency, and then it was up to Bohr to defend the theory by showing where
Einstein went wrong. In all rounds of this intellectual game, Bohr would
eventually come out as the winner (the most remarkable case being the
one when Bohr used Einstein’s general relativity to prove Einstein’s argu-
ment wrong). Seemingly, Bohr won in all rounds but the last one.
This last and the most influential round of that contest is today known
as the Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen (EPR) paradox. It was this argument and
its final experimental resolution that, almost a century later, ended in the
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last year’s Nobel Prize in Physics, and therefore, it warrants a more de-
tailed discussion.
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I. Salom, 2022 Nobel Prize in Physics and the End of Mechanistic Materialism
also find out the momentum of the other one (i.e., it must be of the same
intensity but in the opposite direction, so that their vector sum remains
zero). This, of course, holds irrespectively of the mutual distance that the
separating particles reached at the moment of measurement. In princi-
ple, this allows us to find out and precisely predict the momentum of a
faraway particle by performing a measurement on a nearby particle.
This fact, that we can precisely know the momentum of the distant
particle, without ever disturbing it in any way (we have not performed
any measurement on it, only on its peer), in the view of the EPR au-
thors meant that there must be something real about this momentum.
Whoever next measures the momentum of that other particle is guar-
anteed (i.e., with 100 percent chance) to obtain precisely the predicted
result. EPR paper argues that this is only possible if the distant particle
really possesses that well-defined, truly existing momentum value—in
other words, if it is an element of reality. Quite generally, the EPR paper
authors argued that: “If, without in any way disturbing a system, we can
predict with certainty (i.e., with probability equal to unity) the value of a
physical quantity, then there exists an element of reality corresponding
to that quantity.”12 In a relatively similar way, it turns out to be possible
to find out the precise location of the distant particle (by measuring the
position of the closer one) which, by the same reasoning, implies that the
position of that particle must be a well-defined and real property—an
element of reality. Now, since the two particles can be light years apart
at the moment when we perform the measurement on one of them, such
measurement cannot immediately affect the distant particle—therefore,
if it has well-defined momentum after we measure the momentum of its
peer, then it must have had it all the time. It is the same with the posi-
tion. Ergo, contrary to Heisenberg relations and Bohr’s interpretation of
those, the particle must possess both well-defined momentum and well-
defined position (with precise values of both quantities). If quantum me-
chanics cannot describe both these properties simultaneously, it means
that it is incomplete.
In this last part of the reasoning, they tacitly relied on what is com-
monly called the principle of locality, i.e., of the idea that no influence
can be exerted immediately and directly at a distance (more specifically,
that no influence can travel faster than light). Namely, a part and parcel
of a fully successful mechanical description of reality was always the idea
that matter should affect other matter only “locally”, that is, only the
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orientation. Hence, (the z components of) their spins cancel each other.
The overall state has two similar terms of this type, but the second one
is “opposite” in respect to the two particles: the first particle is this time
spin-down, while the second is spin-up. To simplify referencing these two
particles, we can imagine that the first of these two particles is heading
to a researcher named Alice, while the second one is moving towards a
researcher called Bob (here we follow the usual naming convention in pa-
pers on this subject). Then | ↑⟩| ↓⟩ denotes that Alice’s particle is spin-up,
while Bob’s is spin-down and vice-versa, for the | ↓⟩| ↑⟩ term. The combi-
nation of the two terms, together with the relative minus sign, turns out
to mathematically ensure that the total spin angular momentum is zero,
along any axis (not only along the z-axis). The numerical factor is the
so-called overall normalization (in principle, relevant for the evaluation of
probabilities) and it is not crucial for understanding the paradox.
Taken together, the two terms have the following simple interpreta-
tion: if Alice’s particle is a spin-up, Bob’s will be a spin-down, and vice
versa. More precisely, the formalism of quantum mechanics tells us a
couple more things about the particles in such a state. First, if we mea-
sure the spin of Alice’s particle along the z-axis, we will get the up result
in the 50% of cases, and the spin down result in the other 50% of cases.
The same goes for Bob’s particle.13 In addition, the formalism also tells
us that if Alice’s particle, upon the z-spin measurement, turned out to be
spin-up, the measurement of the z-spin of Bob’s particle will yield spin-
down result with certainty, i.e., 100%. It means that, after the measure-
ment of the spin of Alice’s particle and getting the up result, the state
of Bob’s particle is no longer ambiguous (i.e., leading to up and down
outcomes with equal chances), but has become precisely | ↓⟩.14 And vice
versa: obtaining that Alice’s particle has its spin in the down direction, re-
veals that Bob’s particle has its spin upwards—which in turn means that,
as a consequence of the measurement on Alice’s particle, the state of
Bob’s particle was automatically changed, or “updated” to the | ↑⟩ value.
In this sense, by measuring the z-spin component of the first particle,
we have automatically also found out the z-spin of the other particle and,
according to the quantum formalism, by the same token, we have also
altered (i.e., updated) the wavefunction of the other particle spin. And
this conclusion holds irrespective of the distance between the two par-
ticles: even if the other particle is located light years away, by measur-
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ing the spin of the first particle we can find out the spin orientation of
the second. After all, this is not really surprising: we already knew that
the two spins must be opposite, so finding one directly determines the
other. In the process, we have updated our knowledge about the spin of
the second particle, and as long as its wavefunction corresponds to our
knowledge, there is nothing mysterious in the fact that the wavefunction
has immediately changed, no matter that the particle is light years away.
So far, none of this has been particularly revealing. But the key insight
of the authors was that everything said still holds if we decide to measure
the spin along the x-axis, instead of the z-axis. Namely, it turns out that
the same state vector |Ψ⟩ can be written, in essentially the same form,
this time using “right” | →⟩ and “left” | ←⟩ spinning states—with respect
to the x-axis:15
|Ψ⟩ = (| →⟩| ←⟩ − | ←⟩| →⟩). (2)
In particular, this means that if we perform a spin-x measurement on
Alice’s particle, we will immediately also know the x-spin component of
Bob’s particle. Furthermore, according to the formalism, it would mean
that the state of Bob’s particle will be again altered after the measure-
ment performed by Alice on her particle: if we obtain that Alice’s is right
spinning, the state of Bob’s will become | ←⟩, and if we obtain left x-spin
of Alice’s particle, Bob’s will be “projected” to | →⟩ state.
And now the authors make two important points. The first is that
by choosing what measurement to perform on her particle, Alice can
partially influence what will be the new state of Bob’s particle. Namely,
Alice can choose whether to measure spin along the z-axis or along the
x-axis. In the first case, Bob’s particle will end up either in the down state
| ↓⟩ (if Alice obtained up) or in the up state | ↑⟩ (if Alice obtained down).
Alternatively, Alice can choose to perform measurement of the x-spin
component, and Bob’s particle will end up either in the state | →⟩ or | ←⟩.
Note that Alice cannot choose whether Bob’s particle will end in | →⟩ or
in | ←⟩ state—this is completely random, with probability of 50 % for both
outcomes. But she can choose whether Bob’s particle will end up in the
set {| ↑⟩, | ↓⟩} (if she decides to measure spin along the z-axis), or in the
set {| →⟩, | ←⟩} (if she opts for the x direction). And she can decide in
which of these two mutually exclusive sets Bob’s particle will turn up af-
15 This is not difficult to verify since, following from the so-called representation
theory of the SU (2) group, it holds: | →⟩ = (| ↑⟩ + | ↓⟩) and | ←⟩ = (| ↑⟩ −
| ↓⟩). Here, the relative minus sign between the two terms in (1) and (2) becomes
important.
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ter her measurement, even if the second particle is light years away at
that moment!
This seemed clearly at odds with Einstein’s theory of relativity, ac-
cording to which no influence could travel faster than light. As it is widely
known, light speed appears as the natural speed limit in our universe,
since the theory of relativity has shown that a bunch of problems and
paradoxes are related to exceeding this limit. On top of the list are prob-
lems with causality. Namely, thanks to Einstein’s discoveries, we know
that moving faster than light in one system of reference amounts to trav-
eling into the past in another system. And while wishful thinking on be-
half of the science fiction industry has made worldwide audiences pretty
comfortable with the time travel idea (as long as one takes care not to
kill their own grandfather), in reality, it is the logical inconsistencies that
plague (and thus prevent) this hypothetical possibility. The mere possi-
bility to send information into own past (on demand) is a logical contra-
diction: one can decide to send oneself in the past (e.g., yesterday) any
piece of information that he has not already received yesterday—prov-
ing that this is either impossible or not deserving to be truly called “send-
ing information into the past”. We emphasize that the problem has noth-
ing to do with free will—as long as a deterministic robot has the means
to send arbitrary information to its own past, a simple algorithm of this
sort demonstrates the implausibility of the idea.16 For these reasons, it
is—and has been at the time of EPR writing—generally taken that no
influences can travel faster than light.
Thus, the authors of the EPR paper drew a seemingly natural conclu-
sion: since no real influence can travel faster than light, it must be that
nothing really happens with Bob’s particle upon the distant spin mea-
surement performed by Alice. Consequently, it means that some of the
states from the {| ↑⟩, | ↓⟩} set must correspond to the same unchanged
reality of Bob’s particle as one of the states from the {| →⟩, | ←⟩} set.
That is, the state vector (wavefunction) has changed, but the reality has
not—hence, this matching between the wavefunction and the true real-
ity of Bob’s particle is not so one-to-one. In other words, the quantum
wavefunction does not provide such a completely adequate description
of reality as Bohr liked to claim. Either that, or there was some “spooky
action at distance”, as Einstein liked to call this immediate influence that
16 It should be noted, however, that the existence of the so-called “closed time
loops”, as well as tachyons, is not explicitly forbidden by contemporary physical
theories, but to avoid logical contradiction the related hypotheses must some-
how preclude either sending information into the past altogether, or at least the
ability to do so at will.
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the measurement on the first particle allegedly has on the second one.
For Einstein, the latter was hardly a serious option.
At this point, it is important to understand why authors could not
make a stronger claim: that, since the quantum theory predicts such im-
mediate action at a distance, it is in strict violation of special relativity
(and that, thus, quantum mechanics is simply wrong). Namely, one needs
to be able to send information faster than light at will in order to violate
the predictions of the special theory of relativity: according to relativity,
by consecutively sending information faster than light and then return-
ing it back again faster than light from another system of reference, one
can actually send it in own past—which, as we have explained, is not just
weird but is logically forbidden. But, curiously, in spite of allowing the
existence of this “spooky action at distance” that influences wavefunc-
tion, quantum mechanics predicts that sending information via such a
channel is not possible. This has to do with the inherent randomness of
quantum mechanics, due to which Alice cannot influence in which par-
ticular state vector will Bob’s particle end (i.e., she can choose only in
which of the two sets it will end). And the quantum calculations show
that Bob, by measuring the spin of his particle, cannot infer whether Alice
has measured her spin along the z-axis or along the x-axis. (All Bob can do
is to measure his particle spin along some axis, but irrespective of Alice’s
choice, his spin measurement will always yield 50-50 probability along
any axis.) Therefore, Alice’s decision on whether to measure x-spin or
z-spin of her particle cannot be later inferred just by performing measure-
ments on Bob’s particle, in spite of the fact that its wavefunction descrip-
tion will be different in the two cases.
Had the quantum mechanics predicted that entangled pairs can be
used for sending faster-than-light signals (obviously then, it would allow
sending information “on demand”), this would have been in contradic-
tion with the implications of special relativity. In principle, one could
then perform an actual experiment and check whether the superlumi-
nal signalling in this way is really achieved—falsifying one or the other
of the two theories. But this was an awkward situation—according to
the wavefunction description, some influence was spreading faster than
light, yet still it was impossible to use such influence to send meaningful
information. As if the two particles were somehow communicating faster
than light, only in some specific conspiratorial way that we cannot use
for sending information ourselves. Something like that was unconceiv-
able in classical physics, but it was somehow now strangely allowed in
quantum physics, thanks to its indeterminism. This might have contrib-
uted to Einstein calling the effect “spooky action at distance”, instead of
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tain sense: if something does not exist well-defined per se, what would
it mean that it was changed at a distance) and that we must embrace
a new view of reality, which is more holistic (instead of reductionistic)
and does not allow us to see the two particles as truly separate enti-
ties. Until this day there are ongoing discussions of historians of science
and philosophers as to what extent his defence of the completeness of
the theory was to the point and successful.19 Many were of the opinion
that the reply was unclear and confusing, and even Bohr himself, some
15 years later, has regretted his choice of wording on some essential
points.20 However, what was certain is that he has doubled down on the
completeness of quantum mechanics, even if it entailed accepting some
sort of nonlocality, i.e., of the “spooky action at distance”.
In any case, both the EPR’s initial argument and Bohr’s reply were
of philosophical nature, so it was rather a matter of taste who will find
which side more appealing and convincing. And the conundrum seemed
likely to remain undecided, maybe forever.
3. John Bell
For the second act of the drama, we fast forward some thirty years into
the future.
The success of the new physics was huge, and almost nobody really
cared about Einstein’s philosophical objections. Meanwhile, the formal-
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ism was polished (mostly thanks to John von Neumann) and in practice
it worked flawlessly, showing no traces of any incompleteness. The mea-
surement problem still existed, but it was not showing up in any real-
life applications or computations. Besides, the science of the post-World
War II era was more of a pragmatic type, and physicists were increasingly
leaning towards the infamous “shut up and calculate” view of quantum
mechanics.
One of the few to whom the question of the true meaning of quan-
tum mechanics was of greater importance than its applications, was Irish
physicist John Bell. Working on accelerator design at CERN in the early
1960s, Bell was still managing to find time to investigate the deepest in-
terpretational issues of quantum physics.
Personally, Bell was entirely sharing the late Einstein’s dissatisfaction
with the quantum theory. Even the quantum terminology alone was, in
his view, improper for a theory of physics—as we can see from his com-
ment about the books on the subject: “For the good books known to me
are not much concerned with physical precision. This is clear already from
their vocabulary. Here are some words which, however legitimate and
necessary in application, have no place in a formulation with any preten-
sion to physical precision: system, apparatus, environment, microscopic,
macroscopic, reversible, irreversible, observable, information, measure-
ment. [...] On this list of bad words from good books, the worst of all is
‘measurement’.”21
So, the roles of the measurement and the observer in quantum me-
chanics, even more than the lack of determinism, were deeply unset-
tling to him, similarly as they were to Einstein. In his view, the prevail-
ing Copenhagen interpretation of quantum physics (i.e., one following
the views of Bohr and Heisenberg) had too many “subjective” elements,
while he longed for a description of objective reality that would be de-
void of vagueness, indeterminism, and the role of the observers.22
In particular, he was very enthusiastic about the so-called De Broglie-
Bohm pilot-wave interpretation of quantum mechanics. According to
the pilot-wave theory, particles had well-defined positions at all times
and obeyed causal (deterministic) laws. These supposedly real and well-
defined positions were an example of what the EPR authors considered
as elements of reality that were not taken into account by the standard
quantum mechanics. In quantum mechanics, the full description of sys-
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23 J. S. Bell, Bertlmann’s socks and the nature of reality. Speakable and Unspeakable
in Quantum Mechanics: Collected Papers on Quantum Philosophy (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2004).
24 J. S. Bell, “On the Einstein Podolsky Rosen paradox”, Physics Physique Fizika,
1(3) (1964): 195–200.
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I. Salom, 2022 Nobel Prize in Physics and the End of Mechanistic Materialism
“the most profound discovery of science”.25 Note that the claim was not
about the most profound discovery of physics, but of all science, in the
history of mankind!
The starting point was the setup with two entangled particles depicted in
the EPR paper. Bell felt that the type of connection between the particles
predicted by quantum theory was in some sense “stronger” than it was
possible to explain by any “pre-existing” reality (such as that of the well-
defined pre-existing colours of Bertlemann’s socks). It did not take long
to realize that, to prove this, it was not sufficient to consider only the
type of measurements that were in the spotlight of the EPR paper—that
is, those where the outcomes of the measurement on the second particle
were certain. Thus, Bell’s first insight was that he should in much more
detail consider non-zero-or-one probabilities related to measurements
on both particles, along different directions.
Once he realized this, he went on to derive a mathematical relation
concerning a combination of probabilities to get particular spin outcomes
on the two distant particles, but when we are measuring the spin along
axes that are neither parallel nor perpendicular, but forming some inter-
mediate angles. For example, he was considering probabilities of the fol-
lowing type: if Alice measures her particle spin along z-axis and obtains
up, what is the probability for Bob to obtain the spin of his particle to be
in the direction inclined by 45 degrees with respect to the vertical? He
managed to mathematically prove that in any locally-realistic universe,
a particular combination of such probabilities must satisfy a certain in-
equality, now known as Bell’s inequality. The main achievement here was
in the word “any”. This meant that truly any universe that would respect
Einstein’s (and Bell’s) expectations—i.e., where physical systems have
well-defined properties irrespective of observation and where influences
cannot spread infinitely fast—was bound to satisfy this inequality. This
included arbitrarily complicated universes, where particles could, in prin-
ciple, mutually communicate and even conspire against experimentalists
in arbitrary manners, or could behave differently on Earth than on Jupiter
(whether we as humans are able to infer or comprehend these complex
rules or not was of no relevance here).
25 Henry P. Stapp, “Bell’s Theorem and World Process”, Nuovo Cimento, 29B, 2,
(1975): 270.
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our understanding of the universe. Once and for all, we would have to
abandon any hope that a “rational” realistic explanation of phenomena
in nature, of the type sought after by Einstein, could be found.
Bell, for his part, could now just sit and wait until someone managed
to perform the real experiment.
The history of physics had to wait almost another decade for the final act
of this philosophical drama. Years were passing by after Bell’s ground-
breaking proof, yet hardly anyone was noticing Bell’s discovery. Bell had
to wait a couple of years even for the first citation of his work, collecting
only a handful of citations in the first decade or more. It was not just
that his paper was published in a less-known journal Physics, Physique,
Fizika,29 but, as the young physicist John F. Clauser working as a postdoc-
toral researcher at UC Berkeley at the time would later recall, this was a
generally unpopular topic. Young Clauser, together with his colleague,
graduate student Stuart Freedman, will be the first ever to perform an
experimental test of Bell’s inequality. Even after being warned that this
research might ruin their careers,30 the two young scientists further
pursued their idea until finally obtaining a definite experimental answer
about who was right in the great Einstein-Bohr debate.
From 1964 to 1972, our understanding of physics remained in an un-
usual limbo state: we knew it was possible to, once and for all, find out
whether our universe is “normal” in the sense of Einstein (local and real),
or truly as “weird” as Bohr suggested—but still nobody knew the answer.
And finally, in 1972, Clauser and Freedman managed to perform the first
ever “Bell’s test”.31 Unlike the original Bell’s paper, which discussed mat-
ter particles of spin equal to (such as electrons or protons), for practical
reasons this experiment dealt with photons, measuring polarizations of
photon pairs emitted in an atomic cascade. While the spins in Bell’s analy-
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sis were opposite, here the polarizations of the two photons in each pair
were the same: every time we would let the two photons arrive at polar-
izing filters aligned in the same direction, either both photons would pass
the filters, or neither would. The task was to measure the so-called coin-
cidences: how often would it happen that both photons manage to pass
the corresponding polarizing filter and to investigate this probability as a
function of the angle between the polarizers. Instead of the probability
of the spin measurement outcomes, it was these probabilities of photon
coincidences that had to satisfy Bell’s inequality. However, these were
merely technical differences—the essence remained absolutely the same.
And, at last, we heard the Nature’s ruling—no doubt, it was in favour
of Bohr! The obtained experimental results perfectly followed quan-
tum mechanical predictions, demonstrating Bell’s violation at 6.3 sigma
(where everything over 5 sigmas is considered in physics as statistically
sure proof). Clauser himself, sympathetic to Einstein’s side in the debate,
would later say “I was very sad to see that my own experiment had prov-
en Einstein wrong.”32 But so it was.
No doubt that Bell was even sadder than Clauser. As most dramas
have some tragic character, in this one, that role was, so to say, taken
by Bell. It was Bell’s strong inclination towards the realist stance that led
him to investigate possibilities for local hidden variable theories in the
first place, finally leading him to his theorem. No one else has so openly
and bluntly expressed his convictions as did Bell, and seemingly no one’s
convictions were as strong as Bell’s. He was absolutely sure that Einstein
must be right, yet he had to concede that he was not:
“For me, it is so reasonable to assume that the photons in those ex-
periments carry with them programs, which have been correlated in ad-
vance, telling them how to behave. This is so rational that I think that
when Einstein saw that, and the others refused to see it, he was the ra-
tional man. The other people, although history has justified them, were
burying their heads in the sand. I feel that Einstein’s intellectual superior-
ity over Bohr, in this instance, was enormous; a vast gulf between the
man who saw clearly what was needed, and the obscurantist. So for me,
it is a pity that Einstein’s idea doesn’t work. The reasonable thing just
doesn’t work.”33
32 B. Skuse, “Nobel Prize in Physics 2022”, Lindau Nobel Laureate Meetings, ac-
cessed on August 1, 2023, https://www.lindau-nobel.org/blog-nobel-prize-inphys-
ics-2022-provin g-and-using-the-peculiar-quantumnature-of-reality.
33 Jeremy Bernstein, Quantum Profiles (Princeton: Princeton University Press,
1991).
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Yet, some hope for Einstein’s viewpoint still remained after the 1972 ex-
periment. Namely, in Clauser and Freedman’s 1972 experiment, the pho-
tons were impinging on the polarizers that were a mere couple of meters
away, in the same lab. The experiment was performed in cycles of 100
seconds of accumulating the detectors’ data, during which the polarizers
were kept oriented along fixed angles.35 But the essence of Bell’s original
idea was that the two polarizers belonging to Alice and Bob need to be
sufficiently distant, so that Alice’s decision about how to orient her polar-
izer could not have a chance to influence the photon arriving on Bob’s
side. In Clauser’s experiment, the hypothetical influence of the decision
on how to orient the polarizer on one side of the lab had plenty of time to
reach the other side, with no need for superluminal speeds and conflict
with locality principles of special relativity.
Reading the Bell’s original paper, there is an impression that not
even Bell himself had hoped that the outcome of an experiment such
as Clauser’s could be any different than to support quantum mechanical
predictions. On the other hand, his hopes were that quantum mechani-
cal predictions about entangled pairs of particles may be limited to the
cases where the subluminal influences can arrive from one side to the
34 Graham Farmelo, “Random Acts of Science”, The New York Times, June 11,
2010.
35 Freedman and Clauser, “Experimental Test of Local Hidden-Variable Theories”.
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other in due time, but may fail in cases when the distances are greater
(or relevant times shorter):
“Of course, the situation is different if the quantum mechanical pre-
dictions are of limited validity. Conceivably they might apply only to ex-
periments in which the settings of the instruments are made sufficiently
in advance to allow them to reach some mutual rapport by exchanging
signals with velocity less than the speed of light. In this connection, ex-
periments of the type proposed by Bohm and Aharonov, in which the
settings are changed during the flight of the particles, are crucial.”36
In the last sentence, we see that he urged for experiments that would
remove this possibility of having any ordinary, slower-than-light signals
influencing the results.
However, it must be noted that it is difficult to imagine in what way
the two polarizers/detectors from different sides could “communicate”
in order to fool the experimenter. Clauser, personally, saw this as a form
of “paranoia” for which “it is first necessary to believe that a pair of de-
tectors and analysers that are several meters apart are somehow conspir-
ing with each other, so as to defeat the experimenter”.37 Nevertheless,
this remained a logical possibility, so it is generally accepted that Clauser
and Freedman’s original experimental realization with static polarizers
suffered from this “locality loophole”, as this “paranoid possibility” be-
came known.
The first experiment to almost entirely close this locality loophole
and essentially meet Bell’s original criterion was performed in 1982. It
was done by our second Nobel Laureate Alain Aspect and his collabora-
tors working at École Supérieure d’Optique in Orsay.38 Among other ex-
perimental improvements, Aspect has found a way to effectively change
the orientation of the polarizers on the fly, i.e., while the photons were
on their way towards detectors. The polarizers (with the corresponding
detectors behind) were situated on the opposing ends of the lab, at a
distance of 6 meters from the photon source (i.e., 12 meters apart). That
corresponded to the flight time of 20 nanoseconds from the creation of
photons to their detection. Instead of physically rotating the polarizers—
which was technically impossible to accomplish in such a short time—he
replaced the polarizer on each side with a setup consisting of a so-called
optical switch, and two polarizers aligned in different directions. The
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39 G. Weihs et al., “Violation of Bell’s Inequality under Strict Einstein Locality Con-
ditions”, Phys. Rev. Lett., 81, 23 (1998): 5039–5043.
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(one of three such experiments done in 2015 was once again performed
by Zeilinger’s group40).
It is also worth mentioning that some of these additional loopholes
do not even appear in generalizations of Bell’s theorem to entangled
states of three or more particles. Generalizations of this sort were dis-
covered by Daniel Greenberger, Michael Horne, and Anton Zeilinger in
1989 (aka GHZ theorem41), and the corresponding experimental tests42,
performed also by Zeilinger’s group, again falsified local realism. In these
cases, the incompatibility of local realism with our universe could be veri-
fied on the level of a single measurement, without the need to gather suf-
ficient statistics and consider any probabilities, or inequalities, at all. And,
after all these experiments there was no more a single speck of doubt:
our world could never be explained by any locally realistic theory, and it
was Bohr who won the famous debates.
Overall, hardly to anyone’s surprise, the loopholes failed to save local
realism. Years later, it is time to finally get used to this fact and take the
conclusions seriously.
4.3. Superdeterminism
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reasoning, the Earth could right now be flooded with hostile species of
reptilian aliens that are literally all around us, but so it happens that some
regrettable sets of circumstances always prevent us from looking in the
right direction at the right moment—just as fine-tuned sets of circum-
stances dictate Alice and Bob’s decisions how to turn their polarizers.
And we could never know—unless, at some moment, the script dictates
that aliens begin to devour us alive.
Instead of a serious hypothesis about nature, the superdeterminism
can rather be seen as a testament to the price some people are ready
to pay, just to avoid the inevitable conclusion that our universe is not
locally realistic (seemingly, some scientists are ready to entertain super-
determinism at least partially seriously)49. This enormity of the price only
underlines the depth of the change in our worldviews that the Bell’s in-
equality and its violation force us to make.
5. Epilogue
Luckily, times are changing. With only a handful of citations in the first
decade, as of today, Bell’s 1964 paper has amassed more than 27,000
citations. Implications of its violation are widely discussed and brought
into the spotlight of broader audiences. Finally, last year, even the Nobel
Committee decided to acknowledge the momentous scientific and philo-
sophical contributions of Bell and the experimental physicists who tested
his inequality. John Clauser, Alain Aspect and Anton Zeilinger shared the
2022 Nobel Prize in Physics.
The only reason why Bell was not among the last year’s laureates
was that he unfortunately died in 1990, at the age of 62. Reportedly, he
was nominated for the Nobel prize in the year that he passed away.50
Of the other main actors in this drama, Einstein and Bohr did not live to
see Bell’s theorem and the outcomes of experimental Bell tests, but both
were awarded Nobel prizes for other achievements. Stuart Freedman,
who assisted J. Clauser in his experiment, also died prematurely.
Taking into account that the first experimental test of Bell’s inequality
happened already in 1972 (and that hardly anyone expected any remain-
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And, when the dust has settled, what is it that this “most profound dis-
covery of science”, as Henry Stapp praised Bell’s inequality and its viola-
tion, actually tells us? While this obviously is the most important question
in this context, to this day, it remains a controversial one.
On multiple occasions we have stated that Bell’s violations falsify the
idea of “local realism”—they show us that nature certainly cannot be
both “local” and “real” at the same time. While it might be neither. This
common formulation of conclusions dates back to Clauser and Shimony’s
1978 paper.51 While the idea of the locality they had in mind is fairly clear
(i.e., that no influence can be exerted immediately to arbitrary distance,
i.e., as if mediated at infinite speed), they explained the notion of realism
as follows: “Realism is a philosophical view in which external reality is
assumed to exist and have definite properties, whether or not they are
observed by someone.” Giving up the notion of objective reality inde-
pendent of observers, which was the cornerstone of exact science from
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its advent, might seem like quite a steep price to pay. The problem with
violating the notion of locality, on the other hand, is not only in the fact
that it is not in the spirit of Einstein’s theory of relativity (it neither strictly
experimentally contradicts it, since particle entanglement does not al-
low sending information faster than light). The additional problem is that
giving up locality also jeopardizes the idea that nature can be split into
separate subsystems and investigated in this way. If whatever happens in
our lab can be, in principle, influenced by what is at the moment happen-
ing in another galaxy, that undermines the very reductionist approach to
reality. It certainly does away with the good old mechanist ideal of reality
being a set of moving pieces that influence only those in the immediate
vicinity (the intuitive idea of gears and levers, or of particles bouncing off
each other). We should clarify that, although the influence by “pulling
and pushing”, i.e., by the contact-interaction of impenetrable solid bodies
was the golden standard, or at least ideal, of Newtonian classical physics,
it is true that Newton himself was forced to introduce a long-range force
to explain gravity. However, that idea was immediately considered as a
sort of occult and definitely troubling, even by Newton.52 And what was
merely shunned in Newton’s era, would eventually become inadmissible
with Einstein’s theory of relativity due to the light-speed limitation on all
influences. It took a while for science to get rid of such unwelcome “oc-
cult” remnants: first, thanks to Maxwell’s theory of electromagnetism,
which solved this problem for the case of electric and magnetic interac-
tions, and finally by Einstein who solved the same problem for gravity.
They provided perfectly local (and of course, realist) explanations of the
universe’s inner workings. With these achievements, the Newtonian ide-
al of a mechanistic universe was seemingly completely accomplished and
the universe fully gained the intuitive feel of a huge clockwork mecha-
nism. Yet, the option opened by the Bell test—to abandon the locality
of physics—all of a sudden endangered this ancient worldview, in a way
that was far more disturbing than the simple inverse-square Newton’s
law of gravity.
Even without these purely philosophical repercussions, the huge
problem of internal compatibility between nonlocal interactions and the
theory of relativity means that accepting the nonlocality requires serious
revisions of our understanding of space and time. Overall, as Clauser and
Shimony emphasize in their paper: “The conclusions [from Bell’s theo-
rem] are philosophically startling; either one must totally abandon the
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5.3. Locality?
On the other hand, some of the more recent discussions on the subject
tend to question this Clauser’s “reality or locality” formulation of the
conclusions.55 Careful logical analysis shows that Bell’s inequality viola-
tion seemingly implies some elements of nonlocality irrespectively of our
stance on realism, i.e., that “locality” assumption cannot be saved—at
least not in its standard sense—even if we give up realism. Some modern
scholars thus prefer to summarize implications of Bell’s violation simply
as a constraint that any hidden variable theory must be nonlocal, more
in line with Bell’s own formulation of his theorem: “If [a hidden variable
theory] is local it will not agree with quantum mechanics, and if it agrees
with quantum mechanics it will not be local”.56 To understand this em-
phasis on the hidden variables, but also to better understand the idea of
sacrificing locality to preserve realism, we must again return to Bohm-
de Broigle’s hidden-variable interpretation, aka the pilot-wave theory
(PWT),57 which hugely influenced Bell.
Namely, this theory was, and still is, basically the only known model
of nature that explicitly does away with locality premise in order to re-
tain realism in a sense somewhat close to the classical one (though, even
there the concept of reality had to be extended to include a quite ab-
stract wavefunction that lives in a mathematically involved construct of
a so-called “tensor product of single-particle Hilbert spaces”, instead of
keeping only the intuitively clear picture of the classical three-dimensional
space). Bohmian mechanics (as PWT interpretation of quantum mechan-
ics is often called) assumes the existence of true and precise positions of
all particles—here playing the role of hidden variables—which are well-
defined at all times, irrespectively of observation (despite the knowledge
about these positions not being experimentally accessible). Besides, the
theory is deterministic. However, as we have already discussed, the price
is paid in the form of manifest nonlocality: the velocity of every particle
depends on the current positions of all particles that exist in the universe,
in a way determined by an additional “guiding” equation. This remote
influence, which exists irrespective of the mutual distance between par-
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that would retain its realism but also remove the troubling non-local fea-
tures (which motivated his formulation of the theorem statement via hid-
den variables). The conclusion of Bell’s theorem—that no such improved
theory can exist that would be compatible with predictions of quantum
mechanics—was immediately disappointing to the author since the pros-
pect of experimentally invalidating quantum theory sounded implau-
sible. Once the Bell tests have indeed confirmed the validity of quantum
predictions, from then on, the Bell’s theorem implied that any hidden
variable theory, which aspires to conform to the experiments, must suf-
fer from the same non-locality problem as the Bohmian mechanics.
But instead of being viewed as a deal-breaker for hidden variable the-
ories in general, by the proponents of PWT this was seen as an argument
in favour of their interpretation: the non-locality was no longer the fault
of the particular Bohmian approach, because it was now clear that no
other hidden variable theory can do better, even in principle. Moreover,
advocates of Bohmian mechanics particularly tend to emphasize that
some sort of nonlocality is unavoidably inherent in quantum theory per
se, irrespectively of interpretation. At the same time, they mostly dismiss
that Bell’s inequality violations should have any logical implications on
the idea of realism (even the mention of the existence of hidden vari-
ables—which is certainly an assumption about reality—is often avoided).
For example, for Tim Maudlin, who is a vocal supporter of Bohmian me-
chanics, the implications of Bell tests can be simply summarized as “ac-
tual physics is non-local,” period.61
5.4. Reality?
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consisting of Alice’s and Bob’s particles taken together. Namely, the out-
comes of measurements that require access to both particles, in general,
cannot be inferred (not even probabilistically) based only on these two
reduced density matrices, even in situations where our ignorance does
not play any role. This is in contrast with the situation in classical phys-
ics, where analogous situation is possible only when we are lacking some
piece of information. For example, in classical physics, we could have
pairs of particles where Alice’s spin is pointing upwards, and Bob’s spin
points down, and pairs where, vice versa, Alice’s spin is down and Bob’s
is up. If, from a mixture of ten pairs of the first type and ten pairs of the
second type we would be randomly given a single pair (so that we do not
know from which set it originates), our classical description of such a pair
would be superficially similar to the quantum state of entangled spins (1)
discussed in the context of the EPR paradox. Namely, it would also have
the properties that probability of both Alice’s and Bob’s particle spin to
be up is 50 % (same for down), while each time Alice’s spin turns out to be
up, Bob’s will certainly be down, and vice versa. However, such classical
correlations are always a consequence of some type of our ignorance
(here, we simply did not know from which of the two sets our pair origi-
nated), but they are never the feature of the system per se—since, clas-
sically, particles do have well-defined properties and must “themselves
know from which set they originated”.
The essence of the EPR paradox and the Bell’s violation can be seen
from this perspective: Einstein assumed that the only possible cause of
such correlations in nature must be in our ignorance, i.e., that there must
remain some hidden variables which make quantum mechanical descrip-
tion incomplete, but the violation of Bell’s inequality showed us that
quantum correlations are not always of this type.71 According to quan-
tum mechanics, even if we know everything there is to be known, some-
times reduced density matrices still do not contain sufficient information
to predict outcomes of experiments performed on the joint system.
The simplest example of such a joint-type experiment is measuring the
spins of both particles and comparing the results. To predict outcomes
of such measurements (in general) we need the full density matrix of
the joint system—and this matrix, therefore, somehow represents the
reality of the two particles taken as a whole. As the joint matrix cannot
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73 All this directly follows from the standard formalism of quantum mechanics.
From the perspective of Bob, who does not know the outcome, Alice performing
the measurement corresponding to Hermitian operator A with spectral
decomposition A = Σi ai Pi has no effect on Bob’s reduced density matrix since
ρ′B = trA (Σi (Pi1) ρAB (Pi1)) = trA (Σi (Pi1) ρAB) = trA (ρAB) = ρB, where we
used cyclic property of trace. The only change Bob’s reduced density operator
undergoes in this view is of taxonomic nature: after the measurement, it becomes
a mixed state of the first kind—reflecting the classical lack of knowledge of the
result that Alice has obtained, while previously it was a mixed state of the second
kind—i.e., reflecting that it was entangled with Alice’s particle. This classification,
of course, neither affects the form of the matrix nor the underlying reality. In
interpretations of quantum mechanics in which collapse is only subjective
and Alice’s measurement does not result in collapse from Bob’s perspective,
his particle remains in the mixed state of the second kind—reflecting the
entanglement which is now not only with Alice’s particle, but also with Alice’s
measurement apparatus/environment and Alice herself. On the other hand, for
Alice who knows which specific outcome ai has occurred, the density operator
of the joint system changes according to the following formula: ρ′AB = (Pi1)
ρAB(Pi1) / trAB(ρAB Pi), leading to a nontrivial change in the reduced density
matrix of Bob’s particle.
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ous). If we restrain from such a “realist” urge, we may say that there is
one description (density matrix, or a vector state) and the corresponding
reality related to Alice, and another one related to Bob. Taking such a
view is literally, to a certain extent, the position of Rovelli’s “relational
interpretation” of quantum mechanics. According to this interpreta-
tion, there is nothing anthropocentric here, i.e., Alice and Bob have no
unique role, and we could speak about the quantum state (and “reality”
in some sense) from the perspective of any physical system—since the
state (wavefunction) is here observer-dependent and just encapsulates
relations between the observed system and the reference system (i.e.,
observer). This is understood in a similar way as the lengths and time
intervals are relative to observers (i.e., reference frames) in the theory
of relativity. Another way to interpret different descriptions of reality by
Alice and Bob, which may be ostensibly conflicting and yet both correct,
is offered by the “quantum Bayesianism” (QBist) interpretation of quan-
tum mechanics. Here, the quantum state merely represents (rational)
degrees of belief that an agent can have about the outcomes of possible
measurements. Yet another would be a reading of the Copenhagen inter-
pretation where the collapse occurs strictly subjectively, and which goes
hand in hand with the ontology of idealism.74
It is beyond the scope of this paper to discuss in more detail the men-
tioned views. Nevertheless, it is very dubious whether, and in what sense,
one can say that the universe is non-local, according to these interpreta-
tions. In all of these views, the wave-function collapse after Alice’s mea-
surement happens only from her perspective, and it is essentially nothing
else but the update of knowledge (or degrees of belief) that Alice has
about both hers and Bob’s particle. The fact that Bob’s particle is distant
makes the update of knowledge, per se, nothing more mysterious than
if Bertlmann would send a sock from his pair to Andromeda galaxy, and
would only afterwards present us the other one from the pair: our update
of the knowledge about the distant sock based on the one that we have
just witnessed would be instantaneous, irrespectively of the light years
of distance. Nonetheless, we most certainly would not describe the situ-
ation as a case of faster-than-light interaction—instead, we would simply
say that we found out something about the distant sock. Note that no
change in the “reality of Bob’s particle” happens from Bob’s viewpoint
after Alice’s measurement, and thus, there is no objective non-local influ-
ence of Alice on the distant particle.
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Overall, we have seen that even if we are ready to sacrifice realism, some
features of locality (at least in the sense of separability) must be lost as
well, while the attempts to solve the problem by explicitly giving up local-
ity again land far from any epitome of realism. Hence, Clauser’s original
formulation, simply stating that we must abandon the idea of “local real-
ism”, seems to be the closest to the mark and to reasonably summarize
the true philosophical implications of the violations of Bell’s inequalities.
It is up to different interpretations of quantum mechanics to emphasize
either the “locality” or the “reality” part of the statement.
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However, we must mention the option that retains both the ideal
of the locality of influences and the idea of observer-independent real-
ity, at the expense of giving up a seemingly necessary and tacitly always
implied assumption that experiments have unique outcomes. This is the
widely known many-worlds interpretation (MWI) of quantum mechanics.
It asserts that it is wrong to say that in the EPR setting, Alice will obtain
either a spin-up or spin-down outcome in the z-spin measurement—in-
stead, the universe will split (or multiply in some sense) into two uni-
verses, identical in every minute detail, apart from the fact that in one of
them, there will be Alice seeing the up outcome, whereas the other will
be inhabited by Alice registering the opposite outcome. While, as with
every other interpretation, this one also has its strengths and weakness-
es (which we will not delve into), it is not difficult to see that the proof of
Bell’s theorem cannot be carried out with such a wildly altered definition
of measurement.
Many-world interpretation posits that the wavefunction of the uni-
verse is ontologically real and observer-independent. In this sense, this is
a realist interpretation. On the other hand, merely saying that MWI calls
for a revision of our understanding of reality would be an understate-
ment. Instead of having a single reality of three-dimensional space, we
now have an almost infinite number of concurrent realities, i.e., “worlds”,
and essentially everything that might have happened has actually hap-
pened in (at least) one of these worlds. Obviously, this picture of reality
is far remote from any stretch of Newtonian or classical-like worldview.
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mentioned “it from bit” doctrine, combined with the idea of a “participa-
tory universe” (Participatory Anthropic Principle).
For him (conscious) observers were participators in creating the real-
ity, by posing questions to nature (by measurement and observation),
as in his variation of the “twenty questions” game. The information con-
tained in the answers was the basis for the existence of all physical things.
Of all of them, the philosophical positions of Max Born were the least
radical (with respect to the prevailing materialistic views of that time).
Since his contribution to quantum mechanics was the probabilistic in-
terpretation of the (modulus squared) wavefunction, he, naturally, dis-
agreed with Einstein on the issue of determinism. This further led to dif-
ferences about the existence of free will, since Born’s opinion was that
the breach of causality arising from quantum mechanics provides a chan-
nel for our true agency in the physical world.91 In this sense, he was also
departing from the philosophy of radical (monistic) materialism.
Curiously, even David Bohm did not support Einstein’s philosophical
views. This might come as a surprise, since it was he who revived and
further developed De Broglie’s vague idea of pilot-wave theory, to fully
develop what is now known as De Broglie–Bohm theory—and is often
seen as the last refuge of people looking to salvage as much as possible
of our classical intuitions about the world and objective reality. (As for
De Broglie, it is known that he has changed his philosophical views a few
times.) But, Bohm had far more complex metaphysical intentions than at-
tempts to resurrect mechanical worldview. To him, the pilot-wave theory
was a way to unite his holistic view of the universe, with the importance
of information and mind.92 He strongly believed that the reductionistic
approach of classical physics, relying on the separability of subsystems,
was wrong: “Ultimately, the entire universe (with all its ‘particles’, in-
cluding those constituting human beings, their laboratories, observing
instruments, etc.) has to be understood as a single undivided whole, in
which analysis into separately and independently existent parts has no
fundamental status.”93
As we can see, it turns out that Bohm advocated his mechanics not in
spite of its non-locality (i.e., inseparability) features, but because of them.
Furthermore, he saw the wavefunction as embodying a special kind of
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plausible description of the universe, even long before we got the rock-
solid mathematical proof for that, in the form of the Bell’s violations.
And, finally, once it was experimentally established that Bell’s in-
equalities are indeed violated in our universe, we encountered a truly
unique situation in the entire history of science. Never before has hu-
manity been in need to abandon an entire paradigm because of a proof
of mathematical nature that could guarantee that our previous scien-
tific view—in a quite broad sense—was plainly wrong. Namely, it was
common, throughout the history of science, that one particular theory
would succeed the previous one—as soon as it demonstrated to provide
a better and more precise description of nature. But, this time, what was
falsified was not some particular theory or model—it was a whole huge
class of theories, and precisely those theories that we, just until recently,
thought were the only reasonable and possible choices. We are speaking
of abandoning the entire scientific worldview that was absolutely domi-
nant for a few centuries (at least in exact sciences). It was dominant to
the extent that we, for the most part, tacitly understood it surely must
be the correct one, so that rarely anyone even bothered to question it.
And, if it was not for the Bell’s theorem, which possesses this unyielding
power of a precise mathematical statement, to this day we would not
be aware of the immensity and the inevitability of the quantum revolu-
tion that took place. Without Bell, some physicists could, even nowadays,
see the quantum mechanics as yet another incremental step in scientific
progress, possibly one of only technical nature. And there would always
be a remaining chance that Einstein was right after all, and that someday
we would find a reasonable mechanistic model “rationally” explaining all
that quantum “mumbo-jumbo”, in a form of some good old (complicated
or not) clockwork mechanism. But, thanks to the Bell’s theorem, we now
know that this can never happen. (Again, we stress that by a clockwork-
like mechanistic model, we assume one being both local and realistic.)
The word “never” is something we are basically not allowed to use in
physics, except in this context—such is the extraordinary generality and
pure mathematical strength of the Bell’s “no go” theorem. This is the
reason, and a much of justification, why Stapp saw Bell’s theorem as the
most profound in all of science.
With such few things that we can declare with certainty in physics,
and with the debunking of mechanistic doctrine after Bell being one rare
example, it is unbelievable that the perception of the universe as a (de-
terministic) clockwork mechanism persists to this day, even among many
(obviously less well-informed) scholars of various scientific disciplines,
and let alone in the general public. Ironically, most of them are clinging
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222
Appendix A: Bell’s Inequality
101 Eventually,
it will turn out that these assumptions of identical polarizations λ
of both photons and of random distributions are not essential for the derivation
of CHSH inequality.
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Both Alice and Bob will let their photons impinge on polarization fil-
ters: Alice will orient her filter at an angle to be denoted as a, while Bob
will orient his filter at angle b. We will introduce a variable A, which will
take value 1 if Alice’s photon manages to pass through her filter, and value
–1 if it gets absorbed. And here comes the crucial part of the entire theo-
rem: what does the outcome, i.e., the A value, depend upon? Certainly, we
expect A to depend on Alice’s decision at which angle to orient her polar-
izer (that we denoted by a), as well as on the angle of the photon polariza-
tion (denoted by λ). Importantly, the outcome A cannot depend on Bob’s
choice of his angle of polarizing filter b, simply because Bob can be light
years away from Alice, and the presumption is that the universe respects
the locality principle (i.e., no instantaneous influences). Therefore, we
may write A as a function of a and λ, that is A = A(a, λ). In principle, it might
be that the value A also depends on some other factors—in the end, we
will see that the result trivially generalizes to include this possibility. In the
same way, we introduce variable B and have B = B(b, λ).
We will consider the expected value (or mathematical expectation,
similar to arithmetic mean value) of the product A(a, λ)B(b, λ). Since the
angle λ is here the only unknown variable, to find the expected value
E(A · B) we must average over all possible angles:
(3)
Since there is an infinite number of possible angles, we had to inte-
grate over all of them to get the average. Here, ρ(λ) denotes the prob-
ability distribution for the angle λ—i.e., probability (density) that the
photons have the particular polarization angle λ—allowing for the pos-
sibility that some angles are more probable than others. We only know
that it must hold:
(4)
since it is certain that the angle λ must take some value between 0
and 2π. (If the distribution is uniform, then we simply have ρ(λ) = .)
After integration over λ, we see that the expectation value depe
nds only on the remaining variables a and b, that is, the averaged value of
this product that we will obtain after many repeated experiments even-
tually depends only on the choices of angles that Alice and Bob make. For
simplicity, we can thus write E(a, b) ≡ E(A(a, λ) B(b, λ)).
Now comes the ingenious part of the Bell’s theorem (in the CHSH
variant). We will consider a very specially defined value S:
S ≡ E(a, b) + E(a′, b) + E(a, b′) − E(a′, b′), (5)
and shortly it will become clear why such a choice is relevant.
224
I. Salom, 2022 Nobel Prize in Physics and the End of Mechanistic Materialism
(7)
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226
Appendix B: Quantum Violation
This state is similar to the state |Ψ⟩ of two particles with opposing
spins (1), just as the state |Φ⟩ describes two photons whose polarizations
will be the same (not opposite) upon the measurement in any chosen
direction (direction of polarization is always perpendicular to the direc-
tion of photon propagation, so we here only consider these perpendicu-
lar directions). Here, H and V denote, respectively, horizontal and vertical
linear polarization (with respect to some, arbitrarily chosen axes). Note,
however, that individual polarizations of the two photons are not well-
defined in this state: when directed into a polarization filter, each of the
photons has chance of passing through, irrespective of the polarizer
angle. (The arbitrarily chosen horizontal and vertical directions H and V
in expression (8) are not actually distinctive nor preferential in any sense,
since this state would retain the same form when expressed in any other
basis of two perpendicular directions H′ and V′—the state |Φ⟩ is isotro-
pic.) In other words, the state |Φ⟩ corresponds to the situation where
individual polarizations are not well-defined (so, in Bohr’s sense, they are
not fully real), while the fact that these two “unreal” polarizations are
mutually identical is nevertheless well-defined and real. Following the
analogy with socks, here we should consider a same-colour pair, and the
situation would then be similar as if the colours of the two socks were
not well-defined/real, but nevertheless, it was certain that the non-exis-
tent colours are the same (so that, observing one sock automatically also
determines the colour of the other one).
To show a quantum violation of the CHSH inequality, we again note
that, according to quantum mechanics, the first, i.e., Alice’s photon, has
a 50 percent chance to pass through Alice’s filter, irrespective of the fil-
ter orientation a. Quantum formalism implies that, if this happens, Bob’s
photon polarization state will be immediately projected to the vector
state that corresponds to the same angle a. In other words, if we have
measured that Alice’s photon was polarized in the direction a, Bob’s pho-
ton sort of immediately becomes polarized in the same way. (While a
detailed discussion in this direction is beyond the scope of this review,
we note that the temporal order of Alice’s and Bob’s measurements
in this setting can depend upon the velocity of the frame of reference,
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228
I. Salom, 2022 Nobel Prize in Physics and the End of Mechanistic Materialism
tions, there is absolutely no way to obtain such a high value for S. Hence,
the existence of this quantum mechanical example that violates Bell’s
inequality completes the proof of Bell’s theorem—that no local-realist
theory can ever reproduce all predictions of quantum mechanics.
Consequently, we have proved that the two worldviews (Einstein’s
and Bohr’s) are not only philosophically different, but they can be also
differentiated by an objective experiment! This was Bell’s pivotal contri-
bution to our understanding of the universe.
Bell’s inequality, in principle, also provided general instructions on
what should be experimentally measured to settle the dispute. One first
needed to be able to create pairs of photons in the state given by (8), af-
ter which each photon from a pair should be directed to a polarizing filter
oriented, respectively, at angle 45o and 22.5o, in order to measure E(a, b).
Then, the experiment should be repeated with angles 0o and 22.5o to
measure E(a′, b), and so on. The particular expectation value is easily ex-
perimentally inferred (for any fixed choice of a and b angles) by using the
first part of the equation (9), which, in practice, boils down to:
(10)
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Literature
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46. Mermin, N. David. Boojums All The Way Through. Cambridge University
Press, 1990.
47. Moore, Walter. Schrodinger: Life and Thought. Cambridge University
Press, 1992.
48. Myrvold, Wayne, Marco Genovese and Abner Shimony. “Bell’s Theorem”.
In Edward N. Zalta, ed. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall
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theorem.
49. Pan, J.-W., D. Bouwmeester, M. Daniell, H. Weinfurter and A. Zeilinger.
“Experimental test of quantum nonlocality in three-photon Greenberger-
Horne-Zeilinger entanglement”. Nature 403 (2000): 515–519.
50. Piechocinska, B. “Physics from Wholeness: Dynamical Totality as a
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Problem: De Broglie– Bohm Loses Out to Everett”. Found. Phys., 35, 4
(2005): 517–540. doi:10.1007/s10701-004-2009-3.
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from high-redshift quasars,” Physical Review Letters, 121: 080403.
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on August 1, 2023 https://arxiv.org/abs/1809.01746v1.
54. Schrödinger, Erwin. My View of the World. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1964. Quoted from Malhotra, R., Infinity Foundation.
Being different: An Indian challenge to western universalism. N. J.:
Princeton, 2018.
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Bohm”. Entropy, 20, 7 (2018): 493. doi: 10.3390/e20070493.
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local beables’,” Epistemological Letters, 13 (1976): 1–8.
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234
Игор Салом
Универзитет у Београду, Институт за физику, Београд
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scientific review
UDC 51/53:929 Поенкаре А.
Dragoljub A. Cucić1
Regional Centre for Talents Mihajlo Pupin, Pančevo
Abstract
Henri Poincaré (1854–1912) had a significant impact on the devel-
opment of mathematics, philosophy of mathematics and physics,
both globally and among all of the people from the territory of for-
mer Yugoslavia who do not have a language barrier, hence do not
need translations. During their studies, four exceptional individuals
from the Serbian history listened to Henri Poincaré’s lectures. Fur-
thermore, in the journal Science, in 1895, Mihajlo (Michael) Pupin, an
American scientist of Serbian origin, presented Henri Poincaré’s book
Les Oscillations Electriques. Several Poencaré’s texts have been trans-
lated to Serbo-Croatian—including his book Science and Hypothesis,
which was published in Zagreb in 1989, while the people from the
local scientific community repeatedly wrote about him.
The aim of this article is to present the influence of Henri Poincaré on
the scientific community comprised of the people from the territory
of former Yugoslavia (those who do not need translators in order to
communicate amongst themselves).
Keywords: Henri Poincaré, mathematics, philosophy, physics
1 dragoljub.cucic@rctpupin.edu.rs
2 This article is based on an on-line lecture held on July 8, 2022, as part of the
program of the colloquium Poincaré 2022, organised by the Université de Lor-
raine – Archives Henri Poincaré, Nancy, which lasted from July 6 to July 8, 2022.
I would like to thank Dr. Philippe Nabonnand, Director of the Henri-Poincaré
Archives, and Professor of the history of mathematics at the Philosophy
Department of the University of Lorraine, for comments that helped me to make
this article more precise. I would also like to express my gratitude to Slobodanka
Grubić, an English teacher, who helped me with this English version of the text.
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1. Introduction
238
D. A. Cucić, Henri Poencaré—Influence on the Territory of Former Yugoslavia
Ivan Đaja was born in Le Havre, France. He completed his elementary and
secondary education in Belgrade. After graduation, in 1902, he returned
to France, to study at the Lycée Corneille in Rouen. He continued his stud-
ies at the Sorbonne, where he was a student of Henri Poincaré, as well
as of physiologist and chemist Albert Dastre: “His studies took him to the
Latin Quarter of Paris, to which he remained faithful for the rest of his
life, and he was a student of the famous physiologist and chemist Albert
Dastre, as well as the famous Henri Poincaré.”3 He defended his doc-
toral thesis in physiology titled Study of Glucosides Ferments and Carbone
Hydrates in Molluscs and Crustaceans (Étude des ferments des Glucosides et
des Hydrates de Carbone chez les Mollusques et chez les Crustacés) in 1909.
In 1937, he wrote a novelized biography of Louis Pasteur. He was elected
corresponding member of the French Academy of Sciences, Department
of Medicine and Surgery, in 1956.4
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Stanislav Vinaver was born in 1891 in Šabac. He began his secondary edu-
cation in Šabac, but he completed the last, eighth grade, as a student of
the First Belgrade High School, where he graduated in 1909. After gradu-
ation, he went to study in France, at the Sorbonne, where he studied
mathematics, physics and music. He left his studies in 1912 when he re-
turned to Serbia to participate in the Balkan Wars. From 1910 to 1913,
he published three books. Vinaver is one of the founders of the expres-
sionist movement (he is the author of the Manifesto of the Expressionist
School in 1920) in the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes.
The following record of his student days in Paris has survived:
“At the Paris Sorbonne, he studied mathematics with Henri
Poincaré, philosophy with Henri Bergson, and music with Wanda
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D. A. Cucić, Henri Poencaré—Influence on the Territory of Former Yugoslavia
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8 Ibid., 4.
9 Радмило Пешић, Кос�а С�ојановић, живо� и �ело, accessed on June 4,
2022, http://elibrary.matf.bg.ac.rs/handle/123456789/591.
10 Žarko Mijajlović, “Mihailo Petrović and His Age”, in Mihailo Petrović Alas:
Life, Work, Times. On the Occaasion of 150th Anniversary of His Birth, eds. Stevan
Pilipović, Gradimir V. Milovanović, Žarko Mijajlović. (Belgrade: Serbian Academy
of Sciences and Arts, 2019), 14.
242
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Figure 3. On the left: front cover of the book: Henri Poincaré, Znanost i hipoteza;
on the right: front cover of the book: Neven Sesardić, prir., Filozofija nauke.
244
D. A. Cucić, Henri Poencaré—Influence on the Territory of Former Yugoslavia
There are different approaches to presenting the life and work of Henri
Poencaré, from reviewing his books in professional journals, giving lec-
tures on various occasions (anniversaries of his birth, death, etc.), to pre-
senting biographical texts, as well as those that deal with his professional
work in the fields of mathematics, physics and philosophy.
We would like to point out several works that deal with various
aspects of Henri Poincaré’s life and work:
245
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16 At the time, the small village of Idvor was a part of the Austrian Empire, district
called Banat and the military border. Today, Idvor is an integral part of Banat and
the Republic of Serbia in the province of Vojvodina.
246
D. A. Cucić, Henri Poencaré—Influence on the Territory of Former Yugoslavia
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Phlogiston 31/2023 http://www.muzejnt.rs
6. Conclusion
In 2012, the centenary of the death of Henri Poincaré was also marked
in Belgrade, at the Ilija M. Kolarac Endowment. A panel discussion en-
titled Henri Poincaré (1854–1912) — 100 years since his death was held on
December 18, at the Faculty of Teacher Education, University of Belgrade,
in which Dr Rade Živaljević (Mathematical Institute of SASA), Dr Božidar
Jovanović (Mathematical Institute of SASA) and Dr Radoš Bakić all took
part. After the panel discussion, a film titled Everything is relative, Mr.
Poincaré! (Tout est relatif, monsieur Poincaré!) was screened.
A lot of Serbian students have studied in France before the World
War I, and later. There are probably more of them who listened to the
lectures of Henri Poincaré, but in order to get accurate data, we need to
get access to the archives of the Sorbonne. The four people mentioned in
this article have become very important for the history of Serbia. One of
them, Michael Pupin, is among the most important scientists of Serbian
origin. His review of Poincaré’s book is all the more significant since he
was one of the founders of the American Physical Society, and one of the
charter members of the American Mathematical Society. He was a great
admirer of another, possibly the greatest French mathematician, Joseph-
Louis Lagrange. Pupin and Poincaré were born the same year.
At the universities on the territory of the former Yugoslavia, it can be
seen that Henri Poincaré is still very relevant. In order to establish how
current his influence really is, we would need a lot more time to research
and analyse all the data from all the faculties of mathematics and physics
on the researched territory. Articles regarding Poincaré appear regularly
in professional journals and at conferences.
248
D. A. Cucić, Henri Poencaré—Influence on the Territory of Former Yugoslavia
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Source of Illustrations
Literature
250
D. A. Cucić, Henri Poencaré—Influence on the Territory of Former Yugoslavia
251
Драгољуб Цуцић
Регионални центар за таленте Михајло Пу�ин, Панчево
252
D. A. Cucić, Henri Poencaré—Influence on the Territory of Former Yugoslavia
253
прегледни рад
UDC 621.3:929 Санчез М.
Давид Флорес1 621.313.12.015.4
Кабинет Елек�рикалија,
Канет де Мар, Барселона, Шпанија
Зорица Циврић2
Музеј науке и технике, Београд
Јован Цветић3
Универзитет у Београду, Електротехнички факултет, Београд
Апстракт
Овај рад има за циљ да осветли допринос шпанског инжењера,
проналазача и индустријалца Моника Санчеза развоју уређаја за
генерисање струја при високим напонима и високим фреквенција-
ма. Фокус рада је на уређају за генерисање х-зрака који је овај про-
налазач усавршио почетком 20. века, а који је постао познат након
што је коришћен за потребе флуороскопије током Првог светског
рата. У раду се износе детаљи конструкције уређаја о коме, коли-
ко је за сада познато, није сачувана изворна документација.
Да би се разумела иновативна природа Санчезовог уређаја биће
изнет преглед раних метода и апарата за добијање импулсних
струја при високим напонима и стимулисање пражњења у ренд-
генским цевима до појаве Теслиног револуционарног открића ос-
цилаторно-резонантног кола које је усмерило развој генератора
наизменичних високофреквенцијских струја при високим напони-
ма. Осим тога, изложићемо компаративну анализу основних ти-
пова електричних кола у уређајима који претходе Санчезовом, а
то су Теслин, Д’Арсонвалов и Удинов уређај. Комбиновањем исто-
1 christian.oersted@gmail.com
2 zorica.civric@muzejnt.rs
3 cvetic_j@etf.rs
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1. Увод
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History of Communications, Madrid, Spain (2010): 1–4, преузето 23. маја 2023,
doi: 10.1109/HISTELCON.2010.5735297.
14 J. P. Rozas Quintanilla, “La radiología y la I Guerra Mundial. La contribución es-
pañola: Mónico Sánchez”, Ciencia y técnica entre la paz y la guerra 1714-1814-1914
(SEHCYT 2014), Madrid, 1 (2014): 246–247.
15 Ibid., 249.
16 Жан Албан Бергоније je био професор на Медицинском факултету у Бордоу
и начелник радиографске службе 18. војне области. Један је од аутора Закона
о радиоосетљивости ткива или Бергоније-Трибондо закона (Loi de Bergonié et
Tribondeau), према коме се радиоосетљивост ткива повећава с повећањем
броја недиференцираних ћелија у ткиву, с повећањем митотичке активности
и дужине времена током којих се ћелије активно размножавају.
17 Ramos Rodríguez et al., 173, 174.
262
Д. Флорес, З. Циврић, Ј. Цветић, Уређај Моника Санчеза за генерисање х-зрака
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Д. Флорес, З. Циврић, Ј. Цветић, Уређај Моника Санчеза за генерисање х-зрака
Слика 4.
Експериментална
апаратура за
генерисање х-зрака
помоћу индукционог
калема са
електромеханичким
прекидачем са
вибрирајућом
котвом
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Д. Флорес, З. Циврић, Ј. Цветић, Уређај Моника Санчеза за генерисање х-зрака
20 Leland Anderson, ed, Nikola Tesla on His Work With Alternating Currents and
Their Application to Wireless Telegraphy, Telephony, and Transmission of Power
(Denver: Sun Publishing, 1992), 17.
267
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23 Патент бр. 454.622 поднет 25. априла, а одобрен 23. јуна 1891. године,
“System of Electric Lighting”, преузето 12. јуна 2023, https://patents.google.
com/patent/US454622A/en. Уређај се назива и Теслин калем, Теслин транс-
форматор, Теслин осцилаторни трансформатор или Теслин резонантни
трансформатор.
24 Nikola Tesla, “Experiments with Alternating Currents of High Frequency
and Their Application to Methods of Artificial Illumination”, Transactions of the
American Institute of Electrical Engineers, VIII, 1 (1891): 266– 319, преузето 12.
јуна 2023, doi: 10.1109/T-AIEE.1891.5570149.
25Nikola Tesla, “Massage with currents of high frequency”, Electrical Engineer,
December 21, 1891, 679.
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Слика 9.
Шема Томсоновог
уређаја, 1892. година
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Слика 15.
Круксова цев;
1 – регенератор;
2 – анода;
3 – анти-катода
са хладњаком;
4 – катода
Слика 16.
Санчезова цев;
1 – регенератор,
помоћна
електрода за
регенерацију
ваздуха,
спречава да цев
губи вакуум;
2 – анти-катода;
3 – катода
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Слика 22. Детаљи израде кутије од Слика 23. Завршни изглед кутије
дрвета и потпорни елементи спољашњег
(лево), унутрашњег (у средини)
електромагнета и сферног
терминала
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5. Епилог
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Литература
1. Anderson, Leland, ed. Nikola Tesla on His Work With Alternating Currents
and Their Application to Wireless Telegraphy, Telephony, and Transmission
of Power. Denver: Sun Publishing, 1992.
2. Collins Frederick, Аrchi. “An Easily-Made High-Frequency Apparatus“.
Scientific American Supplement, 63, 1618 (1907): 25929.
293
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295
David Flores
Cabinet Electricalia, Canet de Mar, Bacelona, Spain
Zorica Civrić
Museum of Science and Technology, Belgrade
Jovan Cvetić
University of Belgrade, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Belgrade
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Д. Флорес, З. Циврић, Ј. Цветић, Уређај Моника Санчеза за генерисање х-зрака
encouraged Sánchez to close his company in the USA in 1912 and open a
factory Laboratorio Electrico Sánchez in 1913 in his hometown, where he
began the production of his device, as well as other devices according to
his own designs. Application of the portable device has spread beyond the
production of the X-ray generation device, including experimental uses in
physics and chemistry. During the World War I, it was used by the French
Army on the battlefields. Marie Curie played a key part in the equipping of
the medical vehicles with Sánchez’s portable devices and training of nurses
on the field.
Mónico Sánchez’s device is based on the principle of resonant oscillating
circuit discovered and revolutionized by Nikola Tesla in his high-frequency
transformer, which Sánchez perfected for the purpose of his device.
D’Arsonval and Oudin developed resonators based on the same principle, but
with a different disposition of elements adapted to the use in electrotherapy.
Sánchez’s device represents an essential modification of the Ruhmkorff coil
and by using the resonant oscillation principle and thanks to its technical
design, it gained very favourable characteristics for practical application—a
total mass of 10 kg, the size of a physician’s handbag, compact, easily
portable, stabile in operation, easy to use, relatively cheap, with known
elements laid out so that they comprise an innovative electric circuit with a
possibility of charging using both direct and alternating currents from 100 V
to 200 V, without the need for additional devices and a transformer during
charging. It could also be used for fluoroscopy and radiography, with single
or double connection to various types of tubes. Sánchez’s inventiveness can
also be seen in the advancement and production of an X-ray tube which,
unlike the Crookes tube, does not have an anode and does not require an
additional cooling tube because of the use of high-frequency currents, and
also includes a regenerator for maintaining the desired pressure in the tube.
For application in fluoroscopy, the device was accompanied by a fluoroscope
with a fluorescent screen. Sánchez’s device remained in use until the 1930s.
In the absence of literature with a description and details of the
manufacture of individual elements of the device, especially those located
in a closed part inaccessible to the observer, we decided to get to know
the device by making a replica of it. This included the construction of a box
to house all the elements; two electromagnets, an inner one with a single
winding on the core and an outer one with two separate windings on the
core, both with a soft iron core and with bifilar windings; primary circuit
breaker with regulator; capacitor and primary and secondary windings of
the resonant transformer in a block of rosin and beeswax as an insulator.
The replica was fully functional and successfully generated high-frequency
currents at high voltage.
The efforts were made to make the replica as close as possible to the
original look and method of making the Sánchez’s device. A certain degree
of difference was accepted, because on several preserved specimens it can
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претходно саопштење
UDC 7.016.4
Огњен Ш. Миљанић1
Универзитет у Хјустону, Хемијски факултет, Хјустон,
Сједињене Америчке Државе
Апстракт
Док нове технологије често омогућавају нове облике уметничког
изражавања, сама технологија је ретко предмет таквог израза. У
овом раду су представљени неке изузеци од овог општег тренда,
са фокусом на приказ различитих енергетских технологија у умет-
ности. Чини се да је угаљ најчешће обрађивана тема, вероватно
због његове дугогодишње повезаности са новим капиталистич-
ким и социјалистичким друштвима, индустријализацијом, напрет-
ком и радничким покретом. С обзиром да њихова експлоатација
и прерада захтевају мање напорног рада, друга фосилна горива
– нафта и природни гас – изазвала су много мање интересовања.
Нуклеарна енергија чини сопствену категорију, због своје пове-
заности са нуклеарним оружјем, и чест је мотив у литератури и
филмовима о катастрофама. Обновљива енергија је изазвала ре-
лативно мало интересовања, а хидроенергија је најзаступљенија у
различитим видовима уметности. Овај рад пружа прелиминаран
пресек приказа различитих извора енергије кроз различите обли-
ке уметничког изражавања.
Кључне речи: технологија, уметност, ликовна уметност, филм, музи-
ка, књижевност, енергетика, архитектура, плес
1. Увод
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2 Barry Lord, Art and Energy: How Culture Changes (American Alliance of
Museums, 2014).
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2. Музика
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3. Књижевност
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4. Филм
11–35.
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306
О. Ш. Миљанић, Енергетика као инспирација уметности
9 Tara Patel, “Guilty Love Is Backdrop in French Film on Nuclear Nomads’ Plight”,
Bloomberg News, преузето 13. октобра 2023, https://www.columbusceo.com/
story/business/2013/09/12/guilty-love-is-backdrop-in/22871313007.
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5. Ликовне уметности
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О. Ш. Миљанић, Енергетика као инспирација уметности
11 „National Coal Mining Museum for England”, Art UK, преузето 13. октобра
2023, https://artuk.org/discover/artworks/search/venue:national-coal-mining-mu-
seum-for-england-3478/page/4.
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Слика 3. Слика Ру�ар ра�и �о� земљом (Miner Working Underground), уље на
платну, 1964, британског сликара Филипа Тофта. Налази се у Националном
музеју угља у градићу Вејкфилд.
310
О. Ш. Миљанић, Енергетика као инспирација уметности
13 Joan Sullivan, “JMW Turner’s Energy Transition”, Artists & Climate Change,
преузето 30. октобра 2023, https://artistsandclimatechange.com/2021/02/25/
jmw-turners-energy-transition.
14 Joan Sullivan, “The Black Gold Tapestry”, Artists & Climate Change,
преузето 30. октобра 2023, https://artistsandclimatechange.com/2021/01/14/
the-black-gold-tapestry.
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О. Ш. Миљанић, Енергетика као инспирација уметности
6. Архитектура
15 Theo Jansen, “My creations, a new form of life”, TED: Ideas worth spreading,
преузето 13. октобра 2023, https://www.ted.com/talks/theo_jansen_my_
creations_a_new_form_of_life.
16 Занимљиво је да су Јансен и његове „животиње са плаже” гостовали у
једној епизоди Сим�сонових 2016. године, а да је сам Јансен позајмио глас
свом цртаном лику.
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7. Плес
Иако веза између енергетике и плеса има много мање него оних са
другим врстама уметности, оне ипак постоје. Почетком ове године,
британска плесна трупа Гери Кларк Ком�ани (Gary Clark Company) је
поставила модерни плес под називом У�аљ (Coal), којим се обележавају
годишњнице рударских штрајкова у Енглеској. У њујоршкој четврти
Бруклин, сваке године се одржава улични фестивал под називом
Ж’Увер (J’Ouvert), чији је врхунац плес који се зове џеб-џеб (jab-jab),
а током кога се стотине маскираних плесача мажу моторним уљем,
стављају рогове, и уз звуке бубњева, играју улицама Њујорка. Ова
традиција долази из карипских народа са острва Тринидад и Гренада,
где је џеб-џеб традиционална манифестација током прославе
карневала, а којом се слави ослобођење робова. Црно моторно уље
се користи да би се играчи потпуно офарбали у црно, а често се као
инструмент користе одбачена бурад за нафту.
Током јапанског Бон фестивала (Вon festival), који има историју
дугачку 600 година, традиционално се изводе народни плесови. Један
од њих прати песму Танко Буши (Tankō Bushi) која је први пут снимљена
1932. године, а посвећена је раду у рудницима угља на острву Кјушу.
Плес који прати ову песму ритмично имитира покрете рудара: копање
и гурање колица.
8. Закључак
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Литература
318
О. Ш. Миљанић, Енергетика као инспирација уметности
12. Sullivan, Joan. “The Black Gold Tapestry”. Artists & Climate Change.
Преузето 30. октобра 2023. https://artistsandclimatechange.
com/2021/01/14/the-black-gold-tapestry.
13. Вознесенский, Андрей Андреевич. „Оза”. Молодая гвардия, 10 (1964):
11–35.
319
Ognjen Š. Miljanić
University of Houston, Department of Chemistry, Houston, USA
320
стручни радови
стручни рад
UDC 351.853
Саша С. Срећковић1 502.131.1:37.014
Етнографски музеј, Београд
Апстракт
У раду се износе поједини важни акценти из извештаја са скупа
UNESCO-а Живо наслеђе у формалном и неформалном образо-
вању, одржаном у оквиру тренинга за тренере европског огранка
мреже глобалних фасилитатора у области нематеријалног кул-
турног наслеђа. Најпре се разматра концепт образовања у оквиру
одговарајућих међународних образовних и културних политика и
њихових циљева, као и вредносних одређења. Посебно се разма-
трају глобални образовни приоритети. За радионицу је коришћен
UNESCO-ов пакет одговарајућег наставног материјала за настав-
нике под називом Учење уз живо наслеђе, као кључни резултат
пројекта који је спроведен заједно с Европском унијом. Област
примене овог наслеђа у образовању промовише свеобухват-
не компетенције које се стичу током деловања, те их на основу
искуства UNESCO-а дефинише као вештине кључне за напредак
одрживог развоја. Специфичност овог приступа је у томе што се
не односи само на учење о живом наслеђу, већ и на методски при-
ступ учења са живим наслеђем. Учење о нематеријалном култур-
ном наслеђу и са њим омогућава: а) локални контекст, без обзира
на ниво достигнутог образовања, који је блискији ученицима од
неких других, апстрактнијих садржаја; б) могућност побољшања
1 sasasrec@gmail.com
2 Поводом радионице UNESCO-a намењене обуци тренера из мреже
европског огранка у области нематеријалног културног наслеђа, у органи
зацији Регионалног центра за очување нематеријалног културног наслеђа
Југоисточне Европе под окриљем UNESCO-a (Regional Centre for the
Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage in South-Eastern Europe under the
auspices of UNESCO), Софија, Бугарска, 17–19. октобар 2022. године.
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С. С. Срећковић, Нематеријално културно наслеђе и образовање
4 „Teaching and learning with living heritage: a resource kit for teachers; based
on the lessons learnt from a joint UNESCO-EU pilot project”, UNESDOC, преузето
23. октобра 2023, https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000381477.
327
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С. С. Срећковић, Нематеријално културно наслеђе и образовање
Литература
1. ETHICS AND UNIVERSAL VALUES — Knowledge tools for academics and pro-
fessionals. Module 2: Ethics and Universal Values. Vienna: United Nations
Office on Drugs and Crime, n.d.
2. Kinnier, Richard, Jerry Kernes and Therese Dautheribes, “A Short List of
Universal Moral Values”. Counseling and Values, 45, 1 (2000). doi:10.1002/
j.2161-007X.2000.tb00178.x.
3. „Teaching and learning with living heritage: a resource kit for teach-
ers; based on the lessons learnt from a joint UNESCO-EU pilot project”.
UNESDOC. Преузето 23. октобар 2023. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/
ark:/48223/pf0000381477.
329
Saša S. Srećković
Ethnographic Museum, Belgrade
This article presents certain important points of the Report from the
UNESCO meeting-workshop Living Heritage in Formal and Non-Formal
Education, held as part of the training of trainers for the European branch of
the network of global facilitators in intangible cultural heritage, in October
2022 in Sofia, Bulgaria. It first examines the concept of education within the
appropriate international educational and cultural policies and their goals,
as well as valuations (especially developed within UNESCO, such as the
Convention on Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage from 2003),
while honouring the principles of respect and international cooperation, as
well as cultural diversity, cultural democracy, etc. It also considers the global
educational priorities, such as education for global community (civil society),
and education for sustainable development. The goals of the sustainable
development are defined within the framework of the so-called 2030 Agenda
for Sustainable Development. The workshop used UNESCO’s resource kit for
teachers titled Teaching and Learning with Living Heritage, as the key result of
a project implemented together with the European Union (created in 2021).
The area of application of this heritage in education promotes comprehensive
competencies gained through action, and based on the experience, UNESCO
defines them as key skills for the advancement of sustainable development.
The specificity of this approach is that it relates not only to learning about
living heritage, but also to the methodical approach of learning with the living
heritage. In learning about living heritage, the focus is on introducing the
intangible cultural heritage as a separate subject. In learning with the living
heritage, the focus is on using elements of the living heritage as a learning
possibility integrated within the existing subjects in school. Learning about/
with living heritage enables: a) local context, regardless of the achieved level
of knowledge; b) opportunity to improve intergenerational communication
using recognisable local contents; c) development of interdisciplinary and
intersectoral approach in schools; d) inclusion.
Keywords: intangible cultural heritage, living heritage, education,
UNESCO, sustainable development
330
стручни рад
UDC 674:330.526.34(497.11)
Ненад М. Лукић1
Музеј науке и технике, Београд
Апстракт
Дрвна индустрија је била једна од значајних привредних грана
крајем 19. и у првој половини 20. века. Што се Београда и околине
тиче, радило је само неколико парних и електричних стругара и
стога је циљ овог рада да се с аспекта историје индустријског на-
слеђа Београда и Србије осветли и прикаже једна мање позната
парна стругара, која је у радовима који се баве историјом инду-
стрије Београда, готово по правилу, била изостављана. Методо-
лошки, рад је написан на основу података који су највећим делом
преузети из примарних извора, превасходно сачуване архивске
грађе, затим релевантне литературе, а неки подаци су добијени
и теренским радом у Остружници. Рад је омеђен 1948. годином
када је стругара из приватних прешла у државне руке, након чега
јој се убрзо мења и основна делатност.
Кључне речи: дрвна индустрија, парне стругаре, Остружница, Ласово,
Михаило Миљковић, Тароли�
1. Увод
1 nenad.lukic@muzejnt.rs
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Н. М. Лукић, Oснивање и рад парне стругаре Oс�ружница
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Н. М. Лукић, Oснивање и рад парне стругаре Oс�ружница
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Н. М. Лукић, Oснивање и рад парне стругаре Oс�ружница
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Н. М. Лукић, Oснивање и рад парне стругаре Oс�ружница
5. Михаило Миљковић
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Слика 3.
Михаило Миљковић
340
Н. М. Лукић, Oснивање и рад парне стругаре Oс�ружница
Извори
Литература
341
Nenad M. Lukić
Museum of Science and Technology, Belgrade
Forest felling and wood processing were among the most important
economic and industrial branches in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. As far as
Belgrade is concerned, only a few sawmills worked there during this period,
one of which was Mihailo Miljković’s steam sawmill in Ostružnica. The saw-
mill had a decent capacity. It was commissioned in 1939 and it operated suc-
cessfully until the beginning of the World War II. It was not one of the larger
sawmills on the territory of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, but it was of excep-
tional local importance and character. During and after the end of the war, it
operated solidly and it retained an unchanged ownership format until 1948,
when it became a state property. During the later period, it changed several
names, and finally its business activity was changed as well. Today, in its place
is the joint-stock company Tarolit, in bankruptcy. One auxiliary building and a
transformer station, in their original condition, are all that remains from the
old sawmill. Beside the sawmill, all other property of Mihailo Miljković, the
owner of the sawmill, in Belgrade was nationalized and confiscated, which
is why he and his wife returned to live in his native Lasovo, where he died in
1952.
Keywords: timber industry, steam sawmills, Ostružnica, Lasovo, Mihailo
Miljković, Tarolit
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Милан Попадић1
Универзитет у Београду, Филозофски факултет, Београд
Никола Крстовић
Деве� живо�а кус�оса: о� музеоло�ије
�о музео�рафије
Београд, Центар за музеологију и херитологију, 2022.
и
Милица Божић Маројевић
Ме�о� као �ре�ме� или �ре�ме� као ме�о�:
�оучавање (о) уме�нос�и у осам корака
Београд, Центар за музеологију и херитологију, 2022.
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***
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Драган Булатовић1
Универзитет у Београду, Филозофски факултет, Београд
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Стеван Јокић1
Универзитет у Београду, Институт за нуклеарне науке Винча, Винча
1
sjokic@vin.bg.ac.rs
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Александра Илијевски1
Универзитет у Београду, Филозофски факултет, Београд
Саша Михајлов
Архи�ек�онско с�варалаш�во Јосифа Најмана
Београд, Завод за заштиту споменика културе града
Београда и Институт за савремену историју, 2022.
1
ailijevs@f.bg.ac.rs
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Виктор Давид Азриел, Леон Талви, Јован Коен, Јосиф Најман, Миша
Манојловић, Исак Азриел, Јосиф Албала, Милан Шланг и Алфред
Меламед потицали из београдских породица.
Средишња и најобимнија трећа целина монографије, С�вара
лаш�во, подељена је на више поглавља и потпоглавља. Започиње
освртом на уметничко формирање архитекте Најмана, где ауторка
ставља акценат на средњоевропски и француски културни утицај.
Наиме, осим Београда, града у коме се родио и школовао, Најман
је боравио и у Бечу где су живели чланови његове шире породице.
Осим тога, у Паризу се усавршавао и стекао радно искуство. Ауторка
приказује ток Најмановог школовања указујући на наставне програ-
ме и утицај његових професора. У поглављу о професионалној акти
вности Јосифа Најмана у трећој деценији 20. века наглашава да је она
започела управо у Француској, у архитектонском бироу Националне
банке Француске, где је у тиму архитекте Алфонса Дефраса (Alphonse
Defrasse) специјализирао пројектовање емисионих установа. У пери-
оду 1923–1927. године извео је и два значајна спомен-обележја стра-
далима у Првом светском рату на француским војничким гробљима у
Скопљу и Битољу (данас Северна Македонија).
На првом урбанистичко-архитектонском конкурсу у Београду
Најман је учествовао 1924. године. На конкурсу за уређење Точидера
и Кошутњака (шифра Ad honores) је у тиму са колегама из Школе
лепих уметности Богданом Несторовићем и Гастоном Петитоом
(Gaston Petitot) освојио трећу награду. Конкурсно решење је исте го-
дине било изложено у оквиру селекције архитеката Краљевине СХС
на Међународној изложби индустријских и декоративних уметности
у Паризу. Најман и Несторовић су на конкурсу за израду фасаде па-
лате Министарства финансија у Београду расписаном 1925. године
такође добили трећу награду.
Ауторка нарочито издваја Најманово ангажовање у служби
Народне банке Краљевине СХС/Југославије и изградњу Завода за изра-
ду новчаница (1927–1929) у Београду, дело којим се афирмисао у бео-
градским стручним круговима. Најман је био аутор урбанистичког ре-
шења, пројектант фабрике и пратећих објеката, а машински инжењер
Миливоје Обрадовић технологије и машинских постројења. Трговачка
академија (1928–1929), Задужбина браће Николе и Васе Радојковића
у Цетињској 5–7, једини је објекат просветне намене који је извео то-
ком своје каријере. Задужбина Николе Спасића (1929–1930) у Кнез
Михаиловој 47 убраја се у значајне примере архитектуре француског
академизма у Србији. За подизање монументалне палате Француског
посланства (зидана 1929–1933. године, отворена 1935. године) у
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Драгољуб А. Цуцић1
Регионални центар за таленте Михајло Пу�ин, Панчево
Дренка Добросављевић
Никола Тесла (1856–1943)
Нови Сад, Прометеј, 2022.
1
dragoljub.cucic@rctpupin.edu.rs
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Ана М. Радованац Живанов1
Републички завод за заштиту споменика културе, Београд
1
ana.zivanov@heritage.gov.rs
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младих, што ствара плодно тло за будућу небригу. Градска власт дала
је недавно „допринос” меморијалима подаривши граду споменик
Стефану Немањи – скаредан, горостасан објекат непримерен окру-
жењу, баналне недоречене иконографије, који намеће дилему како
ће бити вреднован у будућности, како тумачен, да ли ће и на који на-
чин допринети граду и његовим житељима. Јавно памћење је варљи-
во, а валоризација историјских личности и догађаја је сложен посао,
често са неусклађеним закључцима.
Милица Божић Маројевић анализира случај Старог сајмишта, ре-
чима обојеним уздржаном емоцијом. Место на коме је извршен зло-
чин који је Србији донео неславну квалификацију прве територије под
нацистичком окупацијом која је „очишћена од Јевреја”, није препо-
знато као достојно да постане достојанствено место сећања. Како
су године пролазиле, након завршетка рата, Сајмиште доживљава
судбину кројену политичким мотивима – ту се смештају припадници
омладинских радних акција, уметници, грађани са нерешеним стам-
беним питањем. Памћење и сећање победника на Други светски рат
дају примат обележавању партизанског отпора, запостављајући ме-
ста страдања цивила. Старо сајмиште данас нема историју – нежеље-
на историја се брише, замагљује, прекројава и немилосрдно вређа
жртве. Данас је Старо сајмиште простор који својом запуштеношћу
вређа и осећај Београђана за правду. Ауторка иницира размишљање
о визији како наслеђе претворити у баштину која би припадала сви-
ма нама, жељена или нежељена, неоптерећена дневном политиком
и наметањем сопствене идеологије било које власти, као заједничка
прошлост коју ће чувати заједничка култура сећања, у којој своје ме-
сто треба, мора да нађе пијетет исказан онако како доликује према
онима који то не могу да траже.
У раду Музеји и „о��овори” на кризе: моћ слика – слике немоћи др
Никола Крстовић окреће се практичнијим, музеалним темама. Музеји
су битан део културног миљеа сваког већег града и духовна потре-
ба човека који као мислеће биће одвајкада показује жељу за знањем,
радозналост за новине и изражену тежњу да се упозна с временом
које је прошло. Откако су установљени први приватни музеји, шаре-
нолики музејски процвати су регистровани у различитим временима
и у различитим деловима света. Упоредо са интересовањима људи
расте и потреба за музејима, разматра се и развија филозофија њи-
ховог пословања, музејске установе формирају се у складу са својим
садржајима – једном речју, музејска сцена се константно усложња-
ва. Различити теоријски приступи – кроз музеологију, херитологију,
културу сећања – формирају сферу интересовања за рад музеја и
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Драгомир Бонџић1
Институт за савремену историју, Београд
1
dragomirbondzic@yahoo.com
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Јелена Јовановић Симић1
Музеј науке и технике, Београд
Драгомир Бонџић
Више о� века: Заво� за з�равс�вену заш�и�у с�у�ена�а
Београд, Завод за здравствену заштиту студената, 2023.
1
jelena.simic@muzejnt.rs
2
Ковиљка Лалић, „Развој здравствене заштите студената”, З�равс�ве-
на заш�и�а, 2 (1998): 33–35.
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музеј науке и технике – београд
Флогистон часопис за историју и филозофију
науке и технологије
Упутство за ауторе
http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/16/ch01/ch01_toc.html
3 CEON, Radni dokumenti ERD 19-01/03-11
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IV ПРИКАЗИ
V ПОСЕБНЕ ВРСТЕ ПРИЛОГА
I НАУЧНИ ЧЛАНЦИ
1. ори�иналан научни ра� (рад у коме се износе необјављивани резулта-
ти сопствених истраживања научним методом);
2. �ре�ле�ни ра� (рад који садржи оригиналан, детаљан и критички при-
каз истраживачког проблема или подручја у коме је аутор остварио од-
ређени допринос, видљив на основу аутоцитата);
3. кра�ко или �ре�хо�но сао�ш�ење (оригиналан научни рад пуног
формата, али мањег обима или прелиминарног карактера);
4. сао�ш�ење (претходно поднето на научном скупу, ако није и објавље-
но);
5. научна кри�ика, о�носно �олемика (расправа о одређеној научној теми
заснована искључиво на научној аргументацији) и осврти.
Изузетно, у неким областима, научни рад у часопису може имати об-
лик монографске студије, као и критичког издања научне грађе (исто-
ријско-архивске, лексикографске, библиографске, прегледа података и
сл.) – дотад непознате или недовољно приступачне за научна истражи-
вања.
II СТРУЧНИ ЧЛАНЦИ
– прилози у којима се излажу искуства корисна за унапређење професио-
налне праксе, али која нису нужно заснована на научном методу (искуства
из праксе, баштина, казуистика, студије случаја и сл.);
III ИНФОРМАТИВНИ ПРИЛОЗИ
– осврти, коментари, полемике, критике, уводници и сл. (ако су научног ка-
рактера);
IV ПРИКАЗИ
– прикази књига (само под условом да имају аутора), монографија или збор-
ника радова научних скупова, случаја, научног догађаја и сл.
V ПОСЕБНЕ ВРСТЕ ПРИЛОГА
– посебне врсте прилога карактеристичне за поједине дисциплине, нпр.
историјски прикази, хронике и хронологије, коментари закона и других нор-
мативних аката (уредаба, декларација, резолуција и сл.).
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VI КЉУЧНЕ РЕЧИ
Кључне речи треба да буду учестали термини или фразе који најбоље упућују
на садржај рада, а омогућавају лако индексирање и претраживање. Треба
их додељивати у складу с неким најшире прихваћеним међународним из-
вором (попис, речник или тезаурус; на пример: листа кључних речи Web of
Science). Број кључних речи не треба да буде већи од 10. Стоје непосредно
након апстракта.
VII ОСНОВНИ ТЕКСТ
– Рад доставити у електронској форми, у Microsoft Wordu у формату А4.
– Рад куцати ћирилицом, у фонту Times New Roman или Arial (величина
фонта: 12 pts).
– Не користити табулатор на почетку пасуса.
– Не користити више од једног спејса између речи.
– Радови не би требало да прелазе 60.000 карактера са проредом, у форма-
ту А4 укључујући напомене и илустративни део.
– Страна имена и називи у основном тексту пишу се у транскрипцији, са
изворним обликом у загради када се помињу први пут. Такође, при првом
навођењу мање познатих скраћеница у загради треба навести и њихов
пун назив у оригиналу.
VIII ТАБЕЛАРНИ И ГРАФИЧКИ ПРИЛОЗИ
– Графички прилози се достављају у посебном директоријуму и не треба да
буду у саставу основног текста (Word верзије рада).
– Илустрације треба да буду у TIFF, PSD или JPG формату и обележене ред-
ним бројевима које носе у тексту.
– Резолуција за илустрације износи 300 dpi (могу имати и резолуцију 72
dpi, али онда морају бити великих димензија – нпр. 80 цм и више).
– Потписи за илустрације могу се дати као посебан фајл или на крају текста.
ТАБЕЛЕ
– Табела не треба да буде шира од 12 цм.
– Фонт може да буде мањи од основног текста (12 pts), али не мањи од 9
pts.
Уређивачки одбор задржава право да графичке прилоге који не
задовољавају техничке стандарде часописа не уврсти у коначан рад.
IX ЛИТЕРАТУРА (листа референци)
Цитирана литература обухвата, по правилу, библиографске изворе (члан-
ке, монографије и сл.) који су коришћени приликом писања рада и даје се
искључиво у засебном одељку чланка, у виду листе референци. Референце
се наводе на доследан начин, по азбучном односно абецедном (уколико
је текст на страном језику) редоследу иницијала презимена аутора или по-
четног слова у називу и дела уколико аутор или уредник нису назначени.
Литература се не преводи на језик рада, већ се исписује на језику и писму
на коме је објављена.
X РЕЗИМЕ
Резиме треба да садржи исто што и апстракт, али у проширеном обиму који
не би смео да прелази 1/10 обима текста. Резиме се даје на крају чланка,
након одељка Литература.
ОЗНАКА ПРОЈЕКТА (ЗАХВАЛНИЦА)
Назив и број (код) пројекта, односно назив програма у оквиру кога је чланак
настао, као и назив институције која је финансирала пројекат или програм
398
Упутство за ауторе
http://www.chicagomanualofstyle. org/tools_citationguide.html
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НАВОЂЕЊЕ ИЗВОРА
Саставни делови библиографских јединица (ауторска имена, наслов рада,
извор итд.) наводе се у складу са усвојеном формом навођења. У примери-
ма који следе наведене су најчешће цитиране врсте референци. Неопходно
је обратити пажњу на то да се библиографска одредница истог дела разли-
кује у зависности од тога да ли се налази у оквиру фусноте или у списку лите-
ратуре на крају текста. Испред сваке одреднице треба да стоји редни број.
I КЊИГЕ
1 ауор:
напомена или фуснота
Име и презиме аутора, Наслов књи�е (Место издања: Издавач, година),
страна.6
Пример: Павле Миленковић, Школа Анала, о�ле�и о социолошкој ис�о-
рио�рафији (Нови Сад: Stylos, 2004), 25.
литература
Презиме, име аутора. Наслов књи�е. Место издања: Издавач, година.
Пример: Миленковић, Павле. Школа Анала, о�ле�и о социолошкој ис�о-
рио�рафији. Нови Сад: Stylos, 2004.
Ако аутор има иницијал, он се у фусноти наводи између имена и прези-
мена, а у литератури иза имена (уколико је први наведени аутор, а ако то
није, онда као и у фусноти).
2 ауора:
напомена или фуснота
Име и презиме и име и презиме аутора, Наслов књи�е (Место издања:
Издавач, година), страна.
Пример: Geoffrey C. Ward and Ken Burns, The War: An Intimate History,
1941–1945 (New York: Knopf, 2007), 52.
литература
Презиме, име и име и презиме аутора. Наслов књи�е. Место издања:
Издавач, година.7
Пример: Ward, Geoffrey C. and Ken Burns. The War: An Intimate History,
1941–1945. New York: Knopf, 2007.
4 или више ауора:
напомена или фуснота
Име и презиме аутора и др.,8 Наслов књи�е (Место издања: Издавач, го-
дина), страна.
литература
Презиме, име, име и презиме, име и презиме, име и презиме и име и
презиме аутора. Наслов књи�е. Место издања: Издавач, година.
Примарна ооворнос уреника, ревоиоца или риређивача, каа
није навеен ауор:
напомена или фуснота
Име и презиме, ур., гл. и одг. ур., прев., прир., Наслов књи�е (Место из-
дања: Издавач, година), страна.
литература
Презиме, име, ур., гл. и одг. ур., прев., прир. Наслов књи�е. Место издања:
Издавач, година.
6 или стране, ако се наводи већи део текста.
7 Код три аутора додаје се и треће име и презиме, а прво и друго се одвајају
зарезом.
8 За књиге штампане на страном језику користи се у наставку скраћеница et al.
400
Упутство за ауторе
9 Уколико има више лица која носе секундарну одговорност, наводе се сва.
10 Уколико је приређено издање збирка или зборник, обавезно се наводи
уредник или приређивач.
11Уколико је том оригинално издат негде другде, додаје се и: Оригинално
објављено у Име, презиме, ур., Наслов, �ом (Место издања: Издавач, година).
401
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402
Упутство за ауторе
литература
Презиме, име аутора. „Наслов текста“. Наслов новина, датум, рубрика.
Приказ или рецензија књие у часоису:
напомена или фуснота
Име и презиме, „Наслов текста“, приказ Наслов књи�е, Име и презиме
аутора, Наслов часо�иса, датум, година, страна.
литература
Презиме, име. „Наслов текста“. Приказ Наслов књи�е, Име и презиме ау-
тора. Наслов часо�иса, датум, година.
Текс у on-line часоису:
напомена или фуснота
Име и презиме аутора,15 „Наслов текста“, Наслов часо�иса број, свеска
(година): страна, преузето датум, http://adresa.
литература
Презиме, име аутора. „Наслов текста“. Наслов часо�иса број, свеска (го-
дина): стране. Преузето датум. http://adresa.
Маисарска еза или окорска исерација:
напомена или фуснота
Име и презиме аутора, „Наслов тезе или дисертације“ (магистарска теза
или докторска дис., Назив факултета, година), страна.
литература
Презиме, име аутора. „Наслов тезе или дисертације“. Магистарска теза
или докторска дис., Назив факултета, година.
Ра изложен на научном, сручном скуу или конференцији:
напомена или фуснота
Име и презиме, „Наслов рада“ (рад представљен на Назив скупа или кон-
ференције, Град, Држава, датум одржавања, година).
литература
Презиме, име аутора. „Наслов рада“. Рад представљен на, Назив скупа или
конференције, Град, Држава, датум одржавања, година.
III МУЛТИМЕДИЈАЛНА ДОКУМЕНТА
Музичка комозиција или ариура:
напомена или фуснота
Име и презиме аутора, „Наслов композиције“, у Наслов �убликације, ур.
Име и презиме, страна (Место издања: Издавач, година).
литература
Презиме, име аутора. „Наслов композиције“. У Наслов �убликације, уред-
ник Име и презиме, страна. Место издања: Издавач, година.
Звучни заис:
напомена или фуснота
Име и презиме аутора, Наслов за�иса, продуцентска кућа – медиј.
литература
Презиме, име аутора. Наслов за�иса. Име продуцентске куће, издавача
– медиј.
По CMS-у, звучни записи се наводе под именом композитора, писца или
друге особе задужене за садржај. Име извођача се може додати после
дан аутор. Међутим, ако постоји више аутора, поступак је исти као што је
објашњено у примерима за опис књига са два или четири аутора.
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16
„Documentary Note or Humanities Style“, Тhe Chicago Manual of Style. http://
www.chicagomanualofstyle. org/index.html
17 Ibid.
18 Ibid.
19 Изузетак представљају електронски часописи који имају све неопходне по-
404
Упутство за ауторе
Или:
напомена или фуснота
Име и презиме аутора, Наслов �ела, издање Име и презиме уредника или
издавача, у Име базе података, преузето датум, http://adresa.
литература
Име базе података. Преузето датум. http://adresa.
Бло (blog) заис или коменар:
напомена или фуснота
Име и презиме, датум слања коментара (време), коментар на Име и пре-
зиме, „Наслов текста“, Име бло�а датум, година, преузето датум преузи-
мања, http://adresa.
литература
Име бло�а. http://adresa.
Е-mail орука:
напомена или фуснота
Име и презиме, е-mail порука аутору, датум.
литература
Ове поруке се готово никада не наводе у библиографији или литератури.
Додатне напомене:
– Након првог навођења, једна иста одредница се у наредним фуснотама
може свести на презиме аутора, део наслова и број стране.
– Ако је фуснота идентична претходној, користи се скраћеница ,,Ibid.“
Уколико је разлика само у броју стране, наводи се ,,Ibid., број стране.“
Скраћенице ,,нав. дело“ и ,,н. д.“ се не користе.
– Фусноте које се састоје од неколико извора који доказују једну чињеницу
требало би одвајати знаком тачка са запетом.
– Вишеструки наводи једне фусноте требало би да упућују на претходну
фусноту (нпр.: Види фусноту број... изнад).
– Када се ради о анонимном делу, фуснота и библиографска јединица по-
чињу насловом рада.
– а директно цитирање извора без броја страна, требало би користити на-
зив поглавља, број пасуса, или неку другу организациону поделу рада.
405
Museum of Science and Technology – Belgrade
Phlogiston Journal for History and Philosophy
of Science and Technology
407
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408
Instructions for Authors
409
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VI KEY WORDS
Keywords should be common terms or phrases that best indicate the content
of the work, and allow easy indexing and search. They should be awarded in ac-
cordance with a widely accepted international sources (list, dictionary or thesau-
rus, for example: the list of keywords Web of Science). The number of keywords
should not be higher than 10. Keywords are placed immediately after the ab-
stract.
VII BODY TEXT
- The paper should be submitted in electronic form, in Microsoft Word in A4
format.
- The paper should be typed in Times New Roman or Arial (font size: 12 pts.).
- Do not use the tab at the beginning of the paragraph.
- Do not use more than one space between words.
- Papers should not exceed 60.000 characters with spaces, in A4 format, in-
cluding notes and illustrative part.
- Foreign names and titles in the body text are written in transcription, the
original form in parenthesis when first mentioned. Moreover, when less
known abbreviations are used for the first time their full name in the original
should be specified in the parenthesis.
VIII TABLES AND CHARTS
- Graphic images are delivered in a separate directory and should not be in-
cluded in the body text (Word version of the work).
- Illustrations should be in TIFF, PSD or JPG format and marked with numbers
used in the text.
- Resolution for illustrations should be 300 dpi (they may have resolution 72
dpi but with great dimensions – e.g. 80 cm or more).
- Signatures for illustrations may be given as a separate file or at the end of
the text.
TABLES
- Table should not be wider than 12 cm.
- Font cannot be smaller than the body text (12 pts.), but not smaller than 9
pts.
The Editorial Board reserves the right not to include the illustrations that do not
meet the technical standards of the journal in the final work.
IX REFERENCES (Reference list)
References include, as a rule, bibliographic sources (articles, monographs, etc.),
which were used during writing and it is exclusively given in a separate section
of the article, in the form of a reference list. References are cited in a consistent
way, in alphabetical order based on the initial of the author’s surname or the
first letter in the name of the work unless an author or editor are not indicated.
References are not translated into the language of the paper, but it is written in
the language in which it was published.
X SUMMARY
Summary should contain the same as an abstract, but in the extended scope
which should not exceed 1/10 of the text volume. Summary is given at the end of
the article, after the section References.
PROJECT CODE (ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS)
The name and number (code) of the project and/or program name under which
the article originated, as well as the name of the institution that funded the
410
Instructions for Authors
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LISTING SOURCES
Main components of bibliographic units (copyright name, title, source, etc.) shall
be specified in accordance with the adopted form of reference. In the examples
that follow, the common types of reference are specified. It is necessary to pay at-
tention to the fact that the bibliographic units of the same work differ depending
on whether it is located within the footnotes or in the reference list at the end of
the text. There should be a serial number in front of each reference.
I BOOKS
1 author:
Note or footnote
Author’s name and surname, Book title (Place of publication: Publisher, year),
page.25
Example: Pavle Milenković, Škola Anala, ogledi o sociološkoj istoriografiji
(Novi Sad: Stylos, 2004), 25.
Reference
Surname, name of the author. Book title Place of publication: Publisher, year.
Example: Milenković, Pavle. Škola Anala, ogledi o sociološkoj istoriografiji
(Novi Sad: Stylos, 2004).
If the author has an initial, it is stated between the first name and surname in the
footnote, and after the name in the references (if the first listed author, and if it
is not, then, as in a footnote).
2 authors:
Note or footnote
Author’s name and surname, Book title (Place of publication: Publisher, year),
page.
Example: Geoffrey C. Ward and Ken Burns, The War: An Intimate History,
1941–1945 (New York: Knopf, 2007), 52.
Reference
Surname, name of the author. Book title Place of publication: Publisher,
year.26
Example: Ward, Geoffrey C. and Ken Burns. The War: An Intimate History,
1941–1945. New York: Knopf, 2007.
4 or more authors:
Note or footnote
Author’s name and surname,27 Book title (Place of publication: Publisher,
year), page.
Reference
Surname, name, name and surname, name and surname, name and sur-
name and name and surname of the author. Book title Place of publication:
Publisher, year.
The primary responsibility of the editor, translator or publisher, when the au-
thor is not specified:
Note or footnote
Name and surname, editor, editor in chief, translator, publisher, Book title
(Place of publication: Publisher, year), page.
412
Instructions for Authors
References
Surname, name, editor, editor in chief, translator, publisher, Book title (Place
of publication: Publisher, year), page.
Authorised books accompanied by the editorćs name or secondary responsibil-
ity (editor, translator or publisher with the author):
Note or footnote
Name and surname of the author, Book title, editor, editor in chief, translator,
publisher. Name and surname (Place of publication: Publisher, year), page.
Reference
Surname, name of the author. Book title. Editor, editor in chief, translated
by, published by Name and surname.28 Place of publication: Publisher, year.
Chapter or other part of the book - articles from the collection of works:
Note or footnote
Name and surname of the author, “Chapter Title““ , in Book title, editor.29
Name and surname (Place of publication: Publisher, year), page.
Example: John D. Kelly, “Seeing Red: Mao Fetishism, Pax Americana, and the
Moral Economy of War”, in Anthropology and Global Counterinsurgency, ed.
John D. Kelly et al. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2010), 77.
Example: Marko Žilović, „Zašto nisam postao inženjer?“, u Zbornik Beogradske
otvorеne škole. Radovi studenata 2006/2007 (Beograd: BOŠ, 2008), 175.
References
Surname, name of the author, “Chapter Title““ , in Book title, editor. Name
and surname, page. Place of publication: Publisher, year.
Example: Kelly, John D. “Seeing Red: Mao Fetishism, Pax Americana, and the
Moral Economy of War”. In Anthropology and Global Counterinsurgency, ed-
ited by John D. Kelly, Beatrice Jauregui, Sean T. Mitchell and Jeremy Walton,
67–83. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2010.
Example: Žilović, Marko. „Zašto nisam postao inženjer?“. U Zbornik Beogradske
otvorene škole. Radovi studenata 2006/2007, 171–187. Beograd: BOŠ, 2008.
Chapter of the prepared volume of a book originally published elsewhere (as
in the primary source):
Note or footnote
Name and surname of the author, “Chapter Title““ , in Book title, editor.
Name and surname, volume of Book title, editor Name and surname (Place
of publication: Publisher, year), page.
References
Surname, name of the author, “Chapter Title“. In Book title, editor Name and
surname. Volume of Book title, editor Name and surname, page. Place of
publication: Publisher, year.30
Preface, foreword, afterword, or a similar part of the book:
Note or footnote
Name and surname, preface, foreword, afterword in Book title, Name and
surname of the author (Place of publication: Publisher, year), page.
28 In case of more than one person bearing the secondary responsibility, all of
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References
Surname, name. Preface, foreword, afterword in Book title, Name and sur-
name of the author, page. Place of publication: Publisher, year.
Electornic publication of a book:
If a book is available in a number of formats, the version used in the work
should be mentioned.
Note or footnote
Name and surname of the author, Book title (Place of publication: Publisher,
year) downloaded date, http://address.
References:
Surname, name of the author. Book title (Place of publication: Publisher,
year) downloaded date, http://address.
II PERIODICALS
Paper in a journal in the printed form (one author):
Note or footnote
Name and surname of the author, “Text title“, Journal title, number, volume
(year): page.31
Example: Dalibor Denda, „Vojni faktor i izgradnja fabrike automobila u
Kraljevini Jugoslaviji“, Tokovi istorije 3-4 (2008): 10.
References
Surname, name. “Text title“. Journal title, number, volume (year): page.32
Example: Denda, Dalibor. „Vojni faktor i izgradnja fabrike automobila u
Kraljevini Jugoslaviji“. Tokovi istorije 3-4 (2008): 9-27.
Paper in a journal in the printed form (moree author):
Note or footnote
Name, surname and name and surname, “Text title“, Journal title, number,
volume (year): page.
References
Name, surname and name and surname, “Text title“, Journal title, number,
volume (year): page.
Article in a popular magazine:
Note or footnote
Name and surname of the author, “Text title“, Journal title, date of publica-
tion, page.
References
Surname, name of the author. “Text title“. Journal title, date of publication.
Newspaper article:
Note or footnote
Name and surname of the author, “Text title“, Newspaper title, column, date.
Newspaper can have several edition or special editions for specific geograph-
ic areas (such as, for example, Belgrade edition of Politika, Blic for Vojvodina,
etc.), thus the units may be repositioned or deleted in various editions.
Therefore it is recommended to skip the number of pages (in accordance
with CMS).33
Newspapers are usually specified in footnotes and notes, but not in the refer-
ences (in accordance with CMS).
414
Instructions for Authors
34 For easier reference models, in some cases, only one author is listed. However,
if there are several authors, the procedure is the same as described in the
examples in the book description with two or four authors.
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According to CMS, sound recordings are specified under the name of the
composer, writer or other person in charge of the contents. Name of the per-
former may be added after the title. Production house and recording number
are usually sufficient to identify the recording.35
Video recording:
Note or footnote
Film title, media, director Name and surname (Place of publication: Publisher,
year).
References
Film title. Director Name and surname. Place of publication: Publisher, year.
Media.
According to CMS, data for video recordings are usually similiar to book re-
cordings, with addition of data on media type. Scenes individually available
on DVD, may be treated as chapters and referred to according to title or num-
ber. Documents which may occassionaly appear, such as critical commentary,
e.g. quoted according to the author and title.36
Listing unpublished works Interview:
Note or footnote
Name and surname of the author, Author’s interview, Place, date, year.
References
Surname, name of the author. Author’s interview. Place, date, year.
In accordance with CMS recommednations, interviews should be quoted in
footnote, and ocasionaly quoted in references.37
Documents of executive state authorities:
Note or footnote
Name of the ministry, Text title, Name and surname of the author (Place of
publication: Publisher, year), downloaded date, http://address.
References
Name of the ministry. Text title. Name and surname of the author. Place of
publication: Publisher, year. Downloaded date. http://address.
Web site:
Hereinafter the precise referencing model is presented, since we know from
experience that the sources from the Internet often do not have the neces-
sary referencing data.38 Generally there are no authors of texts, or even titles,
and it is unclear to whom the site belongs. If these elements exist, they are
referred to as articles from the magazine, with the addition of address. If
there are no referencing elements, only address and donwloading date are
specified. If there are some data, they are listed as follows:
Note or footnote
Name of organization, “Text title“, Name of the website owner, downloaded
date, http://address.
References
Name of organization. “Text title“, Name of the website owner, downloaded
date, http://address.
416
Instructions for Authors
Or:
Note or footnote
Name and surname of the author, Paper title, edition Name and surname of
the editor or publisher, in Name of the database, downloaded date, http://
address.
References
Name of database. Downloaded date. http://address.
Blog recording or comments:
Note or footnote
Name and surname, date of comments posting (time), comments on Name
and surname, “Text title“, Blog title date, year, dowloaded date, http://ad-
dress.
References
Blog title. http://address.
E-mail message:
Note or footnote
Name and surname, e-mail message to the author, date.
References
These messages are always never mentioned in bibliography or references.
Additional notes:
- After the first mentioning, the same reference in subsequent footnotes may
be reduced to the author’s surname, part of the title and page number.
- If a footnote is identical to the previous, the abbreviation Ibid. is used. If the
difference is just in the page number, Ibid. and page number. Abbreviation
“above mentioned“ work is note used.
- Footnotes including several sources which prove one fact should be divided
by a comma.
- Multiple references of a single footnote should refer to a previous footnote
(e.g. Look the footnote number...above).
- In case of an anonimous work, footnote and bibliographic unit begin with
the work title.
- For direct source referencing without page numbers, chapter title, para-
graph number or other organizational part should be used.
417
CIP - Каталогизација у публикацији
Народна библиотека Србије, Београд
001
COBISS.SR-ID 102451463
ISSN 0354-6640
9 770354 664005
issn 0354-6640
9 770354 664005