Energy Conversion

ESE 551

Lecture 3:
Practical Transformers

Prepared by:
Dr. Mostafa Gamal
 Prepared by: Dr. Mostafa Gamal

Outline Learning Outcomes

1 Practical Transformer (PT) definition
Differentiate between Ideal & PT
2 PT equivalent circuit
Analyse the PT’s equivalent circuit
3 PT rating
Investigate the two tests applied to compute
4 PT testing
out the PT’s basic parameters

5 PT efficiency
Evaluate the PT’s efficiency at all conditions

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1 Practical Transformer

When any transformer is connected to an AC supply there are induced 𝑒𝑚𝑓 in both of their
windings, and they are given by Faraday’s equation:

𝐸𝑝 = 4.44 × 𝑓 × 𝑁𝑝 × 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝐸𝑠 = 4.44 × 𝑓 × 𝑁𝑠 × 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥

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1 Practical Transformer (Cont.)
Example 1:
A 50 𝑘𝑉𝐴, single phase transformer of 50 𝐻𝑧, 500 100 𝑣, has an effective core cross-
section of 130 𝑐𝑚2 . Assume a maximum flux density of 1.1 𝑇 and a current density of
200 𝐴 𝑐𝑚2 . Calculate at both the 𝐻. 𝑉 & 𝐿. 𝑉 windings: the number of turns, and the
conductor cross-section
Sol.
𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 = → ∴ 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1.1 × 130 × 10−4 = 14.3 𝑚𝑊𝑏
𝐴

𝐸𝑝 = 4.44 × 𝑓 × 𝑁𝑝 × 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥

500 = 4.44 × 50 × 𝑁𝑝 × 14.3 × 10−3 → ∴ 𝑵𝒑 ≅ 𝟏𝟓𝟖 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏

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1 Practical Transformer (Cont.)
Calculate at both the 𝐻. 𝑉 & 𝐿. 𝑉 windings: the number of turns, and the conductor cross-
section
Sol.

To evaluate the number of turns at the secondary side, there are two ways:
One Way:
𝐸𝑠 = 4.44 × 𝑓 × 𝑁𝑠 × 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥
100 = 4.44 × 50 × 𝑁𝑠 × 14.3 × 10−3 → ∴ 𝑵𝒔 ≅ 𝟑𝟐 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏
Another Way:
𝐸𝑝 𝑁𝑝
= → ∴ 𝑵𝒔 ≅ 𝟑𝟐 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏
𝐸𝑠 𝑁𝑠

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1 Practical Transformer (Cont.)
Calculate at both the 𝐻. 𝑉 & 𝐿. 𝑉 windings: the number of turns, and the conductor cross-
section
Sol.
High-voltage side or primary side: Low-voltage side or secondary side:
𝑆 50000 𝑆 50000
𝐼𝑝 = = = 100 𝐴 𝐼𝑠 = = = 500 𝐴
𝐸𝑝 500 𝐸𝑠 100
Current density 𝐽 = 𝐼 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 Current density 𝐽 = 𝐼 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝐼𝑝 𝐼𝑠
200 = 200 =
𝐴𝑐𝑝 𝐴𝑐𝑠
∴ 𝑨𝒄𝒑 = 𝟎. 𝟓 𝒄𝒎 𝟐 ∴ 𝑨𝒄𝒔 = 𝟐. 𝟓 𝒄𝒎𝟐

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2 Practical Transformer Equivalent Circuit (Cont.)

Any suffix ‘1’ is referring to the primary side, and any suffix ‘2’ is referring to the secondary side

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2 Practical Transformer Equivalent Circuit (Cont.)
Familiarize yourself with such an equivalent circuit

This figure shows the PT when transferring any impedance/current/voltage to the primary side
The current flowing through the core and magnetism branch 𝐼𝜑1 is very low (nearly 5%)
compared to the main primary current. Afterwards, this current is yet divided onto another two
branches 𝑅𝑐1 & 𝑋𝑚1 (containing the core resistance and magnetism reactance)
That’s why, we can totally neglect that branch when connecting a certain load
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2 Practical Transformer Equivalent Circuit (Cont.)
When referring to the primary side:

𝐼𝑠 𝐼2
𝐼′ 2 ≡ 𝐼𝑝 = 𝑎= 𝑎

𝑉 ′ 2 ≡ 𝐸𝑝 = 𝑎 𝐸𝑠 ≡ 𝑎 𝑉2

𝑍𝑒𝑞1 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅′ 2 + 𝑗 𝑋1 + 𝑋 ′ 2

𝑅′ 2 ≡ 𝑅𝑝 = 𝑎2 𝑅𝑠 ≡ 𝑎2 𝑅2

𝑋 ′ 2 ≡ 𝑋𝑝 = 𝑎2 𝑋𝑠 ≡ 𝑎2 𝑋2

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2 Practical Transformer Equivalent Circuit (Cont.)
When referring to the secondary side:
𝐼′1 ≡ 𝐼𝑠 = 𝑎 𝐼𝑝 = 𝑎 𝐼1
𝐸𝑝 𝑉1
𝑉′ 1 ≡ 𝐸𝑠 = 𝑎≡ 𝑎

𝑍𝑒𝑞2 = 𝑅′1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑗 𝑋 ′1 + 𝑋2

𝑅𝑝 𝑅1
𝑅′ 1 ≡ 𝑅𝑠 = ≡
𝑎2 𝑎2

′ 𝑋𝑝 𝑋1
𝑋 1 ≡ 𝑋𝑠 = ≡
𝑎2 𝑎2
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3 Practical Transformer Rating
Another way to express the ratio between the primary and secondary sides of a transformer,
is to state its power (the maximum that it can handle) along with the ratio of voltage, as
shown below:

A transformer rated 1100 110 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 and 10 𝑘𝑉𝐴

transformer’s power 𝑆
primary voltage secondary voltage

𝑆 10000
𝐼𝑔 = 𝐼𝑝 = = = 9.09 𝐴
𝐸𝑝 1100
𝑆 10000 𝑃𝑙 = 𝐸𝑠 𝐼𝑠 × cos 𝜃
𝐼𝑙 = 𝐼𝑠 = = = 90.91 𝐴
𝐸𝑠 110
𝐸𝑝 load power 𝑝. 𝑓: power factor
𝑎= = 10
𝐸𝑠
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4 Practical Transformer Testing
No Load Test or Open Circuit Test:
The secondary side is totally removed or remained open, to test the functionality of the
transformer. In this case, the exciting current in the circuit shown is the primary one,
therefore, at this case the magnetizing and core branch can’t be neglected.

The losses measured by the wattmeter are mainly due to

the core losses
The core loss depends on the maximum value of the flux
in the core
remember
𝐸𝑝 = 4.44 × 𝑓 × 𝑁𝑝 × 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐸𝑠 = 4.44 × 𝑓 × 𝑁𝑠 × 𝜑𝑚𝑎𝑥

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4 Practical Transformer Testing (Cont.)
Short Circuit Test:
The secondary side is now short circuited. In this case, the magnetizing and core branch is
neglected.

The losses measured by the wattmeter are mainly due to

the copper windings copper losses
The copper loss depends on the maximum value of the
flux in the core

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4 Practical Transformer Testing (Cont.)
Open Circuit Test: Short Circuit Test:
Given 𝑉𝑜𝑐 , 𝐼𝑜𝑐 , 𝑃𝑜𝑐 Given 𝑉𝑠𝑐 , 𝐼𝑠𝑐 , 𝑃𝑠𝑐
𝑃𝑜𝑐 ≡ 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟 = 𝑉𝑜𝑐 𝐼𝑜𝑐 cos 𝜃𝑜𝑐 𝑃𝑠𝑐 ≡ 𝑃𝑐𝑢 = 𝐼𝑠𝑐 2 𝑅𝑒𝑞
−1
𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑃𝑐𝑢 𝐼𝑠𝑐 2
𝜃𝑜𝑐 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠
𝑉𝑜𝑐 × 𝐼𝑜𝑐 𝑉
𝑍𝑒𝑞 = 𝑠𝑐 𝐼
𝐼𝑐 = 𝐼𝑜𝑐 cos 𝜃𝑜𝑐 𝑠𝑐

𝑹𝒄 = 𝑽𝒐𝒄 𝑰𝒄 at the sec. side 𝑋𝑒𝑞 = 𝑍𝑒𝑞 2 − 𝑅𝑒𝑞 2

𝐼𝑚 = 𝐼𝑜𝑐 sin 𝜃𝑜𝑐
𝑿𝒎 = 𝑽𝒐𝒄 𝑰𝒎 at the sec. side
If required to transfer them to the prim. side,
any impedance should be multiplied by 𝑎2
Dr. Mostafa Gamal
𝑹𝒑 = 𝑹𝒆𝒒 𝟐 at the prim. side
𝑿𝒑 = 𝑿𝒆𝒒 𝟐 at the prim. side
If required to transfer them to the sec. side,
any impedance should be divided by 𝑎2
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4 Practical Transformer Testing (Cont.)
Example 2:
A 20 𝑘𝑉𝐴, single phase transformer of 60 𝐻𝑧, 2400 240 𝑣. Two tests were operated onto
such a transformer;
OCT: 240 𝑣, 1.07 𝐴 & 126.6 𝑊 and SCT: 57.5 𝑣, 8.34 𝐴 & 284 𝑊
Compute the transformer equivalent circuit parameters referred to low & high voltage sides.
Sol.
From the OCT:
𝑃𝑜𝑐 ≡ 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟 = 𝑉𝑜𝑐 𝐼𝑜𝑐 cos 𝜃𝑜𝑐
−1
126.6
𝜃𝑜𝑐 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ≅ 60.460
240 × 1.07
𝐼𝑐 = 𝐼𝑜𝑐 cos 𝜃𝑜𝑐 ≅ 0.53 𝐴
∴ 𝑹𝒄 = 𝑉𝑜𝑐 𝐼𝑐 ≅ 𝟒𝟓𝟐. 𝟖𝟑 𝒐𝒉𝒎 →∴ 𝑹𝒄𝒑 = 𝑎2 𝑅𝑐 = 𝟒𝟓𝟐𝟖𝟑 𝒐𝒉𝒎
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4 Practical Transformer Testing (Cont.)
Sol.
𝐼𝑚 = 𝐼𝑜𝑐 sin 𝜃𝑜𝑐 ≅ 0.93 𝐴
∴ 𝑿𝒎 = 𝑉𝑜𝑐 𝐼𝑚 ≅ 𝟐𝟓𝟖. 𝟎𝟔 𝒐𝒉𝒎 →∴ 𝑿𝒎𝒑 = 𝑎2 𝑋𝑚 = 𝟐𝟓𝟖𝟎𝟔 𝒐𝒉𝒎
From the SCT:
𝑃𝑠𝑐 ≡ 𝑃𝑐𝑢 = 𝐼𝑠𝑐 2 𝑅𝑒𝑞 → 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 284 8.34 2 ≅ 4.08 𝑜ℎ𝑚
𝑉𝑠𝑐
𝑍𝑒𝑞 = 𝐼 ≅ 6.89 𝑜ℎ𝑚
𝑠𝑐

∴ 𝑋𝑒𝑞 = 𝑍𝑒𝑞 2 − 𝑅𝑒𝑞 2 ≅ 5.55

𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅𝑝
𝑹𝒑 = 2 = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟒 𝒐𝒉𝒎 →∴ 𝑹𝒔 = ≅ 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 𝒐𝒉𝒎
𝑎2
𝑋𝑒𝑞 𝑋𝑝
𝑿𝒑 = 2 ≅ 𝟐. 𝟕𝟖 𝒐𝒉𝒎 →∴ 𝑿𝒔 = ≅ 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑 𝒐𝒉𝒎
𝑎2
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4 Practical Transformer Testing (Cont.)
Example 3:
For the transformer shown in Fig., if 𝐸𝑔 = 1220 𝑣 , draw the equivalent circuit, and
determine the generator and load currents, and the load voltage.

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4 Practical Transformer Testing (Cont.)
Example 3:

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4 Practical Transformer Testing (Cont.)
Example 3:

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5 Practical Transformer Efficiency
Since a transformer is a static machine (i.e. no rotational losses since no rotating machine
nor friction losses), the device operates at high efficiency, meaning that the losses due to
the core and copper are not that high values
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝜂= = =
𝑃𝑖𝑛 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟 + 𝑃𝑐𝑢
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉2 𝐼2 cos 𝜃2 ≡ 𝑆 cos 𝜃2
𝑃𝑐𝑢 = 𝐼1 2 𝑅1 + 𝐼2 2 𝑅2
that’s why it’s also known as: full-load copper losses 𝑃𝑐𝑢𝑓𝑙
≡ 𝐼𝑠 2 𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑠
≡ 𝐼𝑝 2 𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑝
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑆𝑙
𝑥= = → ∴ 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟 = 𝑥 2 𝑃𝑐𝑢
𝑆𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥
load ratio
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5 Practical Transformer Efficiency (Cont.)
Full-load efficiency:
𝑥 × 𝑆𝑟 × 𝑝. 𝑓
𝜂𝑓𝑙 = where the load factor will be equal to ‘1’
𝑥 × 𝑆𝑟 × 𝑝. 𝑓 + 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟 + 𝑥 2 𝑃𝑐𝑢
Half-load efficiency:
0.5 × 𝑆𝑟 × 𝑝. 𝑓
𝜂𝑕𝑙 =
0.5 × 𝑆𝑟 × 𝑝. 𝑓 + 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟 + 0.5 2 𝑃𝑐𝑢

Maximum efficiency
This will occur when the losses are equal (i.e. iron losses is equal to copper losses), and the
power factor is equal ‘1’ (i.e. the angle between the voltage and current is equal to ‘0’)
𝑥 × 𝑆𝑟
𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑥 × 𝑆𝑟 + 2 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟

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5 Practical Transformer Efficiency (Cont.)
Example 4:
A 100 𝑘𝑉𝐴, single phase transformer has an iron loss of 1 𝑘𝑊, and a copper loss of 5 𝑘𝑊.
Evaluate the transformer efficiency at:
a) Half load at 0.7 𝑝. 𝑓 b) Full load at unity 𝑝. 𝑓
Sol.
a) To evaluate the efficiency at half load, this means that 𝑥 = 0.5
0.5 × 𝑆𝑟 × 𝑝. 𝑓
𝜼𝒉𝒍 =
0.5 × 𝑆𝑟 × 𝑝. 𝑓 + 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟 + 0.52 𝑃𝑐𝑢
0.5 × 100 × 103 × 0.7
= 3 2
≅ 𝟗𝟑. 𝟗𝟔%
0.5 × 100 × 10 × 0.7 + 1000 + 0.5 5000
b) To evaluate the efficiency at full load, this means that 𝑥 = 1
𝑥 × 𝑆𝑟 × 𝑝. 𝑓 1 × 100 × 103 × 1
𝜼𝒇𝒍 = 2
= 3
≅ 𝟗𝟒. 𝟑𝟒%
𝑥 × 𝑆𝑟 × 𝑝. 𝑓 + 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟 + 𝑥 𝑃𝑐𝑢 1 × 100 × 10 × 1 + 1000 + 5000
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5 Practical Transformer Efficiency (Cont.)
Example 5:
A 500 𝑘𝑉𝐴, single phase transformer has an iron loss of 2.5 𝑘𝑊, maximum efficiency occurs
when the load is of 0.8 𝑝. 𝑓 and 268 𝑘𝑊
Calculate: a) the maximum efficiency
b) the full load efficiency at 0.71 𝑝. 𝑓
Sol.
268000
a) 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑝. 𝑓 → 𝑆𝑙 = = 335 𝑘𝑉𝐴
0.8
𝑆𝑙 335 𝑘
𝑥= = = 0.67
𝑆𝑟 500 𝑘
Maximum efficiency only happens at unity 𝒑. 𝒇
𝑥 × 𝑆𝑟 × 𝑝. 𝑓 0.67 × 500 × 103
𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑥 = =
𝑥 × 𝑆𝑟 × 𝑝. 𝑓 + 2 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟 0.67 × 500 × 103 + 2 2.5 × 103
∴ 𝜼𝒎𝒂𝒙 ≅ 𝟗𝟖. 𝟓𝟑%
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5 Practical Transformer Efficiency (Cont.)
b) the full load efficiency at 0.71 𝑝. 𝑓
Sol.
b)
2500
𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟 = 𝑥2 𝑃𝑐𝑢 → 𝑃𝑐𝑢 = 2
≅ 5569.17 𝑊
0.67
To evaluate the efficiency at full load, this means that 𝑥 = 1
𝑆𝑟 × 𝑝. 𝑓 500 × 103 × 0.71
𝜂𝑓𝑙 = =
𝑆𝑟 × 𝑝. 𝑓 + 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟 + 𝑥 𝑃𝑐𝑢 500 × 103 × 0.71 + 2500 + 5569.17
2

∴ 𝜼𝒇𝒍 ≅ 𝟗𝟕. 𝟕𝟖%

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Learning Outcomes (Recap)

Differentiate between Ideal & PT

Analyse the PT’s equivalent circuit
Investigate the two tests applied to compute out the PT’s basic parameters
Evaluate the PT’s efficiency at all conditions

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End of Lecture 3
Any Questions