LESSON 1 - WHAT IS SCIENCE?

 To bridge the gap between two traditionally

• Latin word Scientia, meaning Knowledge. exclusive cultures – humanities (interpretative)
• It is an observation, experimentation, or both. and natural sciences (rational)
• Scientific method
• “Modern science is a discovery as well as an 10 ETHICAL DILEMMAS
invention.” - John Hellborn 1) Pseudoscience of skincare
2) AI and Gamification in Hiring
STEPS OF SCIENTIFIC METHODS 3) Predatory Journals
1. Define a Question to investigate 4) The HARPA SAFEHOME Proposal
2. Make Predictions 5) Class Dojo and Classroom Surveillance
3. Gather Data 6) Grinch Bots
4. Analyze Data 7) Project Nightingale
5. Draw Conclusions 8) Student Tracking Software
9) The Corruption Tech Ethics
10) Deep Fake
JOHN HELLBORN
• Famous American science historian
• Science as, “Discovery of regularity in nature, LESSON 2 - HISTORICAL ANTEVEDENTS
enough for phenomena to be described by WHAT IS AN ANTECEDENT?
principles and laws.”  Defined as precursor to the unfolding or
• Science required invention to devise techniques, existence of something.
abstractions, apparatuses, and organizations to  Historical antecedents in S&T paved the way for
describe these natural regularities and their law-like the presence of advanced and sophisticated
descriptions. scientific innovations today.
 Knowledge of the history of science and
TECHNOLOGY technology is useful in appraising these
 Application of scientific knowledge, laws, and innovations today.
principles to produce services, materials, tools,
and machines aimed at solving real-world ANCIENT TIMES
problems Divided into three periods:
 From the Greek word techne, meaning “art, skill, − Stone age (Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and
or cunning of hand.” Neolithic)
 Fulfills our needs and desires, or perform certain − Bronze age
functions − Iron age
 Creating and inventing things
 Paved the way for advances in science and
ROLE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY technology
1. New Knowledge – direct source of ideas for new  Ancient period allowed civilizations to flourish by
technological possibilities. looking for better ways to communicate,
2. Sources Of Tools And Techniques – efficient transport, self-organize, and enhance their way
engineering and design and knowledge base. of life
3. Practice Of Research – source for development FIRST RECOGNIZED TECHNOLOGY
and assimilation of new human skills and • Wooden tools could have preceded stones by
capabilities millions of years
4. Research, Instrumentation, And Laboratory • Made by one of our direct ancestors (H. habilis or H.
Techniques rudolfensis) 2,500,000 years ago
5. Assessment Of Technology – in terms of social • Early tools were some broken pebbles, then
and environmental impact. improved by flaking pieces off a core, creating
6. More Efficient Strategies of applied research, distinctive shapes with a single cutting edge
development, and refinement of new
technologies.

SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, & SOCIETY

 A young field that combines previously
independent and older disciplines.
 Methods drawn from history, philosophy, and
sociology to study the nature of science and
technology and ultimately judge their value and
place in the society.
 A result of questions about science and
technology’s dynamic interaction with various
aspects of society and was thus viewed as a
socially embedded enterprise.
 CHARACTERIZED BY:  Similar to the mantle clock
1. Hunting and gathering  Used to tell celestial time like eclipse
2. Use of fire
3. Agricultural revolution
4. Use of metal, instead of stone tools, towards the
end
5. Pottery and other ceramics, along with glass
were dominant
6. Civilizations began to arise (manufacturing,
trading, villages have rulers, etc.)

ANCIENT WHEELS
 from potter’s wheel
 invented in 3500 BC by Summerians
 shifted to 90 degrees to create the wheel
Aeolipile (known as Hero’s engine)
 Ancient precursor of the steam engine
 Hero of Alexandria was credited for the
invention and usage in the first century AD
 Believed to be one of the many “Temple
Wonders”
 No known function

Paper
 Papyrus was used by Ancient Egypt around 3000
BC
 Made from pith of the papyrus plant – Cyperus
papyrus
 Before they wrote on stones
 How did the paper made life easier for
MIDDLE AGES
Egyptians?
 Started with the rise of Greek civilization
 developed institutions such as the Academy,
Shadoof (shaduf)
Lyceum, and Museum
 Invented and used by the Egyptians to irrigate
 Were the first to believe that humans could
land
understand the universe using reason alone
 Hand-operated device for lifting water
rather than through mythology or religion
 How did it affect the agriculture of Egypt and
(philosophers)
the world?
 Characterized by war between religion and
science (Dark ages)
 Decline of science in Europe
 Use of currency replaced by barter
 Trade ceased entirely
 Poverty was endemic and people suffered from
wars, piracy, famine, and epidemics
 Chinese philosophy developed theories on
matter and living beings
 Revival of Western science started during the
last centuries of the first millennium
 Technological revolution took place
 Vast improvements in communication and
transportation
Antikythera mechanism
MODERN AGES
 Invented by the Greeks as their ancient world’s
 Modern Ages realized the utmost importance of
analog computer orrery
increasing the efficiency of transportation,
 Made between 150-100 BC and was discovered
communication and production.
in 1902
 Industrialization took place with greater risks in
human health, food safety and environment
which had to be addressed as scientific and
technological progress unfolded at an
unimaginable speed.
 The depletion of the population of Europe (Black
Death) motivated the smaller communities to
find new ways to function
 New atmosphere encouraged the
development of arts, science and technology
 States recognized the importance of
technology for defense and trade
 Kings engaged engineers to improve their
fortifications and weapons
 Technology became fully accepted
 Many artists, like Leonardo da Vinci, became
architects and technologists
 Mathematics was introduced into universities
(became the basis of the arts and technology)
 Time of colonization, adventure, and exploration
INVENTIONS
1. Compound Microscope
2. Telescope
3. Jacquard Loom
4. Engine-powered airplane
5. Televisions
SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTIONS
 Started with the publication of Copernicus’s
heliocentric theory and Vesalius’s anatomy
 Opposed by both Catholic Church and the
Protestant Church of Martin Luther
 Much later, the Church lifted its ban on the
publication of works that defended the
Copernican system
 Explorers discovered a wealth of previously
unknown plants and animals
 Mathematics introduced various symbols and
conventions (became an almost universal
language)
 Galileo introduced experimentation into science
 Factories operated, patent laws and the stock
market began, and printed books became the
means to spread technological developments
 Design of machines developed into an art
(gadgets)
 Separation of physics and metaphysics
(philosophy) took place (Newton vs. Descartes
on gravity)
 Observation and experimentation became the
pillars of scientific activity
 Scientists recorded phenomena in terms of
numbers
 Classification of plants, animals, minerals, fossils
became a trend
Scientific Method: Measurement and
Communication (1660 through 1734)
 Science became a shared activity
 Societies and journals became the means of
communication (printing press)
The Enlightenment and the Industrial revolution
(1735 through 1819)
 Profound change in philosophical thinking
 Emergence of “mechanical philosophy”, a
belief that all phenomena could be explained
by sets of simple mechanical laws
 Some materialistic philosophers denied the
existence of a spiritual god and viewed nature
entirely as a mechanical system
 Two approaches to philosophy emerged:
empiricism (knowledge comes from experience)
and rationalism (knowledge comes from
reasoning)
 reconciled by Immanuel Kant
 “Great Chain of Being” envisioned all existence
as continuous
The Industrial revolution
(18th Century)
 Development of machines that would make
work faster or more efficient
 Interest in thermodynamics rose as a result of the
steam engine
 Concepts of work and power began to be
formalized
 Encyclopaedias were the new form of
publication
 The profession of engineer was one of the great
inventions
S&T in the 19thCentury (1820 through 1894)
 Science became professional
− Occupation of science became a paid
profession
− universities developed into centers where
science flourished
− Teaching of science became linked to
scientific research
− Publication of scientific information started
− Scientists started meeting at national
scientific congresses
− The idea that science could ultimately
explain all phenomena in nature became
stronger
Rise of modern S&T (1895 through 1945)
 Large number of scientists
 Science became much more of a communal
effort
 Science started having an effect on society
directly(the time span between a discovery and
its technical application became shorter)
 Science became highly successful in explaining
the nature of matter, mechanisms of chemical
reactions, fundamental processes of life, and
the general structure of the universe
 Quantum theory changed the way philosophers
think about the universe
 Technology did not remain confined to large
enterprises only(became an important part of
everyday life)
 Enormous growth of automobile industry
 Electricity revolutionized technology
 Laboratories for testing and development of
new products were established
Big science and the Post-industrial society
(1946 through 1972)
 Discoveries and inventions reached practical
applications as a result of WW2 (synthetic rubber,
radar, DDT, penicillin, fusion and fission bombs,
jet powered aircraft, helicopter, ballistic missiles,
nuclear weapons, and the electronic digital
computer)
 Science became “big”
− Equipment/instruments were shared
(interdisciplinary)
− Even larger number of scientists, scientists
having specialization
 Science changed society
− Availability of automobiles changed how
people migrate
− Automation allowed many manufacturing
processes to be done by less skilled workers
The Information Age
INVENTIONS OF FILIPINO SCIENTISTS
Filipinos are responsible for developing many
scientific and technological innovations focused on
navigation, traditional ship building, textiles, food
processing, indigenous arts and techniques, and
even cultural inventions.
E-Jeepney
 most recognized national symbols of the
Philippines.
 assembly and conversion of “jeepneys” for
transport and utility from scraps of American
military jeeps left from World War 2
 e-jeepneys were introduced as an alternative to
the traditional jeepney due to the demand for
environmental friendly transportation
 E-jeepneys are designed to be environment-
friendly, eliminating noise and air pollution
because they run on electricity.
Erythromycin
 One of the most well- known antibiotics in the
market.
 Invented by an Ilonggo scientist, Abelardo
Aguilar, from a strain of Streptomyces erythraeus.
 However, Aguilar was NOT credited for this
discovery because he was under the
employment of an American company, Eli Lilli
Co. The company eventually owned the merits
for this discovery.
Bamboo Incubator
 World renowned Filipino pediatrician, Dr. Fe Del
Mundo, was credited for the invention of the
incubator and jaundice removing device
 Her original design consisted of two native
laundry baskets of different sizes that are placed
one inside the other. Warmth was generated by
bottles with hot water placed around the
baskets. A makeshift hood over the baskets
allows oxygen to circulate inside the incubator.
 Was used to aid the regulation of body
temperatures of newborn babies, especially in
areas with no electricity.
Mole Remover
 Invented by Rolando dela Cruz in 2000.
 Used for removal of moles and warts, the
invention was made from cashew
(Annacardium occidentale) nut extracts which
are very common in the Philippines.
 Dela Cruz won a gold medal for this invention in
the International Invention, Innovation, Industrial
Design, and Technology Exhibition in Kuala
Lumpur, Malaysia in 2000.
Banana ketchup
 Invented by the Filipino food technologist, Maria
Orosa.
 Was invented to be used as an alternative to
tomato ketchup during the backdrop of the
World War 2 when there was a shortage of
tomatoes.
 Orosa developed banana ketchup made from
mashed banana, sugar, vinegar and spices.
Red food coloring was added so that it would
resemble tomato ketchup.
INTELLECTUAL REVOLUTIONS AND
SOCIETY
Intellectual refer to the series of events that
led to the emergence of modern science and the
progress of scientific thinking across critical periods in
history.
“Scientific revolutions involved a two-stage
process of sweeping away the old and
establishing the new” -Jean Sylvain Bailley
Paradigm Shift
 A fundamental change in approach or
underlying assumptions
 A paradigm shift occurs when new technologies
disrupt old ones, and the old ways of thinking
and operating don't apply anymore. For
example, the invention of smartphones
changed the way we communicate, shop, and
interact with others.
 Copernican Revolution
 The Copernican Revolution refers to the 16th-
century paradigm shift named after the Polish
mathematician and astronomer, Nicolaus
Copernicus.
 Copernicus formulated the heliocentric model
in the publication of his paper, De
Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium (The
Revolution of the Celestial Spheres ), in 1543.
Darwinian Revolution
 The publication of Charles Darwin’s The Origin of
Species ushered a new era in the intellectual
history of humanity.
 Considered to be one of the most controversial
intellectual revolutions of its time
 Completed the Copernican revolution initiated
three centuries earlier, and thereby radically
changed our conception of the universe and
the place of humanity in it.
 Charles Darwin is an English naturalist, biologist
and geologist; he introduced the theory of
evolution where population pass through a
process of natural selection in which only the
fittest would survive (natural selection).
Freudian Revolution
 Austrian neurologist, Sigmund Freud is credited
for stirring a 20th century intellectual revolution
named after him – the Freudian Revolution.
 Psychoanalysis as a school of thought in
psychology is at the center of this revolution.
 Psychoanalysis a scientific method of
understanding inner and unconscious conflicts
embedded within one’s personality, springing
from free associations, dreams, and fantasies of
the individual.
 Amidst controversy, Freud’s psychoanalysis is
widely credited for dominating
psychotherapeutic practice in the early 20th
century.
Science, Technology, and Nation Building
Pre-colonial Times
 Science and technology in the Philippines had
its beginnings during the pre-colonial times.
 People used herbal medicine to treat illnesses.
 Filipinos used writing, numerical treatment,
measurement, and calendar systems to
facilitate trading.
 Farming, fishing, mining, and weaving was
developed by Filipinos during this period (the
Banaue Rice Terraces was built during this
period)
Spanish Colonial Period
 Science and technology was developed
through the establishment of formal education
institutions and the launching of scientific
organizations.
 Schools were mandated to teach religion,
reading and writing, music and arts, and health
and sanitation.
 Medicine and biology were taught in different
educational and training institutions.
 The natives were trained to use innovative
approach in farming; engineering was also
introduced for constructing buildings, churches,
bridges, roads, and forts.
 Rapid development of scientific principles
influenced by Western culture during the
Spanish colonial period was short-changed.
 Trade was more prioritized compared to
agriculture and industrial development because
its potential to gain large profits.
American Period
 Reorganized institutions for science and
technology were reorganized.
 Laboratorio Municipal Bureau of Government
Laboratories (under US Department of Interior).
 The Bureau of Government laboratories was
established for the purpose of studying tropical
diseases and pursuing other related research
projects; eventually became Bureau of Science
which became the main research center of the
Philippines.
1933
 The National Research Council of the Philippines
was established.
 Development during the American regime was
focused on agriculture, medicine and
pharmacy, food processing, and forestry.
1946
 The Bureau of Science was replaced by Institute
of Science.
Ferdinand E. Marcos Sr.
 During the time of the former President
Ferdinand E. Marcos, the role of science and
technology in national development was
emphasized.
 Mandated the Department of Education and
Culture, now known as the Department of
Education (DepEd), to promote science courses
in public high schools.
 Additional budget for research projects in
applied sciences and science was granted.
 In 1968, Taguig was proclaimed as the Philippine
Science Community, now the site of
Department of Science and Technology.
 The Philippine Coconut Research Institute
(PHILCORIN) was tasked to promote
modernization of the coconut industry.
 Several institutions were also established. The
following were:
1. Philippine Textile Research Center
2. Philippine Atomic Energy Commission
Philippine Nuclear Institute
3. National Grains Authority National Food
Authority
4. Philippine Council for Agricultural Research
Philippine Council for Agriculture,
Aquatic, and Natural Resources Research
and Development (PCAARRD)
5. Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and
Astronomical Services Administration
(PAGASA)
6. Philippine National Oil Company
7. Plant Breeding Institute
8. International Rice Research Institute (IRRI)
9. Bureau of Plant Industry
10. Bureau of Forest Products
11. National Committee on Geological Sciences
 The National Science Development Board was
reorganized as the National Science and
Technology Authority (NSTA)
 In 1976, the National Academy of Science and
Technology (NAST) was established to be the
reservoir of scientific and technological
expertise in the country.
Corazon Aquino
 NSTA was renamed as DOST in 1986 under
President Corazon Aquino.
 This was done in order for the S&T sector to be
represented in the cabinet.
 The Science and Technology Master Plan by the
DOST aimed to update the production sector,
improve research activities, and develop
infrastructures for the science and technology
sector.
Fidel V. Ramos
 During the time of President Fidel V. Ramos, the
Philippines had approximately 3000 competent
scientists and engineers.
 The Doctors to the Barrio program made health
care accessible even in far-flung areas.
 The National Program for Gifted Filipino Children
in Science and Technology was created for high
school students who wanted to major in science
and engineering in college.
 Several laws and statutes related to the science
and technology sector were mandated:
1. R.A. 8439 (Magna Carta for Scientist,
Engineers, Researchers and other Science
and Technology Personnel in Government)
2. R.A. 7687 (Science and Technology
Scholarship Act of 1994)
3. R.A. 7559 (Inventors and Inventions
Incentive Act)
4. R.A. 8293 (The Intellectual Property Code
of the Philippines)
Joseph Ejercito Estrada
 R.A. 8749 (Clean Air Act of 1999) and R.A. 8792
(Electronic Commerce Act of 2000) were both
signed and mandated during the term of
President Joseph Estrada.
 Responsible for implementing cost-effective
irrigation technologies and providing health
care services for those who could not afford
them.
Gloria Macapagal- Arroyo
 Filipinnovation was coined to refer to the
Philippines as an innovation hub in Asia.
 Promulgation of R.A. 9367 (Biofuels Act) to utilize
indigenous materials as sources of energy; was
not successful due to the lack of technology to
source raw materials.
 R.A. 10601 (Agriculture and Fisheries
Mechanization Law) was passed to modernize
agricultural and fisheries machinery and
equipment.
Benigno Aquino III
New National Scientists were named in 2014. The
following were:
1. Gavino C. Trono (Marine Biology)
2. Angel C. Alcala (Biological Science)
3. Ramon C. Barba (Horticulture)
4. Edgardo D. Gomez (Marine Biology)
Rodrigo Duterte
 Science and Technology sector is seen to be a
priority based on the budget for research and
Development (R&D) that grew by nearly six
times over the same period.
 DOST focus was set to put results of R&D into
commercialization in order to gain new
intellectual properties.
 Philippine Space Technology Program launched
Diwata- 2 in 2018 after the launch of Diwata-1 in
2016 that displayed the Philippine flag in space.
Science and Technology in the Philippines and
the Environment
S&T has brought about numerous contributions to the
agricultural sector and food production. These
include:
1. Mechanization of Farming
- Tools such as pumps and sprinklers help in
managing the damaging effects of heat brought
about by the changing climate patterns
2. Genetically Modified Crops
- Grow faster and are resistant to pests
3. Fertilizers
- Increase nutrients in the soil; enhances growth and
yield of crops
 ARISTOTLE’S Consider the structure of the psyche:
 nutritive, sensitive, and rational parts
NICHOMACHEAN ETHICS  Which is uniquely human?
Aristotle (384-322) Only the rational element is distinctive of humans.
 Originally from Macedon So, human happiness consists of a rationally directed
 Arrived Athens in 367, Student of Plato life…a whole life…
 Left Athens in 347, taught Alexander
 Returned to Athens 334, founded Lyceum
Aristotle’s Tripartite Soul
 Left Athens in 323, after death of Alexander
 Works on topics: biology, physics, logic, music
and art, politics, ethics, etc.
 Wrote dialogues, but only lecture notes survive
 Considered “The Philosopher” in Middle Ages

Nichomachean Ethics
 A treatise on the nature of moral life and human
happiness, based on the unique essence of
human nature
 Named after one of Aristotle’s son who is
thought to have edited it from lecture notes.

The Greatest Good: Eudaimonia

Every action aims at some good
 Some actions aim at an instrumental good The Virtues
 Some actions aim at an ultimate good  A virtue (areté) is what makes one function
well; usually understood as a disposition or
Ultimate goods are better than instrumental goods state of a person.
 Instrumental goods (ends) are aimed at only  Conditions for virtue: fortune and success
insofar as they are for the sake of something else  Basic necessities, good birth, friends, wealth,
 Ultimate goods (ends) are aimed at for their good looks, health, etc.
own sakes.  Types of virtue
 Virtues of thought: wisdom, comprehension,
ULTIMATE GOOD? etc.
 Achieved through education and time
 Virtues of character: generosity,
Candidates Critiques temperance, courage, etc.
Pleasure  Transient, not complete  Achieved by habitual practice
 Both should be in accord with reason and
Wealth  Only instrumental, not are needed for Eudaimonia.
self-sufficient
“The Golden Mean”
Fame & Honor  Virtue is ruined by excess and deficiency (in
Depends on others, not
feelings and action)
self-sufficient
 Consider health
Happiness  Complete and self- So, is learned by the mean of excess and
sufficient deficiency
 A balance or intermediate between
extremes

But a “relative” mean*

HAPPINESS?
Eudaimonia
 Well-being or doing well
 Eu means good, daimon means spirit
 “activity of the soul in accordance with virtue or
excellence” (EN I.7)
More complete than merely feeling good or joyful
 Feeling well in all aspects of life
Eudaimonia and the Human Soul
Human happiness must be uniquely human, or a
distinct human function.
 Not a geometric or arithmetic average…
 A mean relative to the person, the
circumstances, as well as the right
emotional component (EN II.3 and II.6)
Courage
 The right action and emotional response in
the face of danger
 Fool-heartiness or rashness is an excess of
the emotional and/or proper action; (doesn’t
properly appreciate the danger, not fearful)
 Cowardice is the deficiency of proper
emotion (motive) and action; (the danger is
over-appreciated, too fearful)

MARTIN HEIDEGGER’S ‘THE QUESTION

CONCERNING TECHNOLOGY’
The Essence of Technology
 Technology can be viewed as a means to an
end (instrumental).
 Or it can be viewed as human activity
(anthropological).
 Both are correct, but neither touches the
essence of technology.
 What is the essence of technology?
 We are blinded to it when we think of it as
something neutral.

Causality
 Technology brings about change causally.
 The cause is what is responsible for the effect,
and the effect is indebted to the cause.
 According to Aristotle, there are four ways in
which this relation holds.
 The unifying notion is that of starting something
on its way to arrival.
 Being responsible is an inducing to go forward.

Bringing Forth
 The bringing forth – poeisis – which underlies
causality is a bringing out of concealment.
 This revealing is what the Greeks call truth –
aletheia.
 Technology brings forth as well, and it is a
revealing.
 This is seen in the way the Greeks understood
techne, which encompasses not only craft, but
other acts of the mind, and poetry.
 “bringing-forth”, in which humans only give form
to what already exists without disruption and
control
Modern Technology
 Both primitive crafts and modern technology
are revealing.
 But the revealing of modern technology is not a
bringing-forth, but a challenging-forth.
 It challenges nature, by extracting something
from it and transforming it, storing it up,
distributing it, etc.
The essence of modern technology
 Not a bringing forth (in the sense of poiesis)
 Too impatient/violent/urgent we might note
here that this violence applies as much to the
information-age as to the machine-age
 Instead it is what Heidegger calls a challenging
forth into revealing.
 “challenging-forth”, where humans control the
productive process
The Standing-Reserve
 Modern technology takes all of nature to stand
in reserve for its exploitation.
 Man is challenged to do this, and as such he
becomes part of the standing reserve.
 Man becomes the instrument of technology, to
be exploited in the ordering of nature.
The Saving Power
 The poet Hölderlin writes that the saving power
grows where danger is.
 The saving would allow a bringing-forth that is
not a challenging-forth (things would reveal
themselves not just as standing-reserve).
 Both technology and bringing-forth grow out of
“granting,” which allows revealing.
Art as Saving Power
 Poetry and other arts have the power to reveal,
in the sense of “bringing-forth”.
 Poetry is included in the Aristotelian techne, and
is akin to modern technology.
 But it is also fundamentally different from
technology.
 It may be the best means for getting at the
essence of technology itself.
Because the essence of technology is nothing
technological, essential reflection upon technology
and decisive confrontation with it must happen in a
realm that is, on the one hand, akin to the essence of
technology and, on the other, fundamentally
different from it.
Such a realm is art. But only if reflection upon art, for
its part, does not shut its eyes to the constellation of
truth, concerning which we are questioning… For
questioning is the piety of thought. (340-341)

Enframing
 It is not man that orders nature through
technology, but a more basic process of
revealing.
 The challenge of this revealing is called
“enframing”.
 In enframing, the actual is revealed as a
standing-reserve.
 This is “historically” prior to the development of
science.
 Enframing is the essence of technology.

Destining
 Men are sent upon the way of revealing the
actual as a standing-reserve.
 So enframing, and hence technology, is a
“destining”.
 The destining of man to reveal nature carries
with it the danger of misunderstanding.

The Danger
 Man is in danger of becoming merely part of
the standing-reserve.
 Alternatively, he may find only himself in nature.
 Most importantly, he may think that the ordering
of the world through technology is the
fundamental mode of revealing.
 So the real threat of technology comes from its
essence, not its activities or products.