STRENGTH OF

MATERIALS
 1
STRESS AND
STRAIN
 1.1 DIRECT OR NORMAL STRESS

• When a force is transmitted through a body, the body tends to change its shape or
deform. The body is said to be strained.
• Application of force results into elongation of member
• Experimentally found that the cohesive force, between molecules of member,
offer resistance against deformation.
• If the force of resistance, offered by molecules, is less than the external force. In
such a case, the deformation continues until failure takes place.

• Direct Stress = Applied Force (F)

Cross Sectional Area (A)

• Units: Usually N/m2 (Pa), N/mm2, MN/m2, GN/m2 or N/cm2

• Note: 1 N/mm2 = 1 MN/m2 = 1 MPa
 Direct Stress Contd.

• Direct stress may be tensile t, or compressive c, and
result from forces acting perpendicular to the plane of
the cross-section

Tension

Compression
 1.2 Direct or Normal Strain

• When loads are applied to a body, some

deformation will occur resulting to a change in
dimension.
• Consider a bar, subjected to axial tensile
loading force, F. If the bar extension is dl and
its original length (before loading) is L, then
tensile strain is:
 Direct or Normal Strain Contd.

L
F F
dl

• Direct Strain (  ) = Change in Length

Original Length
i.e.  = dl/L
 Direct or Normal Strain Contd.
• As strain is a ratio of lengths, it is dimensionless.
• Similarly, for compression by amount, dl:
Compressive strain = - dl/L

• Note: Strain is positive for an increase in dimension and negative for a

reduction in dimension.

Direct stress 
Modulus of Elasticity, E = =
Direct strain 
 Equation For Extension

From the above equations:

 F/A F L
E = = =
 dl / L A dl
FL
dl =
AE

This equation for extension is very important

1.3 Stress-Strain Relations of Mild Steel
 1.4 Elasticity and Hooke’s Law
• All solid materials deform when they are stressed, and as stress
is increased, deformation also increases.

• If a material returns to its original size and shape on removal of

load causing deformation, it is said to be elastic.

• If the stress is steadily increased, a point is reached when,

after the removal of load, not all the induced strain is removed.

• This is called the elastic limit.

 Hooke’s Law

• It States that providing the limit of proportionality of a material

is not exceeded, the stress is directly proportional to the strain
produced.

• If a graph of stress and strain is plotted as load is gradually

applied, the first portion of the graph will be a straight line.

• The slope of this line is the constant of proportionality called

modulus of Elasticity, E or Young’s Modulus.

• It is a measure of the stiffness of a material.

 Direct stress 
Modulus of Elasticity, E = =
Direct strain 
1.5 Stress-Strain Relations of Brittle Materials
 1.6 Factor of Safety

• The load which any member of a machine carries is

called working load, and stress produced by this load is
the working stress.

• Obviously, the working stress must be less than the

yield stress, tensile strength or the ultimate stress.

• This working stress is also called the permissible stress

or the allowable stress or the design stress.
 Factor of Safety Contd.
• Some reasons for factor of safety include the inexactness or
inaccuracies in the estimation of stresses and the non-uniformity
of some materials.

Ultimate or yield stress

Factor of safety =
Design or working stress

Note: Ultimate stress is used for materials e.g. concrete which do

not have a well-defined yield point, or brittle materials which
behave in a linear manner up to failure. Yield stress is used for
other materials e.g. steel with well defined yield stress.
 Examples
• 1) A steel rod 25 mm diameter and 3.5 m long is subjected to an axial pull of
22 kN. Determine (i) stress, (ii) strain, (iii) elongation of rod.
Take E=2 x 105 N/mm2
 Examples
• 2) A steel rod 1m long and 20 mm x 20 mm in cross section is subjected to a
force of 40 KN. Determine the elongation of the rod, if modulus of elasticity
for the rod material is 200GPa.
 Examples
• 3) A hollow cylinder 2m long has an outside diameter of 50 mm and inside diameter
of 30 mm. If the cylinder is carrying a load of 25 kN, find the stress in the cylinder.
Also find the deformation of the cylinder, if the value of modulus of elasticity for the
cylinder material is 100 Gpa.
 Examples
• 5) A steel bar of cross-sectional area 200mm2 is loaded as shown in figure. Find the
change in length of the bar. Take E as 200 GPa.
 Examples

•
 Examples
• 7) Figure shows a steel bar of varying c/s subjected to axial external loads
P1, P2, P3 and P4. Determine P3 which will produce equilibrium and hence
the total elongation of AD. P1=45 kN, P2=450 kN and P4=130 kN. Take
E=2.1 x 105 MPa
 Examples
• 8) A bar shown subjected to tensile load of 152 kN. Find the diameter of the
middle portion, if the stress there is limited to 140 N/mm2. Also find the
length of the middle portion if the elongation of the bar is to be 0.16 mm.
Take E = 2 x 105 N/mm2
Deformation of Uniform rod under self
weight
 1.7 Analysis of Members of Composite Materials

• Members made up of more than one materials are referred to as

Composite Materials.

• They are intentionally made of composite materials to increase mainly

their load carrying capacity and also other parameters effecting
strength, stiffness and stability. E.g. R.C.C.

• For solving problems on composite materials we develop two relations:

• A) Load sharing Relation
• B) Strain Relation
 Examples

• 1) A 300 mm long steel tube of 100 mm internal diameter and 15 mm

thickness is enclosed within a tightly fitting copper tube of same thickness
and length. The ends of the tube are rigidly connected and the composite
material is then subjected to an axial compressive force of 170 kN.
Determine the load carried by each of the two materials.
• Take Es = 2.1 x 10 5 N/mm 2, Ec = 1 x 10 5 N/mm 2
 Examples

• 2) Two steel rods, each of diameter 20 mm and a copper rod of diameter 25

mm, together support a load of 25 kN in the form of a rigid plate AB as
shown. Determine the stresses developed in each rod. Assume that the two
steel rods are equidistant from the copper rod. Take ES = 200 GN/m 2,
EC = 100 GN/m 2
 Examples

• 3) A reinforced concrete circular column of 400 mm diameter has 4 steel

bars of 20 mm diameter embedded in it. Find the maximum load which the
column can carry, if the stresses in steel and concrete are not to exceed 120
MPa and 5 MPa respectively. Take modulus of elasticity of steel as 18 times
that of concrete,
 Examples

• 4) A rigid block of weight W is supported by three symmetrically spaced

rods.
• The bronze rods are of 14 mm diameter, 300 mm length and allowable stress
is 90 MPa.
• Steel rod is hollow with 20 & 16 mm being external & internal diamters
respectively, 500 mm in length and allowable stress is 120 N/mm2 .
• Determine the safe maximum value of W which can be supported.
Es=200GPa, Eb=80GPa
 1.8 Shear Stress and Shear Strain

• Shear stresses are produced by equal and opposite parallel

forces not in line.

• The forces tend to make one part of the material slide over
the other part.

• Shear stress is tangential to the area over which it acts.

• Shear Force
t =
Shear Area
 Shear Stress and Shear Strain

x
C C’ D D’
F
P Q
L

S R

A B
Shear strain is the distortion produced by shear stress on an
element or rectangular block as above. The shear strain,
(gamma) is given as:  = x/L = tan 
 Shear Stress and Shear Strain

• For small  ,  =
• Shear strain then becomes the change in the right
angle.
• It is dimensionless and is measured in radians.

For Shear stress:

Modulus of rigidity or shear modulus, G = Shear stress = t

Shear strain 
 Complementary Shear Stress

t1
P Q
t2

a
t2
S R
t1
Consider a small element, PQRS of the material in the last diagram. Let the
t
shear stress created on faces PQ and RS be 1
 Shear Stress Contd.

• The element is therefore subjected to a couple and for

equilibrium, a balancing couple must be brought into action.

• This will only arise from the shear stress on faces QR and PS.

• Let the shear stresses on these faces be t 2 .

 Complimentary Shear Stress Contd.

• Let t be the thickness of the material at right angles to

the paper and lengths of sides of element be a and b as
shown.
• For equilibrium,
clockwise couple = anticlockwise couple
• Force on PQ (or RS) x a = Force on QR (or PS) x b
•
t1 x bt x a =t2 x at x b
i. e. t 1 = t2
 Complimentary Shear Stress Concluded

• Thus: Whenever a shear stress occurs on a plane within a

material, it is automatically accompanied by an equal shear
stress on the perpendicular plane.

• The direction of the complementary shear stress is such that

their couple opposes that of the original shear stresses.
•
Example Three holes of diameter 30 mm, 25 mm are punched into a
rectangular plate of size 200 x 400 x 28 mm such that their centres are at A, B
and C as shown. Find

1) Minimum Punching force required to be supplied to the punching device for

the holes at A, B, C.
2) Maximum allowable tensile load F that can be applied to the plate safely.
Take Ultimate shear stress = 400 MPa
Yield stress = 230 MPa
Factor of safety =2
 1.5 Volumetric Strain
• Hydrostatic stress refers to tensile or compressive stress in all
dimensions within or external to a body.

• Hydrostatic stress results in change in volume of the material.

• Consider a cube with sides x, y, z. Let dx, dy, and dz represent

increase in length in all directions.

• i.e. new volume = (x + dx) (y + dy) (z + dz)

 Volumetric Strain Contd.
• Neglecting products of small quantities:
New volume = x y z + z y dx + x z dy + x y dz
Original volume V = x y z
V = z y dx + x z dy + x y dz

• Volumetric strain,  v = z y dx + x z dy + x y dz
xyz
• v = dx/x + dy/y + dz/z

v = x  y  z
 Strains Contd.
• Note: By similar reasoning, on area x y

a = x  y
• Also:
• (i) The strain on the diameter of a circle is equal to the
strain on the circumference.
• (ii) The strain on the area of a circle, is equal to twice the
strain on its diameter.
• (iii) Strain on volume of a sphere, is equal to three times
the strain on its diameter.
 Strains Contd.

(iv)Given D and L asstrainsonthediameter

andlengthof acylinder,

Strainonthevolumeis
 v = L  2 D
tensile
or
 v =  L  2 D
compressive..
Bulk Modulus, K:
When a body is subjected to three mutually perpendicular stresses, of equal
intensity, the ratio of direct stress to the corresponding volumetric strain is
known as bulk modulus. It is denoted by K

K =  / v
 Direct stress 
Modulus of Elasticity, E = =
Direct strain 

Shear Stress t
Modulus of rigidity or shear modulus, G = =
Shear Strain 

Bulk Modulus, K: K =  / v
•
• Relation Between E, G, K
• E = 2G( 1+ μ)
• E = 3K( 1- 2μ)
 Relation between E And K
•
 Relation between E And K
•

E = 3K (1-2 μ)
 Relation between E And C
•