1 Participate in A Work Place Communication

HOW TO USE THIS COMPETENCY-BASED LEARNING
MATERIAL
Welcome to the Module in Participating in Workplace

Communication. This module contains training materials and activities for
you to complete.
The unit of competency “Participate in Workplace Communication”
contains knowledge skills and attitudes required for Shielded Metal Arc
Welding NC II. It is one of the specialized modules at National Certificate
level (NCII).
You are required to go through a series of learning activities in order
to complete each outcome of the module. In each learning outcome are
Information Sheets, Self Checks and Job Sheets. (Reference Materials for
further reading to help you better understand the required activities). Follow
these activities on your own and answer the self-check, perform the Job
Sheet using the Performance Criteria Checklist at the end of each learning
outcome. You may remove a blank answer sheet at the end of each module
(or get one from your facilitator/trainer) to write your answer for each self-
check. If you have questions, don’t hesitate to ask your facilitator for
assistance.
Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL)
You may already have some of the most of the knowledge and skills
covered in this learner’s guide because you have:
 been working for some time
 Already complete training in this area
If you can demonstrate to your trainer that you are already competent
in a particular skill or skills talk to him/her about having them formally
recognized so you don’t have to do the same training again. If you have a
qualification or Certificate of Competency from previous training, show it to
your trainer. If the skill you acquired is still current and relevant to the
unit/s of competency they may become part of the evidence you may
present to RPL. If you are not sure about the currency of your skills, discuss
with your trainer.
At the end of this module is a Learner’s Diary. Use this diary to record
important date, jobs undertaken and other workplace events that will assist
you in providing further details to your trainer or assessor. A Record of
Achievement is also provided for your trainer to complete once you complete
the module.
Date Developed: September 2020 Document No.
CBLM on Contact Issued by:
Tracing Level II Date Revised:
Page 1 of
Participating in Developed By: 175
Workplace Czarina Ruby M.
Communication
Pedereche Revision #
This module was prepared to help you achieve the required
competency, in. This will be the source of information for you to acquire
knowledge and skill into this particular trade independently and at your
own pace, with minimum supervision or help from your instructor.
 Talk to your trainer and agree on how you will both organize the
Training of this unit. The though the module carefully. It is divided
into section, which cover all the skills and knowledge you need to
successfully complete this module
 Work through all the information and complete the activities in

each section. Read information sheets and job sheets and complete
the self-check and perform the procedural checklist. Suggested
references are included to supplement the materials in this
module.
 Most probably your trainer will also be your supervisor or manager.

He / She are there to support you show you the correct way and
show you to do things.
 Your trainer will tell you about the important things you need to
consider when you are completing activities and it is important
that you listen and take notes.
 You will be given plenty of opportunity to ask question and practice

on the job. Make sure you practice your new skills during regular
work shifts. This way you will improve both your speed and
memory and also your confidence.
 Talk to more experience workmates and ask for their guidance.
 Use the self-check question at the end of each section to test your
own progress.
 When you are ready, ask your trainer to watch you perform the
activities outlines in this module.

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As you work through the activities, ask for written feedback on your
progress. Your trainer keeps feedback/pre assessment reports for this
reason. When you have successfully completed each
element, ask your trainer to mark on the reports that you are ready
for assessment.
 When you have complete this module (or several module), and fell
confident that you have had sufficient practice, your trainer will
arrange an appointment with registered assessor to assess you.
The result of your assessment will be recorded in your
Competency Achievement Record.

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LIST OF COMPETENCIES
Competency Unit of
Module Tittle Code
Number Competency
Participating in
Participate in
1 workplace 400311210
workplace
communication
communication
Working in team
2 Work in team 400311211
environment
environment
Solve/address Solving/addressing
3 400311212
General Workplace General Workplace
Problems Problems
4 Develop career Developing career 400311213

and life decisions and life decisions
Contribute to Contributing to
5 400311214
workplace workplace
innovation innovation
6 Present relevant Presenting relevant 400311215

information information
Practice Practicing
Occupational Occupational
7 400311216
safety and health safety and health
policies and policies and
procedures procedures
Exercise efficient Exercising efficient

and effective and effective
8 400311217
sustainable sustainable
practices in the practices in the
workplace workplace
Practice Practicing
9 entrepreneurial entrepreneurial 400311218
skills in the skills in the
workplace workplace

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MODULE CONTENT
MODULES OF INSTRUCTION
UNIT OF COMPETENCY: Participate in Workplace Communication
MODULE TITLE : Participating in Workplace Communication
MODULE DESCRIPTOR: This module covers the knowledge, skills and

attitudes required to obtain, interpret and
convey information in response to workplace
requirements.
NOMINAL DURATION : 6 hours
SUMMARY OF LEARNING OUTCOMES:
Upon completion of this module, the trainee/students must be able to:
LO 1. Obtain and convey workplace information
LO 2. Complete relevant work related documents
LO 3. Participate in workplace meeting and discussion
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA:
1. Specific relevant information is accessed from appropriate sources.

2. Effective questioning, active listening and speaking skills are used to
gather and convey information
3. Appropriate medium is used to transfer information and ideas.
4. Appropriate non-verbal communication is used.
5. Appropriate lines of communication with superiors and colleagues are
identified
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6. Defined workplace procedures for the location and storage of
information.
7. Personal interaction is carried out clearly and concisely.
8. Team meetings are attended on time.
9. Own opinions are clearly expressed and those of others are listened to
without interruption.
10. Meeting inputs are consistent with the meeting purpose and
established protocols.
11. Workplace interactions are conducted in a courteous manner
appropriate to cultural background and authority in the enterprise
procedures.
12. Questions about simple routine workplace procedures and matters
concerning conditions of employment are asked and responded.
13. Meeting outcomes are interpreted and implemented.
14. Ranges of forms relating to conditions of employment are completed
accurately and legibly.
15. Workplace data is recorded on standard workplace forms and
documents.
16. Basic mathematical processes are used routine calculations.
17. Errors in recording information on forms/documents are identified and
rectified.
18. Reporting requirements to superior are completed according to
enterprise guidelines.

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LEARNING OBTAIN AND CONVEY WORKPLACE
OUTCOME 1 INFORMATION
CONTENT:
1. Various sources of Information
2. Questioning Skills and Techniques
3. Effective Listening and Speaking Skills
4. Gathering Information: Using Open-Questions in Taking Client
History
5. Verbal and Non-Verbal Communication
6. Humans as Social Beings
7. 7 C’s of Clear Communication
8. Therapeutic Communication
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
1. Specific and relevant information is accessed from appropriate
sources
2. Effective questioning, active listening and speaking skills are used
to
gather and convey information
3. Appropriate medium is used to transfer information and ideas
4. Appropriate nonverbal communication is used
5. Appropriate lines of communication with supervisors and
colleagues are identified and followed
6. Defined workplace procedures for the location and storage of
information are used
7. Personal interaction is carried out clearly and concisely
CONDITIONS:
The following resources must be provided:

 Paper/ Notebook
 Pencils/ Ballpen
 Computer with peripherals
 Internet connection
 Learning Management System
 Fax machine
 Telephone
 Storage devices
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 Projector
 Audio-Visual Presentation
 Printer
 Tools, Supplies and Materials applicable
METHODOLOGIES
 Group discussion
 Lecture
 Film Viewing
 Demonstration
 Self-paced learning
ASSESSMENT METHODS:
 Oral Evaluation
 Written Examination
 Observation

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LEARNING EXPERIENCES
Learning Outcome # 1
OBTAIN AND CONVEY WORKPLACE INFORMATION

Learning Activities Special Instruction
1. Read Information Sheet 1.1-1 on
Compare answers with Answer Key
Various Sources of Information
then answer Self-Check 1.1-1 1.1-1
Questioning Skills and Compare answers with Answer Key
Techniques then answer Self- 1.1-2
Check 1.1-2
Effective Listening and Speaking Compare answers with Answer Key
Skills then answer Self-Check 1.1-3
1.1-3
Gathering Information: Using
Open-Questions in Taking Client
History then answer Self-Check 1.1-4
1.1-4
Verbal and Non-Verbal Compare answers with Answer Key
Communication then answer 1.1-5
Self-Check 1.1-5
Humans as Social Compare answers with Answer Key
Communication then answer 1.1-6
Self-Check 1.1-6
7. Read Information Sheet 1.1-7 on 7
C’s of Clear Communication
Therapeutic Communication

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INFORMATION SHEET 1.1-1
Various Sources of Information
Learning Objectives: After reading this INFORMATION SHEET, you MUST be able
to:
1. Identify the different sources of information

2. Define what are the sources of information
Sources of information are often considered primary, secondary, or

tertiary depending on their originality and their proximity to when the
information was created. Consider if it is an original work, or whether it
evaluates or comments on the works of others. Also consider the proximity,
or how close the information is to a first-hand account or if it is after the
fact.
Primary information
A primary source of information is one that provides data from an

original source document. This may be as simple as an invoice sent to a
business or a cheque received. It may be more complex, such as a set of
sales figures for a range of goods for a tinned food manufacturer for one
week, or it may be a set of sales figures over several weeks and several
locations. There are many examples of primary sources in many walks of
life, but generally a primary source is defined as being where a piece of
information appears for the first time.
Here are some examples of primary information sources.
 Diaries
 Experiments
 Poems
 Personal correspondences
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 Speeches
 Paintings
 Interviews
 Annual reports of an organization or agency
 Patents
 Court records
Secondary information
A secondary source of information is one that provides information

from a source other than the original. Secondary sources are processed
primary sources, second-hand versions. Examples of secondary sources
could be an accounts book detailing invoices received, a bank statement
that shows details of cheques paid in and out. Where statistical information
is gathered, such as in surveys or polls, the survey data or polling data is
the primary source and the conclusions reached from the survey or the
results of the poll are secondary sources.
Here are some examples of secondary information sources.
 Textbooks
 Biographies
 Magazine articles
 Book reviews
 Histories
Tertiary Information Sources
A tertiary information source lists, compiles, or indexes primary and

secondary information sources. These sources are most often used to look
up facts or to get a general idea about something.
Here are some examples of tertiary information sources.
 Almanacs
 Chronologies
 Directories
 Manuals
 Handbooks
 Guidebooks
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 Indexes
 Statistics
Internal information
All organisations generate a substantial amount of information

relating to their operation. This internal information is vital to the successful
management of the organisation. The information may be available from a
number of sources within the organisation, for example:
 Marketing and sales information on performance, revenues, markets

shares, distribution channels, etc.
 Production and operational information on assets, quality, standards,
etc.
 Financial information on profits, costs, margins, cash flows,
investments, etc.
 Internal documentation such as order forms, invoices, credit notes,
procedural manuals.
External information
An external source of information is concerned with what is

happening beyond the boundaries of the organisation. This covers any
documentation relating to a subject area produced as a summary or detailed
report by an agency external to an organisation. Such information may be
obtainable from government agencies or private information providers.
Examples might include:
 census figures
 telephone directories
 judgments on court cases
 computer users’ yearbook
 legislation, for example
 gallup polls the Data Protection Act
 national opinion polls
 trade journals
 Ordnance Survey maps
 professional publications
 financial services agencies such
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 industry standards as Dunn and Bradstreet
 the Internet
Self-Check 1.1-1
TRUE OR FALSE:
Tell whether the given statement is true or false. Write TRUE if the
statement is CORRECT and FALSE if the statement is not correct. Write
your answer on a separated sheet.
1. A primary source of information is one that provides data from an

original source document.
2. Sources of information are often considered primary, secondary, or
tertiary depending on their originality and their proximity to when the
information was created.
3. A tertiary source of information is one that provides information from
a source other than the original.
4. A secondary information source lists, compiles, or indexes primary
and secondary information sources
5. An external source of information is concerned with what is
happening beyond the boundaries of the organisation

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Answer Key 1.1-1
1. TRUE
2. TRUE
3. FALSE
4. FALSE
5. TRUE

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Questioning Skills and Techniques
to:
1. Identify the different questioning skills and techniques

2. Learn and apply the importance of questioning
Gathering information is a basic human activity – we use information to

learn, to help us solve problems, to aid our decision making processes and to
understand each other more clearly.
Questioning is the key to gaining more information and without it

interpersonal communications can fail. Questioning is fundamental to successful
communication - we all ask and are asked questions when engaged in
conversation.
We find questions and answers fascinating and entertaining – politicians,

reporters, celebrities and entrepreneurs are often successful based on their
questioning skills – asking the right questions at the right time and also answering
(or not) appropriately.
Although questions are usually verbal in nature, they can also be non-
verbal. Raising of the eyebrows could, for example, be asking, “Are you sure?”
facial expressions can ask all sorts of subtle questions at different times and in
different contexts.
Why Ask Questions?
Although the following list is not exhaustive it outlines the main reasons
questions are asked in common situations.
To Obtain Information:
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The primary function of a question is to gain information – ‘What time is it?’
To help maintain control of a conversation
While you are asking questions you are in control of the conversation,
assertive people are more likely to take control of conversations attempting to gain
the information they need through questioning. (Also see our pages
on Assertiveness)
Express an interest in the other person
Questioning allows us to find out more about the respondent, this can be
useful when attempting to build rapport and show empathy or to simply get to
know the other person better. (Also see Building Rapport and Empathy)
To clarify a point
Questions are commonly used in communication to clarify something that

the speaker has said. Questions used as clarification are essential in reducing
misunderstanding and therefore more effective communication. (Also
see Clarification)
To explore the personality and or difficulties the other person may have
Questions are used to explore the feelings, beliefs, opinions, ideas and
attitudes of the person being questioned. They can also be used to better
understand problems that another person maybe experiencing – like in the example
of a doctor trying to diagnose a patient. (See our page What is Counselling?)
To test knowledge
Questions are used in all sorts of quiz, test and exam situations to ascertain
the knowledge of the respondent. ‘What is the capital of France?’ for example.
To encourage further thought
Questions may be used to encourage people think about something more

deeply. Questions can be worded in such a way as to get the person to think about
a topic in a new way. ‘Why do you think Paris is the capital of France?”
In group situations
Questioning in group situations can be very useful for a number of reasons,

to include all members of the group, to encourage more discussion of a point, to
keep attention by asking questions without advance warning. These examples can
be easily related to a classroom of school children.
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Self-Check 1.1-2
Enumeration:
Enumerate your answers on what is being asked. List all the possible answers you
can think.
1. What are the reasons why you have to ask questions

2. What are the techniques in asking question?

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Answer Key 1.1-2
1. Whatare the reasons why you have to ask questions

 To obtain information
 To help maintain control of a conversation
 Express an interest in the other person
 To clarify appoint
 To explore the personality and or difficulties the other person may
have
 To test knowledge
 T o encourage further thought
2. What are the techniques in asking question?

 You must be structures
 Using silence
 Encouraging participation

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Effective Listening and Speaking Skills
to:
1. Enumerate the importance of listening and speaking skills

2. Identify the purpose of Listening
3. Identify the 10 steps of effective listening
4. Practice the speaking techniques to be able to produce a conducive
conversation
Listening Skills
Listening is the ability to accurately receive and interpret messages in

the communication process.
Listening is key to all effective communication. Without the ability to

listen effectively, messages are easily misunderstood. As a result,
communication breaks down and the sender of the message can easily
become frustrated or irritated.
Good listening skills also have benefits in our personal lives,

including:
A greater number of friends and social networks, improved self-esteem

and confidence, higher grades at school and in academic work, and even
better health and general well-being.
Studies have shown that, whereas speaking raises blood pressure,

attentive listening can bring it down.
The Purpose of Listening

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There is no doubt that effective listening is an extremely important life
skill. Why is listening so important?
Listening serves a number of possible purposes, and the purpose of

listening will depend on the situation and the nature of the communication.
To specifically focus on the messages being communicated, avoiding

distractions and preconceptions.
To gain a full and accurate understanding into the speakers point of

view and ideas.
To critically assess what is being said. (See our page on Critical

Thinking for more).
To observe the non-verbal signals accompanying what is being said to

enhance understanding.
To show interest, concern and concentration.
To encourage the speaker to communicate fully, openly and honestly.
To develop an selflessness approach, putting the speaker first.
To arrive at a shared and agreed understanding and acceptance of

both sides views.
Listening is Not the Same as Hearing
Hearing refers to the sounds that enter your ears. It is a physical

process that, provided you do not have any hearing problems, happens
automatically.
Listening, however, requires more than that: it requires focus and

concentrated effort, both mental and sometimes physical as well.
Listening means paying attention not only to the story, but how it is
told, the use of language and voice, and how the other person uses his or
her body. In other words, it means being aware of both verbal and non-
verbal messages. Your ability to listen effectively depends on the degree to
which you perceive and understand these messages.

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Listening is not a passive process. In fact, the listener can, and
should, be at least as engaged in the process as the speaker. The phrase
‘active listening’ is used to describe this process of being fully involved.
10 Steps To Effective Listening
Here are 10 tips to help you develop effective listening skills.
Step 1: Face the speaker and maintain eye contact.
Talking to someone while they scan the room, study a computer

screen, or gaze out the window is like trying to hit a moving target. How
much of the person's divided attention you are actually getting? Fifty
percent? Five percent? If the person were your child you might demand,
"Look at me when I'm talking to you," but that's not the sort of thing we say
to a lover, friend or colleague. Eye contact is considered a basic ingredient of
effective communication. When we talk, we look each other in the eye. That
doesn't mean that you can't carry on a conversation from across the room,
or from another room, but if the conversation continues for any length of
time, you (or the other person) will get up and move. The desire for better
communication pulls you together.
Step 2: Be attentive, but relaxed.
Now that you've made eye contact, relax. You don't have to stare
fixedly at the other person. You can look away now and then and carry on
like a normal person. The important thing is to be attentive. The dictionary
says that to "attend" another person means to:
 be present
 give attention
 apply or direct yourself
 pay attention
 remain ready to serve
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Mentally screen out distractions, like background activity and noise.
In addition, try not to focus on the speaker's accent or speech mannerisms
to the point where they become distractions. Finally, don't be distracted by
your own thoughts, feelings, or biases.
Step 3: Keep an open mind.
Listen without judging the other person or mentally criticizing the

things she tells you. If what she says alarms you, go ahead and feel
alarmed, but don't say to yourself, "Well, that was a stupid move." As soon
as you indulge in judgmental bemusements, you've compromised your
effectiveness as a listener.
Listen without jumping to conclusions. Remember that the speaker is

using language to represent the thoughts and feelings inside her brain. You
don't know what those thoughts and feelings are and the only way you'll find
out is by listening.
Don't be a sentence-grabber. Occasionally my partner can't slow his

mental pace enough to listen effectively, so he tries to speed up mine by
interrupting and finishing my sentences. This usually lands him way off
base, because he is following his own train of thought and doesn't learn
where my thoughts are headed. After a couple of rounds of this, I usually
ask, "Do you want to have this conversation by yourself, or do you want to
hear what I have to say?" I wouldn't do that with everyone, but it works with
him.
Step 4: Listen to the words and try to picture what the speaker is
saying.
Allow your mind to create a mental model of the information being

communicated. Whether a literal picture, or an arrangement of abstract
concepts, your brain will do the necessary work if you stay focused, with
senses fully alert. When listening for long stretches, concentrate on, and
remember, key words and phrases.
When it's your turn to listen, don’t spend the time planning what to
say next. You can't rehearse and listen at the same time. Think only about
what the other person is saying.
Finally, concentrate on what is being said, even if it bores you. If your

thoughts start to wander, immediately force yourself to refocus.
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Step 5: Don't interrupt and don't impose your "solutions."
Children used to be taught that it's rude to interrupt. I'm not sure
that message is getting across anymore. Certainly the opposite is being
modeled on the majority of talk shows and reality programs, where loud,
aggressive, in-your-face behavior is condoned, if not encouraged.
Interrupting sends a variety of messages. It says:
"I'm more important than you are."
"What I have to say is more interesting, accurate or relevant."
"I don't really care what you think."
"I don't have time for your opinion."
"This isn't a conversation, it's a contest, and I'm going to win."
We all think and speak at different rates. If you are a quick thinker
and an agile talker, the burden is onyouto relax your pace for the slower,
more thoughtful communicator—or for the guy who has trouble expressing
himself.
When listening to someone talk about a problem, refrain from

suggesting solutions. Most of us don't want your advice anyway. If we do,
we'll ask for it. Most of us prefer to figure out our own solutions. We need
you to listen and help us do that. Somewhere way down the line, if you are
absolutely bursting with a brilliant solution, at least get the speaker's
permission. Ask, "Would you like to hear my ideas?"
Step 6: Wait for the speaker to pause to ask clarifying questions.
When you don't understand something, of course you should ask the
speaker to explain it to you. But rather than interrupt, wait until the
speaker pauses. Then say something like, "Back up a second. I didn't
understand what you just said about…"
Step 7: Ask questions only to ensure understanding.
At lunch, a colleague is excitedly telling you about her trip to Vermont

and all the wonderful things she did and saw. In the course of this
chronicle, she mentions that she spent some time with a mutual friend. You
jump in with, "Oh, I haven't heard from Alice in ages. How is she?" and, just
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like that, discussion shifts to Alice and her divorce, and the poor kids, which
leads to a comparison of custody laws, and before you know it an hour is
gone and Vermont is a distant memory.
This particular conversational affront happens all the time. Our

questions lead people in directions that have nothing to do with
where they thought they were going. Sometimes we work our way back to
the original topic, but very often we don't.
When you notice that your question has led the speaker astray, take
responsibility for getting the conversation back on track by saying
something like, "It was great to hear about Alice, but tell me more about
your adventure in Vermont."
Step 8: Try to feel what the speaker is feeling.
If you feel sad when the person with whom you are talking expresses
sadness, joyful when she expresses joy, fearful when she describes her fears
—and convey those feelings through your facial expressions and words—
then your effectiveness as a listener is assured. Empathy is the heart and
soul of good listening.
To experience empathy, you have to put yourself in the other person's

place and allow yourself to feel what it is like to be her at that moment. This
is not an easy thing to do. It takes energy and concentration. But it is a
generous and helpful thing to do, and it facilitates communication like
nothing else does.
Step 9: Give the speaker regular feedback.
Show that you understand where the speaker is coming from by

reflecting the speaker's feelings. "You must be thrilled!" "What a terrible
ordeal for you." "I can see that you are confused." If the speaker's feelings
are hidden or unclear, then occasionally paraphrase the content of the
message. Or just nod and show your understanding through appropriate
facial expressions and an occasional well-timed "hmmm" or "uh huh."
The idea is to give the speaker some proof that you are listening, and
that you are following her train of thought—not off indulging in your own
fantasies while she talks to the ether.
In task situations, regardless of whether at work or home, always

restate instructions and messages to be sure you understand correctly.
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Step 10: Pay attention to what isn't said—to nonverbal cues.
If you exclude email, the majority of direct communication is probably

nonverbal. We glean a great deal of information about each other without
saying a word. Even over the telephone, you can learn almost as much
about a person from the tone and cadence of her voice than from anything
she says. When I talk to my best friend, it doesn't matter what we chat
about, if I hear a lilt and laughter in her voice, I feel reassured that she's
doing well.
Face to face with a person, you can detect enthusiasm, boredom, or

irritation very quickly in the expression around the eyes, the set of the
mouth, the slope of the shoulders. These are clues you can't ignore. When
listening, remember that words convey only a fraction of the message.
THE FOUR SPEAKING SKILLS

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It is a common desire for all of us to speak a second language well. To
do this we need to know what skills are required to become a good speaker.
This short article will help you to understand four important skills that you
need to develop:
1. FLUENCY. Fluency is about how comfortable and confident you are

in speaking English. If you can speak for an extended period of time,
that is an indicator of strong fluency. It is also about showing a clear
connection between each point that you are trying to make. This skill
means that the listener can follow what you are saying and does not get
lost.
2. VOCABULARY. Of course, if you don’t have the words to say what you
want to say, then you cannot say it. Being a good speaker means
constantly growing you’re vocabulary. The more interesting words you
know, the stronger your speaking skills. The best way to grow your
vocabulary is to read in English and make a note of any new words that
you encounter in a vocabulary notebook.
3. GRAMMAR. The dreaded G word! Grammar does matter and the fewer
mistakes you make, the better your speaking skill will be. However, do not
worry about making mistakes either! A good speaker does not have to use
perfect grammar. Certainly, though, it is a good idea to make sure that you
have mastered the major tenses.
4. PRONUNCIATION. Pronunciation is a complex area, with a lot of sub skills
that can be practiced. The basic rule of thumb is that an average speaker
can speak and be understood. A skilled speaker can use the sub skills of
pronunciation to emphasise and make the communicative effect of their
speech more impactful. The sub skills of pronunciation include: word and
sentence stress, intonation, rhythm and the use of the individual sounds of
a language. A good way to practice your pronunciation is to copy! Simply
listen to how someone with good pronunciation speaks, and try to imitate
them as closely as possible.

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Self-Check 1.1-3
Enumeration:
Enumerate your answers on what is being asked. List all the possible answers you
can think.
1. What are the 10 Steps to Effective Listening?

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Answer Key 1.1-3
What are the 10 Steps to Effective Listening?
Step 1: Face the speaker and maintain eye contact.
Step 2: Be attentive, but relaxed.
Step 3: Keep an open mind.
Step 4: Listen to the words and try to picture what the speaker is
saying.
Step 5: Don't interrupt and don't impose your "solutions."
Step 6: Wait for the speaker to pause to ask clarifying questions.
Step 7: Ask questions only to ensure understanding.
Step 8: Try to feel what the speaker is feeling.

Step 9: Give the speaker regular feedback
Step 10: Pay attention to what isn't said—to nonverbal cues.

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Gathering Information: Using Open-Questions in Taking Client History
to:
1. Distinguish between open-ended and close-ended questions.

2. Develop questioning skills through practice and feedback.
3. Identify a structure for client genetic history taking.
4. Develop skills obtaining information about client genetic histories
through practice and feedback
Obtaining Information from Clients an essential component of genetic

counseling is obtaining information about client situations in order to
assess their reasons for seeking genetic counseling; the decisions, if any,
that they wish to make; and the factors that are relevant to their situations.
Questioning is an important skill for eliciting this type of information. This
chapter first defines questioning skills and discusses effective and ineffective
questioning strategies, and then discusses a specific type of information-
gathering activity—collecting information about client histories
Types of Questions The most direct way to gather information from

clients is by asking questions. Two major types of questions that are

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appropriate in genetic counseling are closed-ended and open-ended
questions:
 Close-ended questions are questions that clients can easily answer with a
“Yes,” “No,” or a one- or two-word response. Typically, closed questions begin
with forms of the verb “to be”: “Is it. . .,” “Do you. . .,” “Are they. . .?” (Danish
et al, 1980). Closed questions either include an explicit or implied choice,
such as “Are you going to have the test done?” (Hughes et al, 1997), or ask
for specific information or details, such as “Do you have any children
 Open-ended questions are questions that clients cannot easily answer with a
“Yes,” “No,” or a one- or two-word response. Typically open questions begin
with such words as “How,” “What,” “Tell me about. . .,” “I’m wondering
about. . .” Open questions enrich the interview by inviting clients to freely
express their views and experiences. They encourage clients to fill in the
gaps with respect to their feelings, thoughts, and situations (Hughes et al,
1997; Pedersen and Ivey, 1993; Wubbolding, 1996). For example, you might
ask, “How do you feel about the results of your test?” Open questions can
encourage clients to disclose more fully, can elicit concrete, specific
information, and can help you to better understand your client’s situation
(Geldard, 1989).
Consider the following examples of open and closed questions that might be
asked during genetic counseling:
Closed question: Are you scared?
Open question: How do you feel?
Closed question: Are you concerned about what you will do if the test results
are positive?
Open question: What do you think you might do if the test results are
positive?
Closed question: Is your relationship with your husband a good one?
Open question: Tell me about your relationship with your husband (This
response, although not grammatically a question, is still a
question because it requests additional information).
Why Asking Open-Ended Questions Is Important

The most important benefit of open-ended questions is that they allow
you to find more than you anticipate: people may share motivations that
you didn’t expect and mention behaviors and concerns that you knew
nothing about. When you ask people to explain things to you, they often
reveal surprising mental models, problem-solving strategies, hopes, fears,
and much more.
Closed-ended questions stop the conversation and eliminate

surprises: What you expect is what you get. (Choose your favorite ice cream:
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vanilla, strawberry, or chocolate.) When you ask closed-ended questions,
you may accidentally limit someone’s answers to only the things you believe
to be true. Worse, closed-ended questions can bias people into giving a
certain response. Answers that you suggest can reveal what you are looking
for, so people may be directly or indirectly influenced by the questions. Don’t
ask, “Does this make sense?” Ask, “How does this work?” and listen closely
to discover how well the design communicates its function. Note users’
word choices, because it might help to use their terms in the
interface.
Tips
Start open questions with “how” or with words that begin with “w,” such as
“what,” “when,” “where,” “which,” and “who.”
Don’t start questions with “was” (an exception to the “w” tip) or other forms
of the verbs “to be” and “to do.”
In general, avoid “why” questions, because human nature leads people to

make up a rational reason even when they don’t have one. We normally ask
“why” only about ratings, to tease out more open-ended feedback. Say
“Please tell me more about that,” instead.
Aim to collect stories instead of one- or two-word answers.
Even when you must ask closed-ended questions, you can ask an open-
ended question at the end, such as, “What else would you like to say about
that?”
Adding Other __________ to a set of multiple-choice answers is also a good

way to get open-ended feedback.
When to Ask Open-Ended Questions
 In a screening questionnaire, when recruiting participants for a

usability study (for example, “How often do you shop online?”)
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 While conducting design research, such as on
o Which problems to solve
o What kind of solution to provide
o Who to design for
 For exploratory studies, such as
o Qualitative usability testing
o RITE (paper prototype) design research
o Interviews and other field studies
o Diary studies
o Persona research
o Use-case research
o Task analysis
 During the initial development of a closed-ended survey instrument:
To derive the list of response categories for a closed-ended question,
you can start by asking a corresponding open-ended question of a
smaller number of people.
When To Ask Closed-Ended Questions

 In quantitative usability studies, where you are measuring time on
task and error rates, and you need to compare results among users
 In surveys where you expect many (1000+) respondents
 When collecting data that must be measured carefully over time, for
example with repeated (identical) research efforts
 When the set of possible answers is strictly limited for some reason
 After you have done enough qualitative research that you have
excellent multiple-choice questions that cover most of the cases
Bottom Line
Whenever possible, it’s best to ask open-ended questions so you can
find out more than you can anticipate. Test your questions by trying to
answer them with yes or no, and rewrite those to find out more
about how and what. In some cases, you won’t be able to accommodate
free-form or write-in answers, though, and then it is necessary to limit the
possibilities.

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Self- Check 1.1-4
Identification: Identify if the given questions are Open-Ended Questions or
Closed –Ended Questions.
__________1. Is this easy to use?
__________2. Are you satisfied?
__________3. How satisfied or dissatisfied are you with this process?
__________4. How would this fit into your work?
__________5. How might this change the way you do that today?
__________6. Do you like this?
__________7. Did you expect this kind of information to be in there?
__________8. What was that?
__________9. What just happened?
__________10. Do you think you would use this?

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Answer Key 1.1-4
1. Closed Ended Question
3. Open Ended Question

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Verbal and Non-Verbal Communication
to:
1. Differentiate Verbal and Non-Verbal Communication

2. Identify the different types of Non-Verbal Communication
Communication is a Latin word which means ‘to share’. It is the

sharing of information between different individuals. It includes the sharing
of ideas, concepts, imaginations, behaviours and written content.
Communication is simply defined as the transfer of information from one
place to another. This transfer of information can be conducted in different
ways.
Verbal Communication
Verbal communication is perhaps the most obvious and understood

mode of communication, and it is certainly a powerful tool in your

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communication toolbox. Put simply, verbal communication is the sharing of
information between two individuals using words.
Spoken versus Written Communication
While we typically focus on speech while talking about verbal

communication, it’s important to remember that writing is also a form of
verbal communication. After all, writing uses words too!
Imagine for a moment that you’re a college student who is struggling

with material in a class. Rather than simply giving up, you decide that
you’re going to ask your instructor for the guidance you need to make it
through the end of the semester. Now, you have a few choices for using
verbal communication to do this. You might choose to call your instructor, if
they’ve provided contact information, or talk to them in person after class or
during office hours. You may take a different approach and send them an
email. You can probably identify your own list of pros and cons for each of
these approaches. But really, what’s the difference between writing and
talking in these situations? Let’s look at four of the major differences
between the two:
1. Formal versus Informal: We generally use spoken

communication informally while we use written
communication formally.
2. Synchronous versus Asynchronous: Synchronous communication
is communication that takes place in real time, such as a conversation
with a friend. In contrast, asynchronous communication
is communication that is not immediate and occurs over longer periods
of time, such as letters, email, or even text messages.
3. Recorded versus Unrecorded: Written communication is
generally archived and recorded for later retrieval while spoken
communication is generally not recorded.
Benefits of Spoken Communication
Spoken communication can be a conversation, a meeting, or even a

speech. Spoken communication is powerful in that it allows for input from
every part of the social communication model. You encode your thoughts
into the spoken word and look to your audience to decode and take the
message in. You can ask for feedback directly to confirm understanding of
your message.
In a world where we do most of our talking by email and text, spoken

communication is a breath of fresh air. Leverage the power of spoken
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communication to create relationships—you can establish a rapport and a
sense of trust with your audience when you speak with them. Spoken
communication allows you to bond on a more emotional level with your
listeners.
Spoken communication also also makes it easier to ensure

understanding by addressing objections and clearing up
misunderstandings: you can adjust your message as you communicate it,
based on the feedback you’re getting from your audience. Spoken
communication allows you to walk away from a conversation with a higher
degree of certainty that your message was received.
Verbal communication is a powerful tool, and it’s made even more

powerful when paired with listening and nonverbal communication.
Nonverbal Communication
We’ve already employed a little bit of nonverbal communication with

the active listening skills we’ve previously discussed: nodding, facial
expressions, leaning toward the speaker to show interest—all of those are
forms of nonverbal communication. Body language can reinforce your
spoken message or it can contradict it entirely.
There’s a myth that says that when you speak, only 35 percent of your
communication is verbal and 65 percent of it is nonverbal. That’s not
entirely true because so much depends on the context and situation. It is,
however, absolutely true that nonverbal communication can make or break
your message.
Here are some types of nonverbal communication and the effects they
can have on the success of your communication:
 Facial expressions: Your teenage cousin we referred to at the

beginning of this section might have told you he was happy, but his
apathetic facial expression may have communicated different
information. Facial expressions—happy, sad, angry—help you convey
your message. Be aware of your facial expression when you talk and
particularly when you listen, which is when it’s easy to forget.
 Gestures: When you speak, a gesture can make your message
stronger. Pointing out something you want your listener to look at more
closely is an example of nonverbal communication that makes your
message understood. Motioning warmly toward a coworker who
deserves special recognition, making a fist to show frustration or anger,
such gestures help further engage your audience when you speak.
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 Proximity: How close you are to your audience when you speak sends
a nonverbal message. If your size is imposing and you leave a very
small distance between you and your listener, it’s likely your nonverbal
communication will be a bit threatening. On the other hand, giving
someone too much space is an awkward nonverbal communication
that might confuse your listener.
 Touch: Shaking an audience member’s hand, putting your hand on his
shoulder: these are nonverbal cues that can affect the success of your
message. Touch communicates affection, but it also communicates
power. In fact, when women touch a listener, it’s often assumed that
they’re being affectionate or conveying empathy, but when a man
touches a listener, it can be taken as a sign of communicating power or
even dominance.
 Eye contact: Making and maintaining eye contact with an audience
when you’re verbally communicating or listening communicates to the
other party that you’re interested and engaged in the conversation.
Good eye contact often conveys the trait of honesty to the other party.
 Appearance: Your clothing, hair, and jewelry are also a part of
nonverbal communication. If you put a dachshund pin on your lapel
each morning (because you have a pet dachshund), that says
something about you as a person. Similarly, the quality and condition
of your clothing, how it fits, if it’s appropriate for the season—all of
these things speak nonverbally about you as a communicator.
Nonverbal communication reveals a lot about you as a communicator

and how you relate to other people. It pays to be aware of the elements of
your nonverbal communication so you can maximize the impact of your
message.

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Self-Check 1.1-5
Identification: Read the questions below and answer what is being asked.
1. Is a Latin word which means ‘to share’. It is the sharing of information

between different individuals.
2. The most obvious and understood mode of communication, and it is
certainly a powerful tool in your communication toolbox.
3. Is communication that takes place in real time, such as a
conversation with a friend.
4. Communication that is not immediate and occurs over longer periods
of time, such as letters, email, or even text messages.
5. The active listening skills we’ve previously discussed: nodding, facial
expressions, leaning toward the speaker to show interest—all of those
are forms of nonverbal communication.

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Answer Key 1.1-5
1. Communication
2. Verbal Communication
3. Synchronous Communication
4. Asynchronous Communication
5. Non-Verbal Communication

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Humans are Social Beings
Learning Objectives: After reading this INFORMATION SHEET, you MUST

be able to:
1. Identify the human characteristics that makes him a social beings.

2. Learn the traits of human as a social being.
We humans are social beings; we share mirror neurons that allow us

to match each other’s emotions unconsciously and immediately. We leak
emotions to each other. We anticipate and mirror each other’s movements
when we’re in sympathy or agreement with one another—when we’re on the
same side. And we can mirror each other’s brain activity when we’re
engaged in storytelling and listening – both halves of the communication
conundrum.
This view of the human state is directly contrary to the way most people
think about communications. The old model has a sender, a message, a
receiver, feedback and noise. It’s far too mechanistic and simple to describe
adequately what’s really going on. It leaves out the communal nature of
communications.

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We want to achieve this state of human communion; it’s a mistake to
think that most humans prefer the solitary life that so much of modern life
imposes on us. We are most comfortable when we’re connected, sharing
strong emotions and stories, and led by a strong, charismatic leader who is
keeping us safe and together.
Of course, that can have a dark side. When the leader is unprincipled
or lacks integrity, bad things can happen. But that’s hardly news. A quick
review of any period of human history will demonstrate that sad truth
If you want to lead groups of people to achieve – on the positive side of

the equation – more than any individual can achieve alone, this is how you
do it. You develop a sense of how you inhabit space and modify that to fulfill
the role you want to inhabit. You focus and control your emotions for key
conversations, meetings, negotiations, and presentations. You harness the
power of your unconscious mind to read other people reliably and quickly.
You develop the leadership power of your voice, and you strengthen the
nonverbal leadership signals you send out in important moments and
situations. And you tap into the power of your unconscious mind to create a
positive sense of what’s possible for you, tuning yourself up to be ready to
lead.
All of that work prepares you to put your vision across to people in powerful,
persuasive ways. Then, finally, you You can control the human interaction if
you’re intentional about your communications in this way. You think about
what you want to say. You think about the emotions you want to project.
And you bridge the undeniable differences among humans by the clarity of
your story and the depth and focus of your emotions. That’s what holds
your listener. If you show up half-present, conflicted, nervous, distracted, or
with something else on your mind, you won’t hold the attention of your
listener.
But if you know what you’re doing, you can take charge of your
listener’s brain and get it to match yours. That’s how the magic of
persuasion works. Our brains commune. We jump the human divide. We
share the same emotions and the same message.
And there’s a final irony. If you, as the leader, are not willing to listen
to your listeners, you will eventually drive them away. Communication can’t
just flow in one direction. It is always two way.

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Self-Check 1.1-6
True or False: Read each statement’s given below and write True if the
statement is correct and False if the statement is not correct.
1. We humans are social beings; we share mirror neurons that allow us

to match each other’s emotions unconsciously and immediately.
2. We can mirror each other’s brain activity when we’re engaged in
storytelling and listening – both halves of the communication
conundrum.
3. It’s right to think that most humans prefer the solitary life that so
much of modern life imposes on us.
4. Human does not develop the leadership power of your voice, and you
strengthen the nonverbal leadership signals you send out in
important moments and situations.
5. Human’s learn how to be a storyteller who taps into the deep stories of
human history and mythology to bring your message into being.

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Answer Key 1.1-6
1. True
2. True
3. False
4. False
5. True

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7C’s of Communication
to:
1. Identify and know the 7C’s of Communication

2. Learn and be able to use them for effective communication.
The 7 C’s of Communication
The seven C’s of communication is a list of seven principles that you should
try to ensure all of your communications adhere to. Their purpose is to help
ensure that the person you’re communicating with hears what you’re trying
to say. The seven C’s are: clear, correct, complete, concrete, concise,
considered and courteous.

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Clear
There are several stages to clarity.
Firstly, it’s important to be clear about the purpose of the message

you’re delivering. The recipient should be made aware of why they are
receiving the message and what you’re trying to achieve by delivering it. If
there are multiple goals, each should be laid out separately.
Secondly, it’s essential that the content of the communication is itself

clear. You should avoid jargon, use simple language, use simple structures
and focus on the core points of your message.
Correct
It’s essential that both the factual information you’re including in your
communications and the language and grammar you use are correct. If your
audience spots errors in either, they will be distracted and your credibility
will be greatly reduced, limiting the effectiveness of your communication.

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Some communications simply must be correct, clear and concise.
Complete
When creating a message, it’s important to give the recipient all of the
information they need to follow your line of reasoning and to reach the same
conclusions you have. This level of detail will be different in different
situations, and you should adjust your communications accordingly.
In addition, you should make things as easy as possible for the

recipient. For example, if you are issuing a “call to action”, provide explicit
guidance on that action. Increasingly it’s common to include things like
hyperlinks in written communications or to attach FAQs, both of which help
audiences access a complete set of information while also ensuring that core
communications focus on core messages.
Concrete
When shaping your communication you must ensure that you are
specific and that the logic and messages that you’re using fit together, build
on each other and support each other. Your arguments should be based on
solid facts and opinions from credible sources and you should share
irrefutable data to support your argument.

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It may be important to help bring the solid nature of what you’ve
created to life for your audience through examples that show the relevance
of your messages for them as individuals.
Concise
When communicating messages of this nature it’s important to stick

to the point and keep your messages short and simple. Don’t use 10 words if
you can use five. Don’t repeat your messages.
The more you say, the more risk there is of confusion. Avoid that risk
by focusing solely on the key points you need to deliver.
Courteous
People are not always courteous.
You can increase the effectiveness of your communications by being

polite and showing your audience that you respect them. Your messages
should be friendly, professional, considerate, respectful, open and honest.
To help ensure you are courteous, you should always use some
empathy and consider your messages from the point of view of the audience.
Coherent
If your communications are not coherent they will not be effective. To

help make sure your communications are coherent you should have a
logical flow and your style, tone and language should be consistent
throughout.

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In addition to making sure that each communication you issue is
coherent within itself, you should also ensure consistency of message when
delivering multiple communications.
Self- Check 1.1-7
Enumeration: Enumerate what is being asked, list your answers on the space
provided
What are the 7C’s of Effective Communication?

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Answer Key 1.1-7
1. Clear
2. Correct
3. Complete
4. Concrete
5. Concise
6. Courteous
7. Coherent

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be able to:
1. Use what are the proper words to be used when talking to a patient
2. Know the different forms of therapeutic communication.
3. Demonstrate the proper way of conversation with patient.
Learning the techniques of therapeutic communication is an

important skill that nurses should possess since communication is an
integral part of being a nurse. This is a study guide about the basic
principles of therapeutic communication, its purpose, differences of verbal
and nonverbal communication, and lastly, the different therapeutic
communication techniques.
What is Therapeutic Communication?
Communication is the process that people use to exchange

information; messages are simultaneously sent and received on two levels:
verbally through the use of words and nonverbally by behaviors that
accompany the words.

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 Therapeutic communication is an interpersonal interaction
between the nurse and the client during which the nurse focuses
on the client’s specific needs to promote an effective exchange of
information.
 Skilled use of therapeutic communication techniques helps the
nurse understand and empathize with the client’s experience.
Goals of Therapeutic Communication
Therapeutic communication can help nurses to accomplish many

goals:
 Establish a therapeutic nurse-client relationship.

 Identify the most important client concern at that moment (the
client-centered goal).
 Assess the client’s perception of the problem as it unfolds; this
includes detailed actions (behaviors and messages) of the people
involved and the client’s thoughts and feelings about the situation,
others, and self.
 Facilitate the client’s expression of emotion.
 Teach the client and the family necessary self-care skills.
 Recognize the client’s needs.
 Implement interventions designed to address the client’s needs.
 Guide the client toward identifying the plan of action to a satisfying
and socially acceptable resolution.
Verbal Communication Skills
Verbal communication consists of the words a person uses to speak to

one or more listeners.
 Using concrete messages. The nurse should use words that are as
clear as possible when speaking to the client so that the client can
understand the message; in a concrete message, the words are
explicit and need no interpretation, the speaker uses nouns instead
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of pronouns; concrete questions are clear, direct, and easy to
understand.
 Using therapeutic communication techniques. The choice of

technique depends on the intent of the interaction and the client’s
ability to communicate verbally; overall, the nurse selects
techniques that facilitate the interaction and enhance
communication between client and nurse.
 Avoiding nontherapeutic communication. In contrast, there are

many nontherapeutic techniques that nurses should avoid; these
responses cut off communication and make it more difficult for the
interaction to continue.
 Interpreting signals or cues. To understand what a client means,

the nurse watches and listens carefully for cues; cues are verbal or
nonverbal messages that signal keywords or issues for the client; finding
cues is a function of active listening often, cue words introduced by the
client can help the nurse to know what to ask next or how to respond to
the client.
Nonverbal Communication Skills

Nonverbal communication is behavior that a person exhibits while delivering
verbal content.
 Facial expression. The human face produces the most visible, complex,
and sometimes confusing nonverbal messages; facial movements connect
with words to illustrate meaning; this connection demonstrates the
speaker’s internal dialogue.
 Body language. Body language (gestures, postures, movements, and
body positions) is a nonverbal form of communication; closed body
positions, such as crossed legs or arms folded across the chest, indicate
that the interaction might threaten the listener who is defensive or not
accepting; a better, more accepting body position is to sit facing the client

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with both feet on the floor, knees parallel, hands at the side of the body,
and legs uncrossed or crossed only at the ankle.
 Vocal cues. Vocal cues are nonverbal sound signals transmitted along
with the content: voice volume, tone, pitch, intensity, emphasis, speed,
and pauses augment the sender’s message; volume, the loudness of the
voice, can indicate anger, fear, happiness, or deafness; tone can indicate
whether someone is relaxed, agitated, or bored; pitch varies from shrill
and high to low and threatening; intensity is the power, severity and
strength behind the words; emphasis refers to accents on words or
phrases that highlight the subject; and speed is the number of words
spoken per minute.
 Eye contact. The eyes have been called the mirror of the soul because
they often reflect our emotions; eye contact, looking into the other
person’s eyes during communication, is used to assess the other person
and the environment and to indicate whose turn it is to speak; it
increases during listening but decreases while speaking.
Therapeutic Communication Techniques
Choosing the appropriate therapeutic communication technique is critical in

establishing and maintaining the nurse-patient relationship. These
techniques are discussed below:
Examples Rationale
Technique
“Yes.”
An accepting response indicates
Accepting. “I follow what you
the nurse has heard and followed
Indicating reception said.”
the train of thought.
Nodding
Broad openings. “Is there something Broad openings make explicit

Allowing the client to take the you’d like to talk that the client has the lead in the
initiative in introducing the about?” interaction.

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“Where would you
topic.
like to begin?”
For verbal communication to be

Consensual validation.
“Tell me whether my meaningful, it is essential that
Searching for mutual
understanding of it the words being used have the
understanding, for accord in the
agrees with yours.” same meaning for both (all)
meaning of the words.
participants.
“Was it something
Encouraging comparison. like…?” Comparing ideas, experiences, or
Asking that similarities and relationships brings out many
differences be noted. Have you had recurrent themes.
similar experiences?
“Tell me when you feel

Encouraging description of anxious.”
To understand the client, the
prescriptions. “What is happening?”
nurse must see things from his or
Asking the client to verbalize
her perspective.
what he or she perceives. “What does the voice
seem to be saying?”
“What are your

feelings in regard
to..?”
Encouraging expression. Asking The nurse asks the client to
the client to appraise the quality consider people and events in
of his or her experiences. “Does this light of his or her own values.
contribute to your
distress?”
“Tell me more about

that.” When clients deal with topics
Exploring.
superficially, exploring can help
Delving further into a subject or “Would you them examine the issue more
idea. describe it more fully.
fully?”
Focusing. “This point seems The nurse encourages the client

Concentrating on a single point. worth looking at more to concentrate his or her energies
closely.” on a single point, which may
prevent a multitude of factors or

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problems from overwhelming the
client.
Formulating a plan of action. It may be helpful for the client to

“What could you do to
Asking the client to consider plan in advance what he or she
let your anger out
kinds of behavior likely to be might do in future similar
harmlessly?”
appropriate in future situations. situations.
General leads indicate that the

General leads. “Go on.” nurse is listening and following
Giving encouragement to what the client is saying without
continue.
“And then?” taking away the initiative for
interaction.
“My name is…” Informing the client of facts

Giving information. Making
increases his or her knowledge
available the facts that the client “Visiting hours about a topic or lets the client
needs. are…”
know what to expect.
Greeting the client by name,

“Good morning Mr…”
indicating awareness of change,
Giving recognition.
“You’ve finished or noting efforts the client has
Acknowledging, indicating
your list of things to made all show that the nurse
awareness.
do.” recognizes the client as a person,
as an individual.
“You appear tense.”

Making observations.
“Are you Sometimes client cannot verbalize
Verbalizing what the nurse
uncomfortable or make themselves understood.
perceives.
when..?”
The nurse can offer his or her

Offering self. “I’ll sit with you
presence, interest, and desire to
Making oneself available. awhile.”
understand.
Placing event in time or

Putting events in proper sequence
sequence. “What seemed to lead
helps both the nurse and client to
Clarifying the relationship of up to…?”
see them in perspective.
events in time.
Presenting reality. “I see no one else in When it is obvious that the client
Offering for consideration that is misinterpreting reality, the

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which is real. the room.” nurse can indicate what is real.
Client: “Do you think I

Reflecting. should tell the
Reflection encourages the client
Directing client actions, doctor?”
to recognize or accept his or her
thoughts, and feelings back to
Nurse: “Do you own feelings.
client.
think you should?”
Client: “I can’t sleep. I The nurse repeats what the client

Restating.
stay awake all night.” has said in approximately or
Repeating the main idea
Nurse: “You have nearly the same words the client
expressed.
difficulty sleeping.” has used.
Seeking information. Seeking to

The nurse should seek
make clear that which is not “I’m not sure that I
clarification through interactions
meaningful or that which is follow.”
with clients.
vague.
Silence. Absence of verbal

communication, which provides Nurse says nothing
Silence often encourages the
time for the client to put but continues to make
client to verbalize, provided that
thoughts or feelings into words, eye contact and
it is interested and expectant.
to regain composure, or to conveys interest.
continue talking.
The nurse seeks to offer a

Suggesting collaboration. “Perhaps you and I relationship in which the client
Offering to share, to strive, to can discuss and can identify problems in living
work with the client for hi or her discover the triggers with others, grow emotionally,
benefit. for your anxiety.” and improve the ability to form
satisfactory relationships.
Summarization seeks to bring out

Summarizing. Organizing and the important points of the
“Have I got this
summing up that which has discussion and to increase the
straight?”
gone before. awareness and understanding of
both participants.

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Translating into feelings. Client: “I’m dead.” Often what the client says, when
Seeking to verbalize client’s Nurse: “Are you taken literally, seems
feelings that he or she expresses suggesting that you meaningless or far removed from
only indirectly. feel lifeless?” reality.
Client: “I can’t talk to

you or anyone. It’s a
waste of time.” Putting into words what the client
Verbalizing the implied. Voicing
has implied or said indirectly
what the client has hinted or
tends to make the discussion less
suggested. Nurse: “Do you feel obscure.
that no one
understands?”
Voicing doubt. Expressing “Isn’t that unusual?” Another means of responding to

uncertainty about the reality of distortions of reality is to express
the client’s perception.
“Really?” doubt.
Self-Check 1.1-8
Identification: read each sentence below and answer what is being described of
asked.
1. Making oneself available

2. Allowing the client to take the initiative in introducing the topic
3. Expressing uncertainty about the reality of the client’s perception.
4. Voicing what the client has hinted or suggested.
5. Seeking to verbalize client’s feelings that he or she expresses only indirectly.
6. Absence of verbal communication, which provides time for the client to put
thoughts or feelings into words, to regain composure, or to continue talking.
7. Seeking to make clear that which is not meaningful or that which is vague.
8. Directing client actions, thoughts, and feelings back to client.
9. Repeating the main idea expressed.
10.Offering for consideration that which is real.

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Answer Key 1.1-8
1. Offering self
2. Broad opening
3. Voicing doubt
4. Verbalizing the implied
5. Translating into feelings
6. Silence
7. Seeking information
8. Reflecting
9. Restating
10.Presenting reality

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LEARNING PERFORM DUTIES FOLLOWING
OUTCOME 2 WORKPLACE INSTRUCTIONS
CONTENT:
1. Organizational guidelines and procedure
2. Technological means of feed backing
3. Maintaining records and making reports
4. Ways and mechanism of feed backing
5. Communication devices in a workplace interaction
6. Business Writing
7. Workplace etiquette
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
1. Written notices and instructions are read and interpreted in
accordance with organizational guidelines
2. Routine written instruction are followed based on established
procedures
3. Feedback is given to workplace supervisor based instructions/
information received
4. Workplace interactions are conducted in a courteous manner
5. Where necessary, clarifications about routine workplace procedures
and
matters concerning CONDITIONS of employment are sought and
asked
from appropriate sources
6. Meetings outcomes are interpreted and implemented

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CONDITIONS:

 Paper/ Notebook
 Fax machine
 Telephone
 Storage devices
 Projector
 Printer
METHODOLOGIES
 Lecture
 Film Viewing
 Demonstration
ASSESSMENT METHODS:
 Oral Evaluation
 Observation

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PERFORM DUTIES FOLLOWING WORKPLACE INSTRUCTIONS

1. Read information sheet 1.2-1
Organizational Guidelines and Compare answers with Answer Key
Procedures then answer Self- 1.2-1
Check 1.2-1
Technological Means of Feed Compare answers with Answer Key
Backing then answer Self-Check 1.2-2
1.2-2
Maintain Records and Making Compare answers with Answer Key
Reports then answer Self-Check 1.2-3
1.2-3
Ways and Mechanism of Feed Compare answers with Answer Key
Backing then answer Self-Check 1.2-3
1.2-4
5. Read information sheet 1.2-5 Compare answers with Answer Key
Communication Devices in a 1.2-3
Workplace Interaction then
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answer Self-Check 1.2-5
Business Writing then answer
Self-Check 1.2-6 1.2-3
Workplace Etiquette then answer

Organizational Guidelines and Procedures

be able to:
1. Familiarize with the different guidelines, procedures and

policies of a certain company
2. Follow the procedures and contribute to company goals
Organizations use policies and procedures to outline rules outline

courses of action to deal with problems. Organization's policies and
procedures to make employees understand the organization’s views and
values on specific issues, and what will occur if they are not followed.
Policies are general statements of how an organization want to behave and
procedures define exactly how to do a task or perform step by step .A policy
can be security related also and that can be used to identify risks and
mitigate risks.
Example: Organization can have a policy to implement physical

security and prevent unauthorized access inside the office premise. This
policy is applicable to everyone in the organization and general public and
must be followed strictly, without deviation. Policy may state that public can
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access only up to the reception and beyond reception only employees are
allowed. Procedure is the step-by-step instruction given to the reception area
how to deal with anyone who is trying to cross reception and trying to enter
inside the office.
What are Policies and Procedures?

Policies and procedures go hand-in-hand but are not interchangeable.
A policy is a set of general guidelines that outline the organization’s
plan for tackling an issue. Policies communicate the connection between the
organization’s vision and values and its day-to-day operations.
A procedure explains a specific action plan for carrying out a policy.
Procedures tells employees how to deal with a situation and when.
Using policies and procedures together gives employees a well-
rounded view of their workplace. They know the type of culture that the
organization is striving for, what behavior is expected of them and how to
achieve both of these.
The Importance of Policies and Procedures
Regardless of your organization’s size, developing formal policies and

procedures can make it run much more smoothly and efficiently. They
communicate the values and vision of the organization, ensuring employees
understand exactly what is expected of them in certain situations.
Because both individual and team responsibilities are clearly
documented, there is no need for trial-and-error or micromanaging. Upon
reading the workplace policies and procedures, employees should clearly
understand how to approach their jobs.
Formal policies and procedures save time and stress when handling
HR issues. The absence of written policies results in unnecessary time and
effort spent trying to agree on a course of action. With strict guidelines
already in place, employees simply have to follow the procedures and
managers just have to enforce the policies.
Implementing these documents also improves the way an organization
looks from the outside. Formal policies and procedures help to ensure your
company complies with relevant regulations. They also demonstrate that
organizations are efficient, professional and stable. This can lead to stronger
business relationships and a better public reputation.

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How to Develop Policies and Procedures in the Workplace
When creating a policy or procedure for your workplace, start by

reviewing the mission statement, vision and values. According to the New
South Wales Government Industrial Relations, “a workplace policy should:
 set out the aim of the policy

 explain why the policy was developed
 list who the policy applies to
 set out what is acceptable or unacceptable behavior
 set out the consequences of not complying with the policy
 provide a date when the policy was developed or updated”
Once you implement your policies and procedures, the next step is to
inform and train employees on them. You can’t expect employees to follow
guidelines if they aren’t aware of them. Be sure to schedule regular refresher
training sessions, too, to keep employees on track.
Paychex WORX says that “employees may be more likely to embrace
rules when they understand their purpose and that they are not meant to be
a form of control or punishment.” For this reason, keep a positive attitude
during training sessions and leave plenty of time for employee questions.
Policies and procedures should not be written once and left alone for
decades. Reviewing these documents regularly and updating them when
necessary is key to their success. In addition to an annual review, consider
updating them when you:
 adopt new equipment, software, etc.

 see an increase in accidents or failures on-site
 experience increased customer complaints
 have a feeling of general confusion or increased staff questions regarding
day-to-day operations
 see inconsistency in employee job performance
 feel increased stress levels across the office
Types of Policies and Procedures Every Workplace Needs
Organizations need policies and procedures for a wide range of HR

topics. Below are some of the subjects you should consider creating
guidelines for.

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Polices and Procedures for Attendance
These documents can include guidelines on tardiness, vacation time,
sick leave, appointments and paid volunteer hours. You can also include the
amount of notice required before booking time off. Take your corporate
culture into consideration when developing these rules.
Policies and Procedures for Employee Conduct

This is a broad topic and may require multiple, separate policies.
Including guidelines on drugs and alcohol use, smoking, performance
management and discipline helps employees know what is and is not
acceptable behavior at work.
Policies and Procedures for Use of Company Property

Employees have to use company property in order to do their jobs.
Depending on your industry, this could include electronics, medical
equipment, vehicles, tools and uniforms. Include guidelines on how to care
for company property, as well as how much (if any) and what types of
personal use are permitted using company property.
Policies and Procedures for Harassment and Discrimination

Harassment and discrimination affect workplace culture. Keep
employees safe and treat them fairly by developing policies and procedures
that prohibit behaviors such as:
 sexual harassment
 bullying
 verbal and physical harassment
 stalking
 hiring discrimination
 workplace discrimination
Include information on how to report harassment and discrimination

and explain that the company will not retaliate for reporting.
Policies and Procedures for Internet and Social Media Use

Make employees aware that any internet use at work is not private.
Urge employees to limit personal internet use and ensure everything they do
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online in the workplace is legal, ethical and appropriate (and explain what
these mean). Add guidelines about what is and is not appropriate to post on
social media regarding your organization as well.
Policies and Procedures for Health and Safety

Protecting employees’ safety and well-being should be every
organization’s top priority. When writing your health and safety policies,
include information about how to deal with illness or injury at work,
equipment safety guidelines and how to report a health or safety concern.
Also include procedures to follow in the event of a fire or natural disaster.
Policies and Procedures for Expenses

If your employees travel or purchase things for work, having an
expense reimbursement policy in place is essential. Explain what types of
expenses are acceptable for reimbursement (airfare class, transportation,
meals, etc.). Include procedures on how to submit a reimbursement claim.
Why You Need to Enforce Policies and Procedures
Policies and procedures are helpful for making your workplace run
more efficiently, but they are only effective if you enforce them. Enforcement
of the guidelines guarantees your organization’s operational procedures and
decision-making processes are uniform and consistent across cases.
When you don’t enforce your procedures, you put your organization at
risk. If an employee or external person comes forward with an allegation
against your company, having formal policies and procedures in place
strengthens your case.
For example, say someone sues your organization for hiring
discrimination, claiming that they were not given a job they interviewed for
because they have a disability. Having an anti-discrimination policy in place
is a strong piece of evidence in your defense.
Or, say that you refuse to reimburse a first-class plane ticket an
employee bought to get to a conference. Pointing out that first-class airfare
is not eligible for expense reimbursement and having proof of this in your
policy protects your organization from legal actions and reputation damage.
Without formal policies and procedures, your organization may not be
reaching its potential. Developing and enforcing policies that reflect your
workplace’s values make it a better environment for all employees.
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Standards and Guidelines
A standard is used to specify the technologies which must be used for
a specific task and guidelines are only suggestions and are not mandatory.
Self-Check 1.2-1
Enumeration: List the answers on the questions being ask
How to Develop Policies and Procedures in the Workplace?

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Answer Key 1.2-1
1. set out the aim of the policy

2. explain why the policy was developed
3. list who the policy applies to
4. set out what is acceptable or unacceptable behavior
5. set out the consequences of not complying with the policy
6. provide a date when the policy was developed or updated”

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Technological Means of Feed Backing

to:
1. Identify the means and ways of feed backing using technology

2. Learn and apply the technological means of feed backing

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Use technology in and out of the classroom to provide effective
feedback. These tools can improve feedback as well as learning.
Effective Feedback using Technology

Student learning is highly influenced by feedback. Prompt, specific
and timely feedback enables student to identify, rectify and learn from their
mistakes. It also reinforces and shows appreciation for the good work and
effort put in, in turn motivating and enhancing students’ interest in
learning.
Feedback can be made even more effective and useful using technology. The
following are three different ways that teachers can use technology to
provide feedback:
1. Comments
Many assignments are now digital. Assignments, discussions, and
even debates are often conducted online. So why not use the digital medium
to give feedback as well? Microsoft Word and Google Docs have a comment
section that can be used to provide direct feedback. The advantage- teachers
can highlight relevant sections, add in the corrections andmake comments.
Teachers can use a color-coding system for the different corrections
(example- red for sentence structure, blue for irrelevant points) enabling
students to easily track and monitor their mistakes. Sharing these
assignments via Dropbox or other similar sites have a notification system
that immediately notifies students of the changes or comments made,
resulting in provision of timely feedback.
Another medium that makes commenting easy is blogs. Students can
submit their work on a common classroom blog page and teachers can use
the comment box to provide their feedback.
2. Audio
Writing feedback has typically been the norm, unless the teacher
personally discussed the work with the student. With the availability of
different applications like Evernote, Desire2Learn and Vocaroo teachers
can now record audio feedback and send it to students. The benefit of using
this method- it enables teachers to thoroughly explain the feedback given.
For instance, rather than giving abrupt and simple feedback such as
‘incorrect sentence structuring’ teachers can explain to the student how it
was wrong and provide them with examples of the correct way of writing the
sentence.
Another advantage to this technique is that students can listen to
these audio messages any time, especially when writing a different
assignment to avoid making the same mistakes.

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3. Screencasts
What if teachers could provide both visual and audio feedback?
Screencasts or video screen captures are digital recordings of one’s
computer screen along with an audio narration.
This technology aids in giving summative feedback as well as individual. For
example, teachers can take screencasts of various assignments and with an
audio narrative, point out and explain the correct and incorrect methods of
writing. The audio comment is created and embedded in the visual content.
Teachers can then share the screencasts, enabling students to view and
learn from them even while at home. Teacher’s can select between
screencast sites such as Jing’s screencast and Screencast-o-matic..
Thus by using these different innovative technologies, teachers can make
giving and receiving feedback even more effective for learning.
Self-Check 1.2-2
TRUE or FALSE: Write TRUE if the statement is correct and FALSE if the
statement is not correct
1. Use technology in and out of the classroom to provide effective

feedback. These tools can improve feedback as well as learning.
2. Student learning is influenced by feedback.
3. Assignments, discussions, and even debates cannot be conducted
online.
4. Teachers can use a color-coding system for the different corrections
(example- red for sentence structure, blue for irrelevant points)
enabling students to easily track and monitor their mistakes
5. Screencasts or video screen captures are traditional way of giving feed
back.

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Key Answer 1.2-2
1. TRUE
2. TRUE
3. FALSE
4. TRUE
5. FALSE

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Maintain Records and Making Reports

to:
1. Identify the means and ways of maintaining a record

2. Know the methods of making reports
Records Management Plan for Your Office
Step 1. Determine who will be responsible and what resources will be

needed.
Establish a project team with representatives from all sub units and
job series (not just support and clerical staff) to oversee the project. The
project team should:
 Set up a network of "records liaisons" with a lead person and liaisons for
each office.
 Decide if everything will be done "in house" or if outside help (e.g.,
contractors) will be needed.

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 Select one office or sub unit in which to initiate the project. Based on the
experience obtained in this one office, you can estimate the resources
needed to do other offices.
Step 2. Identify records needed to document the activities and

functions of your office.
Conduct an inventory of the materials in your office. Don't forget to

include empty offices, closets, and other areas where things may have been
"stashed."
Document, at a minimum, where materials are located, how much

there is, and the format (e.g., paper, electronic, maps, etc.). (When you have
a "snapshot" of the scope of materials in your office, you may need to go
back to Step 1 and review the resources available to complete the project.)
An inventory will help you identify which materials are:
 Records,
 Reference materials (nonrecords),
 Personal papers (nonrecords),
 Extra copies of documents, publications, and forms (nonrecords).
The inventory will also help you identify which records would need to
be immediately available in the event of an emergency (vital records).
Step 3. Establish your procedures (recordkeeping requirements).
Now that you know what you have in your office, the project team
needs to determine:
 If records will be kept in a "centralized" area, or "decentralized" at

individual work stations;
 The type of documents that are included in the record files;
 How draft documents, working papers, and concurrence copies will be
handled.
 Who will be responsible for maintaining the record copy (records
custodian).

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Remember - Nonrecord materials such as convenience copies and personal
papers need to be maintained separate from records.
Step 4. Match your records to the records schedules.
The next step in the project is to match the records identified in your
inventory with the records schedules. Records schedules provide information
on how long records are to be kept in the office and what happens when
they are no longer needed in the office. Retention periods as stated in the
schedules are mandatory.
Step 5. Prepare a "file plan."
Now that you know what records you have and what the appropriate
records schedules are, you can begin to organize them.
Step 6. Document your recordkeeping requirements and procedures.
Prepare a document, a file plan, which gives details on:
 How your records are organized and maintained,

 Who is responsible for doing what,
 When it should be done (e.g., annual file retirement),
 What happens to the records when they are no longer needed in the
office.
Include all the decisions you made in steps 1 through 5 (e.g., what happens
to draft documents).
Step 7. Clean out records which are beyond the approved retention
periods.
Once you have documented your file plan you can begin to organize
your records. First, however, it is a good idea to get rid of those materials in
your office which are not needed. If authorized by the records schedule, you
can:
 Retire records which are no longer needed in the office to offsite storage
(e.g., the Federal Records Center (FRC)).
 Transfer permanent records to the National Archives, if appropriate.
Contact your Program Office, Region, or Center Records Officer for
assistance.
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 Recycle materials which have passed their approved retention period.
Remember to shred materials containing confidential or personal
information.
Step 8. Organize your records.
Now you can begin to implement your file plan.
First, prepare folders and organize documents within the folders.

Follow the procedures established in your file plan.
Place reference sheets in folders, when necessary, to refer users to the

location of related non-paper materials such as maps, drawings, videotapes,
etc.
Organize electronic documents (e.g., WordPerfect documents, e-mail

messages) residing on individual computer or local network directories using
the Agency file codes.
Remember to spend the majority of your time on the "mission-related"

records and less on administrative or "housekeeping" records such as
routine correspondence.
Step 9. Maintain your records on an on-going basis.
Once everything is organized, it is important to keep it current and up

to date. Be sure to:
 File new materials on a regular basis (e.g., weekly).

 Protect records containing confidential information such as confidential
business information (CBI) or personal information.
 Establish a check-out system (e.g., "out" cards) to track the location of
your records so you always know where they are.
 Clean out inactive materials on a regular basis, usually at the end of the
year (as per your written procedures).
 Retire eligible records to the FRC.
 Clean out superseded or obsolete reference materials.

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Step 10. Train, train, train.
Congratulations! Now you have a file plan. You've cleaned out all the
unnecessary materials and organized the necessary materials. Your job isn't
over yet! You need to be sure all staff members (and contractors) know
about their recordkeeping responsibilities. Records liaisons need to brief
senior management on the importance of your records management
program and train office staff on how it works.
Making Reports
Reports generally involve presenting your investigation and analysis of

information or an issue, recommending actions and making proposals.
There are many different types of reports, including business,

scientific and research reports, but the basic steps for writing them are the
same. These are outlined below.
 Step 1: Decide on the 'Terms of reference'

 Step 2: Decide on the procedure
 Step 3: Find the information
 Step 4: Decide on the structure
 Step 5: Draft the first part of your report
 Step 6: Analyse your findings and draw conclusions
 Step 7: Make recommendations
 Step 8: Draft the executive summary and table of contents
 Step 9: Compile a reference list
 Step 10: Revise your draft report
You can also check our information on assignment writing for tips on
planning, finding information, writing and reviewing your work.
Step-by-step guide to writing an assignment
Step 1: Decide on the 'Terms of reference'
To decide on the terms of reference for your report, read your

instructions and any other information you've been given about the report,
and think about the purpose of the report:
 What is it about?
 What exactly is needed?
 Why is it needed?
 When do I need to do it?
 Who is it for, or who is it aimed at?
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This will help you draft your Terms of reference.
Step 2: Decide on the procedure
This means planning your investigation or research, and how you'll

write the report. Ask yourself:
 What information do I need?

 Do I need to do any background reading?
 What articles or documents do I need?
 Do I need to contact the library for assistance?
 Do I need to interview or observe people?
 Do I have to record data?
 How will I go about this?
Answering these questions will help you draft the procedure section of
your report, which outlines the steps you've taken to carry out the
investigation.
Step 3: Find the information
The next step is to find the information you need for your report. To
do this you may need to read written material, observe people or activities,
and/or talk to people.
Make sure the information you find is relevant and appropriate. Check
the assessment requirements and guidelines and the marking schedule to
make sure you're on the right track. If you're not sure how the marks will be
assigned contact your lecturer.
What you find out will form the basis, or main body, of your report –
the findings.
For more on finding information:
Research and reading
Steps for writing an assignment
Step 4: Decide on the structure
Reports generally have a similar structure, but some details may

differ. How they differ usually depends on:

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 The type of report – if it is a research report, laboratory report,
business report, investigative report, etc.
 How formal the report has to be.
 The length of the report.
Depending on the type of report, the structure can include:
 A title page.
 Executive summary.
 Contents.
 An introduction.
 Terms of reference.
 Procedure.
 Findings.
 Conclusions.
 Recommendations.
 References/Bibliography.
 Appendices.
 The sections, of a report usually have headings and subheadings,
which are usually numbered
The basic structure of a report (PDF 262 KB; opens in a new window)
Step 5: Draft the first part of your report
Once you have your structure, write down the headings and start to
fill these in with the information you have gathered so far. By now you
should be able to draft the terms of reference, procedure and findings, and
start to work out what will go in the report’s appendix.
Findings
The findings are result of your reading, observations, interviews and

investigation. They form the basis of your report. Depending on the type of
report you are writing, you may also wish to include photos, tables or
graphs to make your report more readable and/or easier to follow.
Graphs - BBC Skillwise website (opens in a new window)
Appendices
As you are writing your draft decide what information will go in the
appendix. These are used for information that:
 is too long to include in the body of the report, or

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 supplements or complements the information in the report. For
example, brochures, spreadsheets or large tables.
Formatting and presenting your assignment
Step 6: Analyse your findings and draw conclusions
The conclusion is where you analyse your findings and interpret what
you have found. To do this, read through your findings and ask yourself:
 What have I found?

 What's significant or important about my findings?
 What do my findings suggest?
For example, your conclusion may describe how the information you
collected explains why the situation occurred, what this means for the
organisation, and what will happen if the situation continues (or doesn't
continue).
Don’t include any new information in the conclusion.
Step 7: Make recommendations
Recommendations are what you think the solution to the problem is

and/or what you think should happen next. To help you decide what to
recommend:
 Reread your findings and conclusions.

 Think about what you want the person who asked for the report
should to do or not do; what actions should they carry out?
 Check that your recommendations are practical and are based
logically on your conclusions.
 Ensure you include enough detail for the reader to know what needs
to be done and who should do it.
Your recommendations should be written as a numbered list, and

ordered from most to least important.
Step 8: Draft the executive summary and table of contents
Some reports require an executive summary and/or list of contents.

Even though these two sections come near the beginning of the report you
won't be able to do them until you have finished it, and have your structure
and recommendations finalised.

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An executive summary is usually about 100 words long. It tells the
readers what the report is about, and summarise the recommendations.
Step 9: Compile a reference list
This is a list of all the sources you've referred to in the report and uses
APA referencing.
APA referencing
Step 10: Revise your draft report
It is always important to revise your work. Things you need to check

include:
 If you have done what you were asked to do. Check the assignment
question, the instructions/guidelines and the marking schedule to
make sure.
 That the required sections are included, and are in the correct order.
 That your information is accurate, with no gaps.
 If your argument is logical. Does the information you present support
your conclusions and recommendations?
 That all terms, symbols and abbreviations used have been explained.
 That any diagrams, tables, graphs and illustrations are numbered and
labelled.
 That the formatting is correct, including your numbering, headings,
are consistent throughout the report.
 That the report reads well, and your writing is as clear and effective as
possible.

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Self-Check 1.2-3
Enumeration: Enumerate what is being asked, list your answers below
What are the basic steps in writing reports?

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Answer Key 1.2-3
Step 1: Decide on the 'Terms of reference'

Step 2: Decide on the procedure
Step 3: Find the information
Step 4: Decide on the structure
Step 5: Draft the first part of your report
Step 6: Analyse your findings and draw conclusions
Step 7: Make recommendations
Step 8: Draft the executive summary and table of contents
Step 9: Compile a reference list
Step 10: Revise your draft report

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Ways and Mechanism of Feed Backing
to:
1. Identify the ways of delivering feed back

2. Define the importance of knowing the mechanism of feed back.
What is a feedback mechanism?
It doesn’t seem to make sense that in one environment we thrive with

constant feedback, but in the other we tend to experience feedback overload
at even a fortnightly frequency.
The answer lies in something called a “feedback mechanism”, which

automates and depersonalises feedback. In this piece I’m going to explore
what feedback mechanisms are, and how they can work in an office
environment.
1. What is a feedback mechanism?

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If you’ve ever played a video game, you’ve experienced a feedback
mechanism. When you’re playing the game, you have a score that provides
constant feedback on your progress and strategy.
Depending on the game it may be a score, badges or a strength

meter. Regardless of the specifics, you’ve got some sort of visible indicator
that’s telling you whether you’re succeeding. That’s a feedback mechanism.
At a basic level, a feedback mechanism provides a means for you to

track your personal performance. Importantly, because the feedback is
depersonalised (in this case, automated) and not up for debate, there’s no
potential for feedback overload.
2. A feedback mechanism is forward focused
The purpose of a feedback mechanism is not to provide a review of

your past behaviour. Feedback mechanisms are naturally forward focused
because they connect your current actions to your future results.
A good feedback mechanism should either affirm or alter your course

of action. A good example is the score in any individual sport, i.e. golf or
tennis. The score gives immediate feedback, which allows the player to
change their behaviour (a more accurate service game, stronger returns,
longer drives, sharper puts etc) to achieve their desired result – an uptick in
performance.
3. Does a feedback mechanism give real-time feedback?
A feedback mechanism doesn’t have to be real time, but many

common examples do provide quick feedback – if you think of a sporting
score or a video game.
In a business environment, a good example is a Net Promoter Score.

For someone working in a call centre, the feedback isn’t exactly real time –
but it is fast, highly objective and not up for debate. The number is a fact,
and the individual can quickly understand whether they need to take action
to improve the numbers.
4. What does a feedback mechanism looks like in the business

environment?
Another clear example of a feedback mechanism in business is a sales

quota. If you’re a sales person, you will be given a sales goal every year.
There’s no debate at the end of the year as to whether you succeeded or not.
The P&L provides a natural feedback mechanism to measure that goal. You
don’t need someone to tell you whether you’re meeting expectations or not.

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A good feedback mechanism allows you to post those results live on a big
board. Feedback mechanisms can also build to a team goal where you
combine everyone’s quotas together. That sort of ‘big picture’ or aggregated
approach can work really well as a feedback mechanism that motivates
group performance.
In conclusion: Where have you seen feedback mechanisms at work?
Feedback mechanisms provide one of the most effective ways to change

behaviour. As the business environment accelerates, we’re hearing more and
more calls for ‘real time feedback’. It’s never been more important for
managers to understand what feedback mechanisms are, and how they can
be used for great results.
An effective feedback system in any organisation is the one that enables

two-way free communication. There have been many instances in the past
where organisations have been able to find solutions using this feedback
mechanism. ET offers some tips to build an effective feedback mechanism.
1. Go Anonymous
"Use an anonymous feedback platform where employees can anonymously

ask questions," says Kevin Freitas, HR director at InMobi. This creates a
comfort level amon ..
4. Two-Way System
A communication system in an organisation must always encourage

dialogues across the organisation. "A combination of top-down pulse surveys
and bottom-up employee generated conversations works well," says Freitas.
5. Respond
"Act on the gathered feedback and highlight the impact employees make, so
that employees are enthused and believe they can positively influence in the
organisation's success," says Vaidhyanathan.

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Self-Check 1.2-4
TRUE or FALSE: Write True if the statement written below is correct and
write False if the statement is not correct.
1. A “feedback mechanism”, automates and depersonalises feedback.

2. A communication system in an organisation must always encourage
dialogues across the organisation.
3. The purpose of a feedback mechanism is to provide a review of your past
behaviour.
4. A good feedback mechanism should either affirm or alter your course of
action.
5. A good feedback mechanism does not allow you to post those results live
on a big board.

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Answer Key 1.2-4
1. True
2. True
3. False
4. True
5. False

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Communication Devices in a Workplace Interaction
to:
1. Identify the different tools of communication being use in

workplace
2. Know the procedures on how to properly interact with
colleagues using the new technologies.
8 Essential Business Communication Tools In The Workplace

Posted 01 May, 2019 in Internal Communications

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Ever tried driving a car without gas? How about cooking without heat?
Doesn’t work, right? Without power to fuel them, they’re impossible.
Improving business performance is no different. Today's digital

workplaces need the power of internal communications to make it work –
and drive results.
But what are the best business communication tools to use? There
are lots of options, but these 8 essential communication tools are sure to
power your performance in the workplace.
1. Digital signage
2. Collaboration tools
3. Staff alerts
4. Video
5. Project management
6. Gamification
7. Mobile communication apps
8. Intranet
These summaries will tell you what each tool is, why you should use it
and what it’s best used for. Plus give you some handy examples of using the
communication tools in the workplace.
1. Digital signage
What: Information displayed on electronic screens in open work spaces

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Why: High visibility, strong visuals, broad reach
Best for: Awareness campaigns, promotional messaging, reaching staff not

in desk-based roles
Examples: Latest news headlines, corporate video or TV ad, business

performance dashboard
What: Facilitation of team members working together towards a common
goal
Why: Two-way instant messaging, team communication, open discussion
Best for: Small project teams, aligning geographically-dispersed employees
Examples: Cross-departmental projects, online development

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3. Staff alerts
What: Pop-up notifications delivered full-screen or in discreet message

windows
Why: Instant employee attention, unmissable format, authoritative
Best for: High-priority communications, time-sensitive messages,

emergency notifications
Examples: IT outages, shooter on site alerts, security warnings, breaking

news

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4. Video
What: Dynamic visual messaging produced, hosted and distributed online
Why: Attracts interest, conveys emotion, reflects consumer media

preferences
Best for: Recording presentations, video conferencing, staff involvement in

production
Examples: Company video tour, video alerts, regular CEO vlogs

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What: Co-ordination and planning of timing, tasks and dependencies for key
communication tasks
Why: Clear holistic oversight, adaptability, ream time management
Best for: Multi-team projects, complex implementations, time-critical

projects
Examples: Product launches, intranet redevelopment, company re-branding

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6. Gamification
What: Interactive tools to educate and motivate through participation and

competition
Why: Rich media, fun formats, healthy competition
Best for: Motivated learning, employee recognition, team-building
Examples: Employee quizzes, workplace weight-loss competition

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What: Access information, perform tasks and stay connected via

smartphone portal
Why: Accessibility, flexibility, broad reach – everyone carries their phone

everywhere!
Best for: Involving younger staff, reaching field-based staff, social media
engagement
Examples: Community support initiatives, staff events, induction program

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8. Intranet
What: Content repository and ‘single source of truth’ for staff information
Why: High credibility, focal point – all roads point to here!
Best for: Online forums, social intranet, information searchability, asset

management
Examples: Latest news and events, discussion forums, downloadable

marketing material

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A modern workplace needs modern solutions. These are only the
beginning - there are lots more business communication tools available.
Whatever your goals, these essential tools will help put the power back into
your workplace.

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Self-Check 1.2-5
Enumeration: What are the 8 Essential Business Communication Tools In
The Workplace

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Answer Key 1.2-5
1. Digital signage
3. Staff alerts
4. Video
6. Gamification
8. Intranet

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Business Writing
to:
1. Identify the different tools of communication being use in

workplace
2. Know the procedures on how to properly interact with
colleagues using the new technologies.
What is Business Writing? [A Simple Definition]
Business writing is such an interesting application of writing. It’s very

pragmatic.
Improving your business writing can propel both careers and

businesses. It’s the channel that transmits nearly all business work and
insight and interaction.
It flows up, down, laterally, internally, and externally to customers.

It’s the foundation of business.
Definition Of Business Writing
Business writing is a type of writing that seeks to elicit a business

response. It's a purposeful piece of writing that provides relevant
information to help a reader know something or do something. It must
be substantive, clear, correct, and easy to scan.

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Business Writing Should be Purposeful
There are two primary questions to ask every time we begin a business
document (or email):
1. Who is my reader? We have to understand our reader to match the

information they need.
2. What do I want my reader to know or do?
If we can't answer either of these questions, stop. There is no purpose to

what you are about to write, so it's not business writing.
If you are looking for more quick tips, you may enjoy our complete list of
the best business writing tips and tricks.

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Substance Must be Both Accurate and Relevant
The most important element in business writing is the information it

conveys.
If there are content gaps, incorrect information, irrelevant information

or the same information is repeated in different spins, the document will fail.
Always. Even if the words and grammar are beautiful and correct, the
document will fail.
At its core, business writing is about information exchange, so this

information is the essence of business writing. The information must be
complete, relevant to the reader, and accurate.
Be Clear In business writing, "Write to Express, Not to Impress."
The goal is to transmit information to a reader, so business writing

requires clear language to help a reader understand information easily.
Writing clearly is one of the harder aspects of business writing. One of my
favorite quotes about writing is by Blaise Pascal:
"I apologize for the length of this letter. I did not have time to make it shorter."
It's easy to write long, rambling sentence. Concise, clear writing

requires skill.
Concision can be challenging because it's a skill not emphasized in

college. In academic writing, assignments often require a certain length. We
have to fill ten pages, and we're instructed to develop our writing and
expand the concept. We earn good grades partially through the length and
impressive language. Puffed up language is rewarded.

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No one in business wants a longer document. In business writing, the
required skills are the ability to extract what is significant, synthesize, and
write clearly.
Our schools and colleges are correct to teach and emphasize

expository writing. No one can become a good business writer without first
being taught how to develop a thoughtful, well organized essay. We can't
extract or synthesize until we understand how to write cohesively and
develop a concept. Business writing sits on top of academic writing.
I've taught both academic writing at a university and business writing

to thousands of clients. Good business writing is harder to write than good
academic writing.
Grammar and Sentence Structure Must be Correct
Good grammar shows both attention to detail and skill.
These traits are highly valued in business. A grammar error is

unprofessional. Good grammar is the convention language uses to help us
communicate in a common language. It does matter.
Business writing, like all language, evolves. Grammar and style

evolve, also. Interestingly, all but one style guide now state that emoticons,
used judiciously, are acceptable in business writing. All style guides now
recommend one space after a period or other full stop in a sentence, instead
of two. These changing standards are why business writers need to
continually hone writing skills to stay current with conventions by reading
articles about business writing or taking a business writing course.

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Easy to Scan
Business readers are busy and cannot read everything. To help with
this information overload, business documents must be easy to absorb. This
means:
 No long paragraphs.
 Use lots of white space
 Indent sub-information to indicate hierarchy
 Use numbered or bulleted lists
 Headings above document sections are a natural antidote for information
overload
 Judicious use of bold or color can highlight key points
Format in business writing matters. These principles of business

writing can be applied to help improve your business writing skills.
The difference between business writing and other types of writing is

similar to Mark Twain's insight about word choice: “The difference between
the right word and the almost right word is the difference between the
lightning and the lightning bug.”
4 Types of Business Writing [And When to Use Them]
The world of business writing can seem vast. Each office seems to
have variations of documents, each with their personalized templates and
industry focus. Varying scenarios require varying forms of business writing.
However, the innumerable documents can be distilled into to four main
categories.

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Each category has its overall goal. Based on the objective, each of the
many business documents falls within these four broad segments.
This article will break down the broad field of business writing into
four categories. Understanding these conceptual divisions will help guide
your decisions about your document choice and goal.
1. Instructional Business Writing
Instructional business writing provides the reader with the

information needed to complete a task. The task may need be accomplished
immediately or it may be for future reference.
This type of document must break down a process into steps that are
understandable to the reader. The written record must account for reader’s
knowledge of the area, the scope of the task while integrating variations or
potential problems.
Examples:
o User Manual: a guide focused on allowing the customer to use a product.

Effective user manuals are crucial to a good user experience and a happy
customer. User manuals are often considered part of technical writing,
which is closely related to business writing.
o Specifications: a technical document which provides an outline of a

product or process that allows it be constructed or reconstructed by an
unfamiliar but knowledgeable user, enabling effective distribution.

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o Memo: a short notification of new information shared within a large group
in an organization. The memo may include a direct instruction or be a
reference on how to complete future tasks.
2. Informational Business Writing
Not all business writing requires action. A large volume of writing is

created for reference or record. This category can include some of the less
glamorous but still essential documents.
Recording business information accurately and consistently is

important for marking progress, predicting future work, as well as
complying with legal and contractual obligations.
Examples:
o Report: perhaps the bulk of informational writing is report writing.

Organizations rely on reports to act, to communicate business and
technical information, to capture work completed, to record incidents, to
finalize projects and recommendations, and to act as an archive. A well
written report allows the reader to easily grasp the content and, if
applicable, make informed decisions.
o Financials: documents that outline the financial state of a company.

These statements provide a fiscal snapshot of a company over a defined
period.
o Minutes: a summary of the proceedings of a meeting. A record of

discussions, decisions, and assignments for attendees and others.

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3. Persuasive Business Writing
When people think of business writing, they often think of the

persuasive writing category. These documents are generally associated with
sales. The persuasive writing may be direct, with focus on a specific item, or
indirect, with focus on developing the client relationship.
The goal is to two-fold: to convey information and to convince the

reader that the presented information offers the best value. The text is
written to impress the reader and sway their decision.
Examples:
o Proposals: these documents outline an offer of a product or service to a

specific potential client. The proposal generally presents project
overview, benefits, timeline, costs, and competency.
o Sales Email: an email written to a large number of people to pitch a

product or service.
o Press Release: a text written for journalists and media presenting new
information. The text aims to persuade the reader to share the content
through their own channels
4. Transactional Business Writing
Everyday communication falls under transactional business writing.

The majority of this writing is by email, but also includes official letters,
forms, and invoices. An easy way to quickly improve your transactional
business writing is to take an online course.

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These documents are used to progress general operations. They are
also used to convey good and bad news, often associated with human
resource processes.
Examples:
 Emails: documents used to quickly communicate information between

staff or clients in business activities. Read our guide on how to write a
business email here.
 Dismissal notice: this letter provides the official context and
procedural details associated with employment termination.
Style reminders
While the document goal varies, the core of business writing does not. Here
are some helpful style reminders.
o Effective professional writing is written with a clearly defined audience

and purpose in mind. This is results-oriented writing. The text helps the
reader do or know something.
o The writing style should be written to be concise, relevant, and
understandable. Excessive wording, jargon, or extraneous information
have no place in any type of business writing. Each element of the
document supports the communication of the purpose to the reader.
o Of course, good writing is free of grammar and spelling errors and
inaccurate information.

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Self-Check 1.2-6
IDENTIFICATION: Read each sentence below and identify what is being
asked.
1. Business writing documents that outline the financial state of a

company. These statements provide a fiscal snapshot of a company
over a defined period.
2. It is a summary of the proceedings of a meeting. A record of
discussions, decisions, and assignments for attendees and others.
3. It is a guide focused on allowing the customer to use a product.
Effective user manuals are crucial to a good user experience and a
happy customer. User manuals are often considered part of technical
writing, which is closely related to business writing.
4. It a short notification of new information shared within a large group
in an organization. The memo may include a direct instruction or be a
reference on how to complete future tasks.
5. It is a technical document which provides an outline of a product or
process that allows it be constructed or reconstructed by an
unfamiliar but knowledgeable user, enabling effective distribution.

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Answer Key 1.2-6
1. Financial writing
2. Minutes
3. User manual
4. Memo
5. Specifications

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Workplace Etiquette
to:
1. Enumerate the Do’s and Don’ts in workplace

2. Know the importance of etiquette in the workplace
When it comes to working in an office or other professional setting,

etiquette matters. How you present yourself and interact with those around
you—whether your coworkers, supervisors, or direct reports—speaks to who
you are as a person and as a member of the team, and can directly influence
the trajectory of your career.
Because etiquette is so important to professional success, I wanted to

share useful tips that other graduates can use as they begin to enter the
professional workforce, whether as a part of an internship, co-op, or
postgraduate life. I polled a few friends (most are fellow Huskies) and
coworkers, and this is a compilation of our advice.
Workplace Etiquette: The Don’ts
Let’s face it: There are certain actions and behaviors you just
shouldn’t bring with you into a professional workplace. Doing so can have
major negative impacts on your career. But for many individuals, proper
workplace etiquette does not come as intuitively as you might think. Below
are some of the biggest don’ts of office life.
1. Don’t “Reply All” to an email chain.
Understand the differences—and repercussions—between hitting

“Reply” and “Reply All” when responding to an email. Carefully consider
whether or not all of the parties who received the initial email need to be
included in your reply. Additionally, by “replying all,” you may find yourself
embarrassed as your entire organization reads details that were only meant
to be shared with one or two others.
When in doubt, always do your part to keep emails and other

correspondences friendly and professional. As a general rule, treat your
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emails as a professional form of communication, and make sure that the
information you share is appropriate for the time, place, and people
involved.
2. Don’t have personal conversations at your desk.
If you must have a private or personal phone conversation when

you’re at work, try not to have the conversation at your desk where others
can hear you. Many workplaces have conference rooms that you can use for
phone calls; otherwise, it might be a good idea to step outside.
Having a personal conversation at your desk can be distracting to the

coworkers near you, and may open you up to gossip about being someone
who “can’t leave their personal life at home”—which isn’t good for your
professional image.
3. Don’t bring your emotions into the office.
It’s best to leave your personal emotions at the door when you get to
work. Your desk neighbor doesn’t want to hear your sob story from over the
weekend. If you truly can’t focus on your work because something has
happened, it’s probably a better idea to take some personal time to process
your emotions. Or, if something in the workplace is bothering you, reach out
to the human resources department or your supervisor to resolve the issue
so it doesn’t interfere with your work.
4. Don’t be afraid to ask questions.
Asking questions—no matter how silly they may seem—will help you
clarify expectations and avoid erroneously completing an entire project only
to realize you did it all wrong. There’s little worse than overconfidence—
especially if it isn’t actually backed up by experience or skill.
So go ahead and ask your questions, and be sure to truly listen to the
answer.
5. Don’t gossip about fellow coworkers…or your boss.
Gossiping is one of the cardinal sins of office work: Just don’t do it.
Whether you’re tempted to gossip about your boss, co-worker, or the
company as a whole, you’re not hurting anyone but yourself when you do.

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Gossiping can portray you as someone who can’t be trusted or
someone who isn’t a team player, which won’t help you reach your
professional goals. It can also be duly harmful if it gets back to the target of
the gossip.
6. Don’t use emojis or multiple exclamation points (if any) in work

emails.
Disclaimer: This bit of advice will depend on the specifics of your

workplace. Some workplaces may embrace emojis and relaxed conversation;
others may expect a level of formality at all times. Regardless, be cognizant
and intentional when crafting your communications. Work emails don’t need
to be all serious all the time, but you’ll want to maintain a sense of
professionalism so that others see you as the competent expert that you
are.
When in doubt, always communicate professionally in your workplace

emails, regardless of how relaxed your superiors might seem. After you’ve
spent some time on the job, you’ll have a better idea of what is deemed
appropriate in your workplace.
7. Don’t talk back to your boss.
This bit of advice should probably go without saying, but it’s an

important one nonetheless. Even if there isn’t much of an age difference
between you and your boss, you should never talk back to them. Always
show your boss respect, and do your part to not be sarcastic or glib.
This is not to say you can’t disagree with them about aspects of the
job, a project, or the company’s strategy. You should always feel free to
share thoughts or concerns if you’ve got them. But the way that you do this
matters.
Hopefully, you will have the chance to climb the career ladder
someday. You will want to have your boss in your corner to help you get
there.
8. Don’t forget that at work socials, you’re still at work.
Company outings can be a great chance to socialize with your co-

workers and get to know them outside of their 9 to 5 personas. But it’s

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important not to forget that, while you should be yourself, you’re still among
office mates who you’ll be working side-by-side with tomorrow. Be especially
careful not to overdo it if alcohol is being served. Everyone will know why
you “called in sick” the next day.
9. Don’t be nervous, but also don’t overstep your boundaries.
In the workplace, you’ll often find yourself walking a fine line in how
you present yourself. You want to be respectful, but you don’t want to come
across as being stuffy; you want to appear confident, but you don’t want to
overstep your bounds; you want to express your opinions, but you need to
keep them G-rated.
Learning the balance will take trial and error on your part, but it’s an
important balance to learn.
10. Don’t forget an umbrella.
This one might sound silly, but it’s important to be prepared for all of
life’s annoyances, even at work. Sitting in wet clothes all day is not fun.
Walking around with a coffee-stained shirt because your coffee lid popped
off is not fun. Talking to someone with spinach stuck between your teeth
from lunch is not fun.
Keeping an umbrella, spare pair of shoes, dental floss, and even a

change of shirt in your desk (or the trunk of your car) for emergencies can
be smart.
Workplace Etiquette: The Dos
1. Do arrive early.
There’s some common advice often given to new workers: You want to
be in the office before your boss, and stay until after he or she
leaves. You will be remembered for answering your phone at 8:01 a.m. in a
world where tardiness is common (especially in major cities, where traffic
can cause all kinds of headaches). Conversely, you will also be noticed if you
consistently show up 15 minutes after everyone else—just not in the way
you want.

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2. Do network with people outside of your cubicle.
Of course, it’s important that you complete your work on time and up
to standard. But it’s also important to remember that a perk of having a job
at a company you appreciate is meeting other people with similar interests
who can share advice from their past experiences that you can use on the
job.
That’s why it’s important to take networking opportunities seriously,

especially when you’re first starting on the job. Grabbing coffee or lunch
with your coworkers, attending happy hour or other company functions, and
simply making yourself available can go very far.
3. Do be willing to help out a coworker.
If one of your coworkers asks you for help in completing a task, you
should generally say yes —as long as you feel that you can realistically help
them while also hitting your own deadlines. This is an opportunity to stand
out and demonstrate your own knowledge and skills. It’s also an opportunity
to make a friend and bring someone into your corner for the future; you
never know when that might come in handy.
4. Do bring in goodies.
Who doesn’t love to eat? If you have free time one night, baking
cookies, brownies, or some other treats can be a really nice gesture for your
coworkers—especially if you’re celebrating a big win or going through a
stressful period.
If you do choose to bring in treats, though, it’s important to

understand ahead of time whether any of your coworkers have allergies or
dietary restrictions like gluten insensitivity. Bringing something in that
everyone can enjoy will only make the gesture that much more meaningful.
5. Do create a proper personal email address.
It isn’t uncommon to need to communicate with your coworkers after

hours or on the weekend. While many organizations allow employees to log
into work email remotely, some do not. It’s important in these cases that you
have a professional email address in the event you need to send an email to

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a coworker or your boss. “Foxychick123” isn’t going to send the same
impression as “firstname.lastname”.
6. Do jump at the chance to complete a new task.
If your boss, superior, or coworkers ask you to work on a task that

you’ve never worked on in the past, it’s natural to feel nervous. But, that’s
no reason to decline the work. Accepting new projects expands your skillset
and can lead to exciting opportunities down the line.
You were likely chosen because they have confidence in your abilities. Just
make sure to ask questions, seek advice, and make sure you’re on the right
track before getting too bogged down in the task.
7. Do be flexible.
Sometimes, you’re going to be tapped for a project or initiative that

requires you to be flexible. You might be asked to work earlier or later hours
than usual; you might be asked to perform duties or tasks that you don’t
necessarily want to perform, or that you weren’t hired to do. There may
come a day when you are asked to work a holiday—either to cover someone
else’s shift or to usher a project through to completion.
While it’s never fun to work a holiday, a weekend, or to do “someone

else’s job,” being willing to roll with the punches demonstrates that you
value the company and take your role seriously, which will only help you in
the long run.
8. Do dress appropriately for the office.
What constitutes appropriate will depend on the particular culture of

your workplace. But it’s always a good idea to dress to impress, especially
when you’re first starting a new role at a company. Even if you don’t have a
formal dress code, save the crop tops, flip-flops, and see-through shirts for
the weekend—no one will take you seriously if you don’t.
9. Do make sure your earbuds are plugged in securely to your

computer.
Have you ever made the mistake of listening to music or a video on

your laptop while in public, only to realize that your earbuds weren’t

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plugged in and that everyone around you could hear? Talk about
embarrassing.
Take it from me: It’s only more embarrassing in the workplace. Your
coworkers don’t want to hear lyrics streaming from your 2 Chainz Pandora
station.
10. Do be open-minded.
Whether you’re taking on new work, building relationships, or

advancing in your career, you should do your best to remain open-minded.
Nothing is known for certain, and being flexible and open to change will only
help you in the long-run.
And finally…
11. Do wear a smile.
Having a positive attitude about being at work will affect your job
performance significantly. Appearing happy, friendly, and approachable at
work can do wonders for your career. Never underestimate the power of a
smile!
It’s okay to make mistakes!
It’s understandable to be nervous as you move into your first job after
graduation or when you make a career change to a completely new company
or industry. But, it’s also important to remember that it’s okay to make
mistakes; Nobody is perfect. As long as you’re constantly growing and
learning from those mistakes, and make an effort to stop making the same
mistake in the future, your coworkers will notice.

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Self-Check 1.2-7
Enumeration: Name at least 5 Do’s and Don’t’s in work place etiquette

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Answer Key 1.2-7
Don’t’s
1. Don’t “Reply All” to an email chain.

2. Don’t have personal conversations at your desk.
3. Don’t bring your emotions into the office.
4. Don’t be afraid to ask questions.
5. Don’t gossip about fellow coworkers…or your boss.
6. Don’t use emojies or multiple exclamation points (if any) in work emails.
7. Don’t talk back to your boss.
8. Don’t forget that at work socials, you’re still at work.
9. Don’t be nervous, but also don’t overstep your boundaries.
10. Don’t forget an umbrella.
Do’s
1. Do arrive early.
2. Do network with people outside of your cubicle.
3. Do be willing to help out a co-worker.
4. Do bring in goodies.
5. Do create a proper personal email address.
6. Do jump at the chance to complete a new task.
7. Do be flexible.
8. Do dress appropriately for the office.
9. Do make sure your ear buds are plugged in securely to your computer.
10. Do be open-minded.
11. Do wear a smile.

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LEARNING COMPLETE RELEVANT WORK RELATED
OUTCOME 3 DOCUMENTS
CONTENT:
1. Data recording
2. Data evaluation
3. Confidentiality of Medical Records and Report
4. Application of Different Types of Back Up files of Documents
5. Organizational guideline
6. Written documentation
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
1. Range of forms relating to conditions of employment are completed
2. accurately and legibly
3. Workplace data is recorded on standard workplace forms and
documents
4. Errors in recording information on forms/ documents are identified
and
5. acted upon
6. Reporting requirements to supervisor are completed according to
organizational guidelines
CONDITIONS:

 Paper/ Notebook
 Fax machine
 Telephone
 Storage devices
 Projector
 Printer
METHODOLOGIES
 Lecture
 Film Viewing
 Demonstration
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ASSESSMENT METHODS:
 Oral Evaluation
 Observation

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COMPLETE RELEVANT WORK RELATED DOCUMENTS

1. Read information sheet 1.3-1 on
Data Recording then answer Self- Compare answers with Answer Key
Check 1.3-1 1.1-1

Data Evaluation then answer Compare answers with Answer Key

Confidentiality of Medical Records
and Report then answer Self-
Check 1.3-3 1.1-3

Application of Different Types of
Back Up Files of Documents then
answer Self-Check 1.3-4 1.1-4

Organizational Guideline then Compare answers with Answer Key

Written Documentation then Compare answers with Answer Key

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Data Recording
to:
1. Record data on standard workplace forms and documents

2. Identify the different forms and documents being used in
workplace.
Introduction
In contrast with laboratory investigations which commonly give rise to

relatively few observations, large-scale nutrition intervention programmes
require the collection, orderly handling and management of large quantities
of data.
Since the data ultimately constitute the link between the design of the
intervention and the evaluation of results, its management and handling
clearly merit careful consideration. In this context, the procedures required
for the collection of data and its subsequent treatment, which include the
definition of the plan for analysis and expected outputs, should be an
integral part of the study design. Thus, such procedures should be explicitly
defined in the standard operating protocol (SOP) of the study.
Because of the highly-specialized nature of the skills required for both

proper data management and analysis, it is advisable that specialists in
these fields are included as part of the evaluation staff. Under such an
arrangement, these specialists fully participate in the planning and
execution of the evaluation.
Some basic procedures relating to various aspects of data recording

and processing are described in this chapter, Although the coverage is
neither complete nor exhaustive, it is hoped that the topics considered
provide some general guidelines which may be useful as a frame of reference
for identifying appropriate data management procedure under the specific
set of circumstances of a particular study.
The processes to be described can best be summarized in terms of a

gross flow chart diagram, as illustrated in figure 12.1. (see

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FIG. 12.1. Stages of Data Recording and Processing). Obviously, the different
stages depicted here on a macro basis can, and must be, expanded in detail
in accord with conditions pertaining to any specific investigation. Two
examples of such expansion are presented later in the text in connection
with the preparation of forms and questionnaires and the description of the
sequence of events that relate to the process of data analysis.
Data recording
The general purpose of data recording is to set in writing and assure

the preservation of the data collected in the course of field or laboratory
studies.
The experimental design of each study determines the types of data to

be collected in terms of the objectives and resources available for the study.
The types of data commonly used in field studies, among others, often relate
to morbidity, anthropometry diet. immunology and anthropology. Whatever
the nature of the types of data, however, there is need for suitable forms or
questionnaires to record the information to be gathered. It is often
convenient to prepare these forms or questionnaires by discipline or type of
data. The use of precoded forms or questionnaires that permit the direct
registry of data is to be preferred, since with proper training, their use often
results in fewer errors. Additionally, only one protocol or set of forms will be
used to collect and code the information to be recorded in the field or in the
laboratory for each unit of study (e.g., family or individual).
Form or Questionnaire Preparation
The objective of this stage is to produce all the needed forms and/or
questionnaires in their final versions, as they will be used in the field or
laboratory. These forms and questionnaires must be accompanied by a set
of detailed instructions explicitly set out in a coding manual. In general,
three steps are involved in the preparation of forms or questionnaires which
comprise a series of coordinated actions as shown schematically in figure
12.2. (see

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FIG. 12.2. Coordinated Actions in the Preparation of Forms and
Questionnaires for Data Recording).
The forms and questionnaires contain the information needed by both

the investigator and the data processing personnel, and generally consist of
two parts: a heading and a body.
The heading of the forms or questionnaires includes information

needed mainly to prepare appropriate data files in accord with the objectives
of the study as defined by the responsible investigator. The heading, however,
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may also include information to allow subject recall by the investigator,
either for further interviewing or for checking the original recordings.
Clearly, the kind of items in this part of the form or questionnaire varies
with the nature of the study, but generally must include information of the
type specified in the first 14 items in the scheme suggested in figure 12.3.
(see

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FIG. 12.3 Flow Chart of Actions Generally Required in Data Analysis).
In table 12.1., the body of the form begins at item 15 and includes the
actual data and information required to satisfy the objectives of the study.
As many fields and digits as are necessary to complete recording may be
used in the body of the form. However, it is always advisable to consult with
the personnel that will be responsible for the data processing and analysis
to avoid problems related to data management.
TABLE 12.1. Sample Questionnaire Form
Item Item Identification Item

Number Field Position
1 General information (i.e. Protocol page Open (not for coding)
number)
2 General information (i.e. Name of subject) Open (not for coding)
3 General information (i.e. Address of subject) Open (not for coding)
4 Study identification 1-3
5 Area (Type of data) 4-5
6 Form identification 6-7
7 Date 8-13
8 Examiner/lnterviewer identification 14-15
9 First level of enquiry (Country) 16-17
10 Second level of enquiry (Community) 18-19
11 Third level of enquiry (Family) 20-21
12 Individual identification 22-25
13 Sex 26
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14 Birth date 27-32
15 Data 33-
. . .
. . .
. . .
Some general comments about the heading or identification portion of

the data record are in order. Each study and type of data or area should be
assigned a code. For each type of data there may be as many forms as
needed for complete recording, and therefore, each form also requires the
assignment of a proper code identification. Since the study sample generally
relates to country, region, community or similar geographic location classes,
these items also must be identified a priori with specific codes. The data
processing personnel, in the computer center or elsewhere, who will be
responsible for handling the data for a given study should collaborate with
the investigator in the assignment of these codes since, as stated earlier,
these will be used mainly to organize and control the files and expected
outputs within the system of data processing.
With the above information, the investigator will elaborate a first

version of the forms or questionnaires and a first version of the
corresponding coding manual. In particular, the coding manual must
provide specific answers to the following questions:
1. How is the form or questionnaire to be filled?

2. How is each item included in the form or questionnaire to be coded?
Once the researcher has developed the first version of the forms and
questionnaires, the next steps involve the application of procedures for
testing and revising the original drafts. For this purpose the investigator will
use a small sample (10-20 experimental units) to actually carry out the
complete process of data collection; in the process the investigator will check
all forms and questionnaires for ease of handling and use under field
conditions. The adequacy of instructions and codes in the actual process of
recording data also will be tested at this time.

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The field tests will permit proper adjustments and improvement of the
recording forms and accessory materials, prior to preparing them for
production in sufficient volume to satisfy the needs of the study. The
investigator must also consult with the personnel responsible for processing
data prior to producing the definitive versions of the forms and
questionnaires to be used in the evaluation. In the particular case of
questionnaires, their reliability should be scrutinized using appropriate test-
retest procedures (1). The testing required for developing the forms and
questionnaires offers the opportunity to include activities related to the
training and coordinating of examiners and interviewers. Otherwise, the
training and standardization procedures must take place later, but always
prior to the initiation of actual data collection (2, 3).
Data Collection
Data collection can be initiated when the personnel responsible for

data collection have been properly trained and have reached a satisfactory
level of standardization. In addition, forms, questionnaires and coding
manuals must be considered operational. The description of recording
forms, and the techniques and procedures to be employed should be
integrated into a standard operating protocol (SOP) for the evaluation (2). In
the course of long term studies, changes in procedure may be mandatory.
Accordingly, it is advisable to produce the SOP in a loose leaf form for ease
of insertions as may be required. In this connection. however, it is essential
that all changes introduced in the course of the evaluation be fully
documented in terms of justification, nature of the change and date of
implementation.
Several types of errors may arise during the data collection stages
which may produce biases affecting the interpretation of results. These
errors are generally associated with failure to complete interviews, missing
data, interviewer mistakes, and conceptual misunderstandings, lack of
knowledge, and intentional misrepresentations of truth by the respondents.
To minimize the effects of these factors or conditions, special attention must
be given to proper supervision throughout the data collection stages.
Emphasis shall be placed on correct household selection, formulation of
questions, recording of answers and the application of proper follow-up
procedures to reduce non-reponses. Supervision can take place either
through direct observation by field supervisors and/or by actual live
recording of the interviews (4). In any case, full documentation of the
execution of all aspects and levels of activity is essential. This includes field
procedures, and data collection, editing, input and analysis. In particular,

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causes of missing data must be fully documented, since such information is
essential for identifying possible biases arising from sample attrition.
Coding
This stage can be initiated even before the actual collection of data.
For example, some items in the heading of the form can be precoded using
computer facilities. Computers may also be used to produce the self-printed
forms which contain information on the types of data to be collected, the
geographic classification (country, community) and the observation unit
(family, individual). More generally, however, forms and questionnaires are
coded after data collection. In such a procedure, it is advisable that the
coding be completed as soon as possible, preferably on the same day that
the data were collected.
Data processing
In general, data processing can be understood as the treatment given

to the data after collection. In small evaluations, this treatment is usually
manual. In the case of large-scale efforts, the bulk of the data handling
requires access to computer facilities although some parts of the data
processing may be performed manually. In this context, a description of
manual and computerized techniques will be reviewed, with special
reference to large-scale studies.
Data Input
Recent advances in computer sciences provide a choice of alternatives

for data input. These range from the use of the traditional punched card to
direct access with automated systems using mark sense devices or direct
on-line input from a measuring apparatus.
When the survey or research comprises a small number of cases and

each case is evaluated in terms of many characteristics, an interactive data
input procedure might be recommended, especially when the original data is
generated in a place where facilities for data input (terminals) are available
or can be easily installed. The interactive data input procedures provide the
opportunity to test for completeness, inconsistencies and errors at the data
sources. This often permits the implementation of proper procedures of data
recovery. Unfortunately, this type of data input will undoubtedly have
limited application in field evaluations.
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When interactive data input procedures are not applicable, some type
of key-to-tape data input systems must be implemented. In such systems,
the speed of data recording can be high. However, immediate checks for
completeness or inconsistency controls are not possible. since the
processing of data unavoidably must take place with a delay. Under these
conditions, delayed checks for errors and completeness or inconsistency
controls are possible. although the recovery of data in most instances is
practically impossible.
Data Quality Control
The control of data quality is a most important aspect of any research

process. Once the data have been collected and coded. the control of its
quality generally proceeds in two stages: the first relates to completeness
and the second to the internal consistency among the various items that
comprise the data set.
The preliminary controls for completeness of the data are usually, but
not necessarily, performed after the coding of the data is complete. The
purpose of this exercise is to control for the inclusion of every required item
in each observation vector, both in terms of identification and actual data
items (variables).
As indicated earlier, the identification portion of the observation vector

generally includes several items or information bits that describe different
individual characteristics. These descriptive items, considered in parallel
with the evaluation or survey design, provide the reference criteria for the
preliminary control of the completeness of the set of observation units.
Thus, if there exist three items in the identification portion of the
observation vector, identified as a primary unit code (PU). a secondary unit
code (SU) and the individual number within the SU (IN), then the
identification for each observation vector would be a composite set of
characters made as PU-SU-IN. For example, if there are 25 PU and the
number of the IN differ in each SU among the PU, then a complete inventory
of the possible codes for each PU can be constructed. As an illustration of
this hypothetical case, a list of the acceptable codes for a preliminary
identification control of completeness for the set of observations is presented
in table 12.2.
TABLE 12.2. List of Codes (inventory of codes) for PU (Primary units),

SU (secondary units), and Number of IN (individuals)

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PU SU INS
01 1 10
01 2 37
01 3 17
01 4 28
01 5 15
01 6 06
02 1 13
02 2 21
02 3 20
02 4 11
02 5 19
03 1 14
. . .
24 1 08
24 2 29
24 3 21
25 1 13
25 2 17
25 3 18
25 4 12
25 5 21
25 6 30
In this example, the detailed identification codes for observations

included in the first PU would be as follows:
SU1 01101, 01102, 01103, ··· 01110
SU2 01201, 01202, 01203, ··· 01237
*** ***

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SU6 01601, 01602, 01603, ···, 01606
In the same manner, the admissible identification codes can be listed

in detail for each of the 25 PU.
The actual control for admissible identification codes can be carried

out in different ways. One procedure is the simple visual checking of the
existence of each recorded entry for each identification item required,
without controlling explicitly for the validity of such entries. Another
possibility is a complete and detailed visual checking of the list of valid
identification codes, such as that presented in table 12.2., for every
individual information vector. In this latter alternative, practical feasibility
diminishes as the size of the observation set increases. However, the control
of validity and completeness of the identification portion of each information
vector can be performed accurately and efficiently on large observation sets
through complex but automated systems using computer facilities.
The preliminary quality control procedures also relate to the checking

of completeness for the remaining portion of the observation vector, which
constitutes the actual data portion (variables) of each vector. In this case,
special care is required to identify logical omissions of data which may be
the valid result of logical associations among variables. For example, when
one observation data item identifies a male subject, the observation vector
for this subject cannot, and must not, include data items that refer to the
number of pregnancies of the subject.
In the preliminary procedures for the quality control of observation of

data items, it is often possible to include obvious control items that do not
require much effort in the checking process. For example, if the
questionnaire is applicable only to adults for example those 18 years of age
or older, it is possible, while checking for completeness of the age
information bits, to identify subjects under 18 years of age.
Incidentally, when the preliminary procedures for the quality control

are applied soon after collection and coding, it often may be possible to
recover missing bits of data by going back to the field. This possibility
should always be considered and the rules governing such procedures
explicity addressed in the SOP.
After satisfactorily completing this preliminary stage of data quality

control checks, the first stage edited information vectors are ready for entry
into appropriate devices for further processing. This is done prior to

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implementing computing procedures as required under the plan of analyses
defined in the SOP.
Obviously, the number and magnitude of errors can be most

efficiently reduced by improving, in the planning and testing stages, the
procedures for collecting and ennumerating data, rather than by increasing
the number of a posterior revisions and internal consistency checks.
Independently of the adequacy of collection and ennumeration procedures,
however, consistency controls are always essential. They will substantially
contribute to the "cleanliness" of the data. This type of quality control ranges
from simple to fairly complicated checks, designed for detecting at different
levels contradictions contained in the data.
The processing required in the control of consistency generally relates

to two types of variables: continuous variables (interval scaled) such as age,
weight, height, temperature and blood values; and discrete variables
(nominally or ordinally scaled) such as sex, race, marital status and birth
order.
The actions to be taken when an error is detected through any

checking procedure are as follows:
1. Rechecking of the original data records to decide on recovery,

acceptance or rejection;
2. Automatic deletion of a specific datum;
3. Automatic deletion of a specific datum with additional checking for
decisions concerning data related to the questionable datum;
4. Deletion of the complete observation vector (all variables in the
observation).
Although there are many possibilities for consistency controls, the

procedures to be applied generally relate to the check of admissible ranges,
and the examination of arithmetic, logical or special relations among
variables.
The check and control of admissible ranges applies to both

continuous and discrete variables, since in the latter case the numeric codes
assigned to the various classes can be examined in terms of the admissible
numerical values of the codes that have been defined for a given variable.
Range controls are usually applied to the basic data collected. They may
also be applied to indices, ratios or any other forms of data derived from the
original observations. The inclusion of derived data in the control of ranges
often provides opportunities to detect inconsistencies that may not be
apparent in the original data.

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Since different variables within a case are often related, arithmetic
relations among pairs of variables also can be used in the process of internal
consistency controls. Consider, for example, a pair of variables, A and B. In
the consistency control procedures, it is possible to specifically check
conditions such as A greater than B; that is, the numeric value of A is
always greater than the value of B, except in a situation of a "not applicable"
answer for either of A or B. An example of this may be the number of
persons in the family (variable A) and the number of children under five
years of age in the same family (variable B). Similarly, the condition A is
greater than or equal to B, that is, A is always equal or greater than B can
be defined and checked. For example, note the case where variable A is the
number of children in the family and variable B is the number of children
under five years of age in the same family. A simple numeric equality
relation A=B, generally would represent duplicity in the data, but sometimes
it may be an appropriate criteria for consistency checks as is the case, for
example, when data records are reshuffled and variable names are changed.
The types of consistency controls described above also can be applied

to derived data. For example, if a new derived variable is the sum of
components, A, B, and C, then, the derived variable D may be independently
checked against the actual sum of the components (A+B+C). The arithmetic
relationship controls are most often used when checking continuous
variables (interval scaled), although it is possible to make limited use of
such controls in the case of some discrete variables (ordinally scaled).
The control of logical relations are based on the dependency of one

variable on another. For example, the variable C can take on different
specific values or a range of values, depending on the values for the
variables A and/or B. More specifically, if C is the weight for a child, A is the
sex of that child, and B his age, then, if a criterion of range can be defined
for weight depending upon sex (A) and age (B), then the weight (C) of an 18
month old male child should be a value within the admissible range
corresponding to his sex (male) and age (18 months).
The control of logical relations is applicable to many conditions, but

always must be based on criteria specifically defined by the researcher. The
logical criteria required are generally presented in the form of "if-then" or "if
and only if" statements. A general outline of some common logical control
criteria is presented in table 12.3. (see TABLE 12.3. General Outline and
Examples of Different Kinds of Logical Checks).
TABLE 12.3. General Outline and Examples of Different Kinds of Logical

Checks One-way Checks Two-way Checks Prototype: IF A = x then B = y
Prototype: A = x if and only if B = y
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1. Between variable pairs
Examples: Examples:
a. If A = 1 then B = 1, 3, 5, 7 e. A = 1 if end only if B = 5
b. If A = 1, 3 then B = 4, 6 f. A = 1.3,6 if and only if B = 2, 5, 6
c. If A= 1 - 10 then B = 3- 18 g. A= 1 - 10 if and only if B = 3- 18
d. If A = 1 - 4, 8 - 12 then B = 2 - 12 h. A = 1 - 4, 8 - 12 if and only if
B = 5 - 7, 15 - 30
2. Among several variables

Examples: Examples:
i. If A = 1 and B = 2 then C = 5 10, 11 I. A = 1 and B = 2 if and only if
C = 5, 1 0, 1 1
j. If A = 1 - 5 and B = 10 - 20 then m. A = 1 - 5 and B = 10 - 20 if and
C=2-8 only if C = 2 - 8
k. If A = 1 - 5, B = 1 - 5 and C = 1 then
D = 5- 10
The basic difference between one-way and two-way controls relates to

the uniqueness of correspondence. For example, when checking the criteria
"if A = 1 then B = 1, 3, 5, 7" (example 1.a in table 12.3.), a finding A = 1
implies that 1 or 3 or 5 or 7 are acceptable answers to B, but it does not
imply that if B = 1 or 3 or 5 or 7, A is necessarily equal to 1. In the case of a two
way control the "if-then" statement becomes an "if and only if" statement, as
in example 1.e in table 12.3. In this case when checking the criteria A = 1 if
and only if B = 5, just as the finding A = 1 implies B = 5 conversely the
finding B = 5 implies A = 1.

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The description of preliminary control of data, laid emphasis on
careful procedures for verifying the completeness of the identification items.
In addition to completeness, it is also essential to check for inconsistencies
in identification. In this connection, special procedures such as look-up
systems using binary search techniques for possible identifiers and self-
checking identification number systems (for example, modulus 10 and
modulus 11 techniques) can be used effectively for checking inconsistencies
in the identification portion of the information vector. As can be expected,
however, error identification by the control checks described above is not
exhaustive. Special situations may arise for any of the variables of interest.
In the data processing required for detecting errors, these cases may be
handled by including in the data editing programme one or more
appropriate subroutines to check special relations or conditions pertaining
to a specific set of data items or observation vectors.
Special cases require individual attention; and in this connection,

general techniques such as sorting and searching are useful. The choice of
specific techniques for sorting or searching in a particular situation will
depend on the way the main set of data items relate to each other in the
observation vector, and this in turn will determine the type of controls to be
applied to the individual data items in the observation vector. For example,
when checking a combination of codes or a coded data item, the binary
search may be the procedure of choice for looking up the acceptability of the
recorded set or the coded data items, since generally there is no continuous
sequence in the structure of such codes. However, when a continuous data
structure is used, a direct searching technique may be the method of choice.
Another type of checking which may be useful is the "route of answer
check." In this instance an answer to a specific question for a subset of the
data vector is not applicable. A tree for describing the "route of answers"
within the allowed answers to the questions under consideration permits the
construction of an ordered path based on the relations among the items
contained in the data vector.
Data Bank
The quality control of data will produce clean files for each type of data
collected. A properly identified and cross-related set of such files is called a
Data Bank.
The master data file will be created from the data bank by merging
individual files using proper identification keys: study, data type, form
identification, family, individual, date and examiner, for example. It is
important to stress the need of complete and full documentation of the
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structure of the master data file, since this provides the keys and needed
criteria for manipulating the information it contains When a properly and
exhaustively documented master file is ready, the stage of data analysis can
begin.
With computer system facilities having capability for Data Base

Management, the Data Bank constitutes the original source of data for
structuring a useful Data Base (5) for subsequent processing. This feature is
particularly useful for executing the statistical analyses required in the
testing of specific hypotheses.
It is also important to point out that the data bank stage is not fixed.
It is a very dynamic situation requiring continuous action and attention for
as long as the interactive processes of data analyses and interpretation
continue.
Data Analysis
The analysis of data relates both to the type of data and the
hypotheses posed by the investigator. Most of the time, the first stage in the
analysis of continuous variables consists of a scan of the data set. By
scanning, one can define a set of basic descriptive statistics that will permit
a first approximation to the pattern of behaviour of each variable included in
the evaluation. This type of analysis, however, also provides information that
can be used in assessing the relative effectiveness and success of the data
cleaning and consistency controls already executed. Different levels of scans
can be used to secure adequate preliminary descriptions of the study
variables. In particular, in the case of discrete variables, frequency tables
with single or multiple cross-classification criteria may provide a good
description of these variables.
Once the quality of the data collected has been documented and the
general descriptions for the study variables have been obtained, the
investigator may proceed with the statistical testing of the specific
hypotheses. Simple comparison between two classes may be performed
using student-t tests. Analysis of variance techniques (6, 7) may be used
when testing hypotheses that involve more than two classes, provided
proper attention is given to satisfying the basic assumptions underlaying the
use of these procedures (8). Trends and associations among variables may
be examined by multiple regression and correlation analyses (9, 10, 11). The
classification and identification of groups of observations may be performed
using clustering techniques and discriminate analysis (12, 13, 14), while
confounded inter-relationships among large sets of variables may be
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examined using factor analysis (15, 16). Overall relations in sets of
variables, regardless of the nature of the variables within the set
(continuous or discrete or mixtures), may be tested using canonical
correlation analysis (17). Additionally, when interests in a set of ,several
dependent variables relate to more than two classes, the analysis may be
performed using multivariate analysis of variance techniques (15).
Frequently, it is not possible to satisfy the requirements and

conditions inherent in the use of the parametric techniques listed above.
Under such conditions, there is the option of using distribution free (non-
parametric) techniques (18, 20). The ability of rejecting a null hypothesis,
when in fact the alternative hypothesis is true (power of the test), is
generally smaller for non-parametric than for parametric procedures.
However, under a given set of circumstances, they may be the only choice.
On the other hand, the power of non-parametric tests, when properly used,
is satisfactory under the general conditions prevailing in most practical
situations. The level of generalization possible through non-parametric
testing often compensates for the apparent, usually small, reduction in the
power of the test.
A partial listing of some useful analytical procedures is presented in

table 12.4. Appropriate description of the method of procedure and
examples of applications of these methods can be found in the statistical
texts cited in presenting this subject matter (6-20).
TABLE 12.4. Common Methods Used in Statistical Analysis
I. Parametric
Univariate Multivariate
Student-t Test Multivariate Analysis of Variance

(MANOVA)
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Multivariate Analysis of Covariance

(MANCOVA)
Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) Discriminate Function Analysis
Regression: Simple Factor Analysis
Regression: Multiple Path Analysis

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Time Series Analysis Cluster Analysis (Numerical Taxonomy)
Correlation Analysis Canonical Correlation Analysis
Multidimensional Scaling Analysis
II. Non-parametric
Binominal Test
Lilliefors Test of Normality
Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test
Randomization Test Kruskal-Wallis Analysis of Variance
Fiedman Analysis of Variance
Cochran Q Test
Concordance Tests
Lambda Test
Multicategorical Chi-square Wilcoxon Tests
Fisher's Exact Probability Test
McNemar Test
Eta, The Correlation Ratio Test
Theil's Slope Coefficient Test
Spearman Rank Correlation
On the basis of the general outline of alternatives for data analysis

described above, several steps are required for implementing the appropriate
analytical procedures. First, the questions to be answered must be explicitly
defined, to permit design of the specific analyses required to satisfy the
objectives of the evaluation. The original statement of objectives and the
preliminary definition of the analytical plan contained in the SOP provide a
basis for the final choice of appropriate analytical procedures for answering
the questions posed. This, in turn, establishes a sequence of events that
relate to programming, data processing and statistical computation. This
sequence, therefore, translates into an operation schedule (pathway) that is
defined taking into account the most efficient utilization of available
analytical facilities (hardware, software, systems analysts, programmers and
operators). In the implementation of the operational schedule, the writing,
debugging, testing and documenting of computer programmes may be
required in the case of very specialized data.
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At present, many well tested statistical packages (software) such as
SAS, SPSS, BMDP, and RUMMAGE, among others, are available for
performing most of the statistical analysis mentioned in table 12.4. When
these package are used, the programming chores are minimal, and relate
primarily to variable specifications, procedure definition and output
selection. In addition, the use of these extensively tested programmes
constitutes good insurance against common programming errors. In some
cases, interphasing of standard statistical packages is possible and this
increases both the capability and efficiency of available software for
widespread application of statistical analysis techniques.
The general guidelines described by the investigator and data

processing personnel must translate into sequence of events that, as
indicated by Helms (21), can be summarized in flow chart form as illustrated
in figure 12.3 outlined as follows:
1. State the questions to be answered and the general analyses to be

performed in the SOP for the evaluation. Write down the scientific objectives
of the analysis.
2. Plan the sequence of the steps required in programming, data processing

and statistical computations. Draw up an "operational plan."
3. Schedule the performance of each step, including personnel assignment

and definition of deadlines. Draw up an "operational schedule."
4. Begin work on the problem.
5. Write, debug, test, and document an "inclusion" computer subprogramme

to assess results on the basis of specific criteria for including or excluding a
case from the analysis.
6. Develop specifications (control cards) which define the variables to be

used in the analysis. These specifications constitute the input required to
operated the Master
Update Programmes, which will copy the desired variables onto a "raw
analysis file" while performing an update run.
7. Incorporate the "inclusion subprogramme" (from step 5) into the Master

Update Programme. This subprogramme "tells" the Master Update
Programme which cases should be copied into the "raw analysis file"
("inclusions") and which should not ("exclusions ").

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8. Execute an update run of the Master Update Programme to produce the
"raw analysis file" (steps 6 and 7 are preparatory: this step actually
produces the file).
9. Check the raw analysis file for correct format, correct variables, and
correct cases (inclusions/exclusions). If not correct, determine the cause of
errors, correct the problem, and return to step 6 or 7, as indicated.
10. Duplicate the raw analysis file and store the copy in a secure place as
backup.
11. Design, write, test, debug, and document all "transformation

programmes" required to perform data transformations and produce a
"transformed analysis file." This step may include programmes for linking
data from two or more raw analysis files.
12. Set up and execute the transformation programmes (step 11 ) and

produce the transformed analysis file. Check the file; if errors are found,
determine their origin, make the required corrections (this could involve any
of steps 5-11). If no errors are found, proceed to step 13.
13. Make a backup copy of the transformed analysis file and store in a
secure place.
14. Perform computations for preliminary statistical analyses, using the

"latest" analysis file. Typical calculations include statistics usually called
"descriptive statistics": histograms, percentiles, means, medians, standard
deviations, skewness, and other moments, cross-tabulations, scatter
diagrams, correlations, regressions, etc.
15. Examine the output from step 14 for "outliers" and other indications of
erroneous values. Trace such "outliers" to the original data and determine
which can be identified as errors and which are correct.
 Data errors must be corrected on the data master file and the process
must return to step 8 for creation of a new, corrected, analysis file.
 Errors caused by incorrect specifications of inclusion criteria require
that the specifications be corrected and that the process returns to
step 5.
 Programming errors require that the programme involved be corrected.
The process described herein thereafter returns to one of the earlier
steps, depending upon which programme was in the error.
 After errors have been corrected, the preceding steps executed, new
errors found, etc., and eventually no more errors are detected in this
step, one proceeds to step 16.
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16. Write a summary of the subject-matter results of the preliminary
analysis.
17. Re-examine the scientific objectives document and the operational plan
(steps 1,2). If changes are made, return to step 1. Some steps may not need
to be repeated; this will be indicated in the new operation plan.
18. Design, write, debug, test, and document statistical computation

programmes required for the statistical analyses.
NOTE: This step may be a long, involved process, not just another step in
the procedure. Whenever this step is required, other personnel are usually
assigned to it and the work proceeds concurrently with steps 4-16.
19. Perform the statistical computations required for the desired analyses.
20. Analyse the output created in step 19 and write the preliminary
conclusions.
NOTE: Typically, a number of different analyses will be required in addition

to the preliminary analyses performed in steps 14-16. One analysis or set of
computations frequently generates ideas for performing other analyses,
which is all a part of the art of statistical analysis.
21. Determine whether additional calculations are needed. If so:
 Return to step 19 if the necessary data are on the analysis file and no
additional programming is required.
 Return to step 18 if the necessary data are on the analysis file but
additional programming is needed.
 Return to step 2 if the necessary data are not on the analysis file.
This decision usually involves personnel outside the coordinating center:

project officier, participating physicians, etc.
22. When no further calculations are needed, write up the results for
distribution or publication.
Self-Check 1.3-1
True or False: Read each sentence below and write TRUE if the statement is
correct and FALSE if the statement if not correct.

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1. The general purpose of data recording is to set in writing and
assure the preservation of the data collected in the course of field
or laboratory studies.
2. Data errors must not be corrected on the data master file.
3. Make a backup copy of the transformed analysis file and store in a

secure place.
4. Duplication of raw analysis file and store the copy in a secure place
as backup is not necessary.
5. Begin work on the problem
Answer Key 1.3-1

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1. True
2. False
3. True
4. False
5. True

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Data Evaluation

be able to:
1. Enumerate the different ways of evaluating a data.

2. Differentiate the different types of evaluating data.
Data Evaluation/ Analyse data
Analysing data to summarise it and look for patterns is an important part of

every evaluation. The options for doing this have been grouped into two
categories - quantitative data (number) and qualitative data (text, images).
Options
Numeric analysis
Analysing numeric data such as cost, frequency, physical

characteristics.
 Correlation: a statistical measure ranging from +1.0 to -1.0 that indicates

how strongly two or more variables are related. A positive correlation (+1.0
to 0) indicates that two variables will either increase or decrease together,
while a negative correlation (0 to -1.0) indicates that as one variable
increases, the other will decrease.
 Crosstabulations: using contingency tables of two or more dimensions to
indicate the relationship between nominal (categorical) variables. In a
simple crosstabulation, one variable occupies the horizontal axis and
another the vertical. The frequencies of each are added in the intersecting
squares and displayed as percentages of the whole, illustrating relationships
in the data.
 Data mining: computer-driven automated techniques that run through large
amounts of text or data to find new patterns and information.
 Exploratory Techniques: taking a ‘first look’ at a dataset by summarising its
main characteristics, often by using visual methods.
 Frequency tables: a visual way of summarizing nominal and ordinal data by
displaying the count of observations (times a value of a variable occurred) in
a table.
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 Measures of central tendency: a summary measure that attempts to
describe a whole set of data with a single value that represents the middle or
centre of its distribution. The mean (the average value), median (the middle
value) and mode (the most frequent value) are all measures of central
tendency. Each measure is useful for different conditions.
 Measures of dispersion: a summary measure that provides information
about how much variation there is in the data, including the range, inter-
quartile range and the standard deviation.
 Multivariate descriptive: providing simple summaries of (large amounts of)
information (or data) with two or more related variables.
o Multiple regression
o Factor analysis
o Cluster analysis
o Structural equation modelling
 Non-Parametric inferential statistics: methods for inferring conclusions
about a population from a sample's data that are flexible and do not follow a
normal distribution (ie, the distribution does not parallel a bell curve),
including ranking: the chi-square test, binomial test and Spearman's rank
correlation coefficient.
 Parametric inferential statistics: methods for inferring conclusions about a
population from a sample's data that follows certain parameters: the data
will be normal (ie, the distribution parallels the bell curve); numbers can be
added, subtracted, multiplied and divided; variances are equal when
comparing two or more groups; and the sample should be large and
randomly selected.
 Summary statistics: providing a quick summary of data which
is particularly useful for comparing one project to another, before and after.
 Time series analysis: observing well-defined data items obtained through
repeated measurements over time.
Textual analysis
Analysing words, either spoken or written, including questionnaire

responses, interviews, and documents.
 Content analysis: reducing large amounts of unstructured textual content

into manageable data relevant to the (evaluation) research questions.
 Thematic coding: recording or identifying passages of text or images that are
linked by a common theme or idea allowing the indexation of text into
categories.
 Framework matrices: a method for summarising and analysing qualitative
data in a two-by-two matrix table. It allows for sorting data across case and
by theme.

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 Timelines and time-ordered matrices: aids analysis by allowing for
visualisation of key events, sequences and results.
Self-Check 1.3-2
Identification: Read each sentence written below and identify what is being
asked.
1. Reducing large amounts of unstructured textual content into

manageable data relevant to the (evaluation) research questions.
2. Recording or identifying passages of text or images that are linked by
a common theme or idea allowing the indexation of text into
categories.
3. A method for summarising and analysing qualitative data in a two-by-
two matrix table. It allows for sorting data across case and by theme.
4. Aids analysis by allowing for visualisation of key events, sequences
and results.
5. Methods for inferring conclusions about a population from a sample's
data that are flexible and do not follow a normal distribution (ie, the
distribution does not parallel a bell curve), including ranking: the chi-
square test, binomial test and Spearman's rank correlation coefficient.
6. Methods for inferring conclusions about a population from a sample's
data that follows certain parameters: the data will be normal (ie, the
distribution parallels the bell curve); numbers can be added,
subtracted, multiplied and divided; variances are equal when
comparing two or more groups; and the sample should be large and
randomly selected.
7. Providing a quick summary of data which is particularly useful for
comparing one project to another, before and after.
8. Observing well-defined data items obtained through repeated
measurements over time.
9. Taking a ‘first look’ at a dataset by summarising its main
characteristics, often by using visual methods.
10. A visual way of summarizing nominal and ordinal data by displaying
the count of observations (times a value of a variable occurred) in a
table.

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Answer Key 1.3-2
1. Content analysis
2. Thematic coding
3. Framework matrices
4. Timelines and time-ordered matrices
5. Non-Parametric inferential statistics
6. Parametric inferential statistics
7. Summary statistics
8. Time series analysis
9. Exploratory Techniques
10. Frequency tables

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Confidentiality of Medical Records and Reports
to:
1. Know the importance of maintaining the privacy and

confidentiality of patients records
2. Know the proper way of keeping saving and keeping the
records.
Confidentiality of Medical Records
SHARE PRINT
With the increasing computerization of medical records and the

consolidation of the health care system, people have become more
concerned about the potential threat to the confidentiality of individual
health information. The biotechnology industry and the health community
believe that it is of paramount importance to provide strong protections for
sensitive patient health information. Patients do not want sensitive health
information about them to be inappropriately disclosed or used against
them. Patients also want access to their medical records and to have
procedures in place to inspect and correct information in these records.
While it is critical to ensure confidentiality, most patients are comfortable

with and support the use of health information to undertake important
medical research. Biotechnology research relies on medical information to
perform the studies that identify new treatments and cures. Access to
accurate and timely medical information is crucial to the research,
development of and proper use of biotechnology products to treat patients. It
is imperative that patient identifiable information meet high standards of
security to ensure patient confidence in quality health care. With complete,
accurate medical information, doctors will be assured that they are using
accurate information to make decisions about a patient's health care,
including whether to use a biotechnology product for a given patient.

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We urge Congress to pass comprehensive confidentiality legislation that
protects patients while facilitating the positive uses of medical information
for treating patients and continuing the breakthrough scientific
achievements that are taking medicine into the 21st century. As Congress
seeks to protect medical information, we hope it will ensure that the
entrepreneurial biotechnology industry can continue to develop new
treatments that can dramatically improve the lives of people with serious
conditions.
The public has a strong interest in the medical achievements of

biotechnology. Restricting access to important patient data would slow
research efforts and might make it impossible to follow promising research
leads. Individual privacy can be protected without burdening biotechnology
research with onerous authorization requirements and additional layers of
review that do not enhance confidentiality. For example, it would be virtually
impossible to recruit patients to participate in a clinical trial of a product to
treat a small sub-population with a specific genetic disease if a researcher
could not use biological samples to identify the subset of people whom the
product might benefit.
Defining what sensitive health information should be protected is critical to

the debate. Federal confidentiality laws should protect sensitive patient
health information as "protected health information." This includes any
medical information created by a health care provider or a health plan that
identifies the individual and relates to the past, present or future health or
health care of the individual.
Medical information is extremely useful in the clinical and epidemiological

research that forms the foundation for developing new biotechnology
products. Medical information that does not reveal the individual's identity,
such as information from which the name, address and social security
number have been encrypted or replaced with an alphanumeric code,
should not be subject to federal law. People's privacy can be protected by
utilizing coding and encryption technologies, by security laws and careful
restriction of the codes, and by strong penalties for unauthorized use of any
such code or de-encryption device to reveal the individual's identity.
Furthermore, genetic information should be given the same strong

protections as all medical information. As our understanding of science
progresses, we recognize that virtually all medical facts have a genetic
component. All medical information, including information about infectious
or genetic diseases, is extremely sensitive and deserves strong protection.
Currently, patients who participate in clinical trials are protected by FDA

oversight and the Common Rule, as applicable. This includes the safeguards
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of oversight by an Institutional Review Board (IRB), and its application of
appropriate informed consent requirements and assurance of confidentiality
of sensitive health information. Creating additional, or conflicting burdens
on the collection and use of information is neither necessary nor
appropriate.
Medical archives of tissues and other biological materials are valuable public
resources that must be preserved for use by medical researchers. Science is
a process of constant discovery. What the scientist is looking for today may
not have been imaginable yesterday. For example, sequencing the human
genome, which is well within our grasp, was widely believed to be impossible
until very recently.
Thus, even when patients provide informed consent for their materials to be
used for research purposes, it is impossible to anticipate the specific tests
and purposes for which such materials may be used. Because providing
tissue samples allows science to proceed, possibly benefitting many
generations, we must be careful not to impose overly burdensome consent
requirements or mandatory destruction of archived samples, particularly
where those materials do not disclose the individual's identity.
Congress must act before August. The Health Insurance Portability and
Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA) requires Congress to pass federal
standards for the confidentiality of patient health information by August
1999. If Congress does not do this, responsibility automatically goes to the
Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) to prepare regulations
solely regarding the use and disclosure of patient information in certain
electronic transactions. If Congress does not set forth comprehensive federal
standards, the country will remain mired in a patchwork quilt of potentially
contradictory existing and forthcoming state laws.
Uniform protections imposed at the national level are needed to preserve

patient confidentiality and to foster medical research. Clinical trials are
necessarily multi- state ventures. National uniformity allows researchers to
create informed consent procedures and forms that meet the needs of
patients and comply with the law in all states.
Further, national uniformity will enhance the public's confidence that their
medical information is subject to strong protections. It also will enhance a
patient's willingness to share information with biomedical researchers.
Giving people greater confidence in the uniform security of their medical
information will promote higher quality health care and facilitate better
research to treat disease.

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We urge the Congress to enact strong federal laws that safeguard the
public's interest in medical privacy and biomedical research, while
preempting state laws that inhibit essential access to information for
research.
The Biotechnology Industry Organization is an industry organization

representing over 850 biotechnology companies, academic institutions and
state biotech centers and related organizations in 46 states and more than
26 countries. BIO members are involved in research and development of
health care, agricultural, industrial and environmental biotechnology
products. For more information contact Nancy Myers, Director of Federal
Government Relations at (202) 776-0602.

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Self-Check 1.3-3
True or False: Read each sentence written below then write TRUE if the
statement if correct and FALSE if the statement is not correct.
1. The biotechnology industry and the health community believe that it

is of paramount importance to provide strong protections for sensitive
patient health information.
2. Biotechnology research relies on medical information to perform the
studies that identify new treatments and cures.
3. Individual privacy can not be protected without burdening
biotechnology research with onerous authorization requirements and
additional layers of review that do not enhance confidentiality.
4. Medical information is extremely useful in the clinical and
epidemiological research that forms the foundation for developing new
biotechnology products.
5. The Biotechnology Industry Organization is an industry organization
representing over 850 biotechnology companies, academic institutions
and state biotech centers and related organizations in 46 states and
more than 26 countries.

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Answer Key 1.3-3
1. True
2. True
3. False
4. True
5. True

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Application of Different Types of Back Up files of Documents
to:
1. Identify the different types of document back up.

2. Learn and apply the methods of document back up.
Types of Data Backup
When it comes to backing up data, there are two types of people: those
who regularly backup their files and those who will learn to backup their
files following an episode of data loss. Businesses and organizations lacking
a thorough backup plan are susceptible to losing valuable data that can cost
months of work and capital to recover.
Backing up data can be done in a multitude of ways, each with its own
design features that can be advantageous to the ever-changing needs of
various industries. Options range from tape and disk storage to cloud
storage to offsite physical storage.
Another consideration is the amount of data backup you need. Four of the
more common ways of data backup are outlined in the table below.
Backup Restore Storage
Backup Type Data Backed Up Time Time Space
Full Backup All Data Slowest Fast High
Incremental Only new/modified

Backup files/ folders Fast Moderate Lowest
Differential
Backup All data since last full Moderate Fast Moderate
Mirror Backup Only new/modified Fastest Fastest Highest

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files/folders
Full Data Backup
Full data backup is the recreating a complete copy of all the data in
your database. Full data backups are extremely useful because they are, by
definition, able to fully recover all information if there is any data loss at any
scale.
The only drawback with a full data backup is the amount of data that
must be managed. It can take a long time to perform a full backup, and
keeping a full backup means doubling your overall storage capacities.
Depending on the size of your database, recovery can take hours or even
days.
Incremental Data Backup

Incremental data backup only backs up new or modified files from the
point at which the last full or differential data backup was performed. This
model differs from a full backup which keeps an entire copy of your
database.
The advantage of incremental data backup is the speed in which the
backup is executed along with taking much less storage space than a full
backup. The downfall is that when you are restoring information, each
incremental backup needs to be processed separately. This can take more
time than in a full backup but is still easily manageable.
Differential Data Backup

With the differential data backups, all files that have changed since
the last full backup are stored. While similar to the incremental data backup
process, the differential data backup takes just a moderate amount of time
for backup and storage, limiting the restore times to be very short
A downfall of the differential backup is that the storage needed can grow to a
larger size than the original, full backup..
Mirror Data Backup

Mirror data backups are very similar to full backups with the
exception that the files are not zip compressed. Mirror backups can also be
password protected and be accessed via tools like Windows Explorer.
Mirror data backups provide advantages in that they are the fastest in
backup and restore time. However, they also provide disadvantages as they
take up the most storage space on servers.
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Each type of backup has its pros and cons that users can choose from to
decide what best fits their business needs. The truth about data backup is
that each situation should have a custom data backup plan. Some
businesses need to have an emphasis on rapid restoration while others
require more emphasis on limiting storage space to save costs in the short
term.
Ways to Store Your Documents and Data
Offsite Storage
Most organizations with a history of using paper files inevitably
choose offsite storage to keep all their physical documents and files safe and
protected. Filing cabinets and storage rooms in the office not only take up
valuable space that can be better utilized for more productive means, but
you also run the risk of internal data theft and loss of files in the case of
natural disasters.
Offsite storage facilities ensure security with 24 hour surveillance and
guards on duty. The longevity of your files are also kept in mind using
climate-controlled environments suitable for all types of document formats.
On-Site Data Storage

Storing company data on-site comes with many advantages, but none
more so than security. With all your documents and other important files
stored on a in-house server, such as an electronic document management
system, you have direct connection to your data. Even without internet,
anyone on your internal network can access data as needed.
Storing Data on the Cloud

Cloud storage is quickly becoming the most popular way to store
important files due to its versatility and convenience. If you have internet
access, then you will have access to all your files as well. With updates that
are reflected in real time and encrypted servers keeping your data secure,
the offsite servers used to house your data on the cloud make it the clear
choice for companies looking to future-proof their document management.

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Self-Check 1.3-4
Enumeration: What are the types of data back up

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Answer Key 1.3-4
 Full Data Backup
 Incremental Data Backup
 Differential Data Backup
 Mirror Data Backup

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Organizational Guideline
to:
1. Identify the guidelines on effective organization management

2. Identify the line of organization
Guidelines for Effective Organization
There are some established guidelines that are common to

all organizations that are structured in a classical form. The classical form
means a bureaucratic structure where there is a hierarchy of power and
responsibility and the directions primarily flow from the top management to
the lower levels of workers through its hierarchical ranks.

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Few of these Guidelines are:
1. The lines of authority should be clearly stated and should run from the
top to the bottom of the organization. This principle is known as the scalar
principle and the line of authority is referred to as chain of command.
The major decisions are mode and policies are formulated at the
top management level and they filter down through the various management
levels to the workers. The line of authority should be clearly established so
that each person in this chain of command knows his authority and its
boundaries.
2. Each person in the organization should report to only one boss. This is
known as the principle of unity of command and each person knows as to
whom he reports to and who reports to him. This process eliminates
ambiguity and confusion that can result when a person has to report to
more than one superior.

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3. The responsibility and authority of each supervisor should be established
clearly and in writing. This will clarify the exact role of the supervisor as to
the limits of his authority. Authority is defined as the formal right to require
action from others and responsibility is the accountability of that authority.
With clearly defined authority and responsibility, it will be easier for the
supervisor to trace and handle problems and make quick decisions when
necessary.
4. The senior managers are responsible for the acts of their

subordinates. The manager or the supervisor cannot dissociate himself from
the acts of his subordinates. Hence, he must be accountable for the acts of
his subordinates. The authority and responsibility should be delegated as
far down the hierarchical line as objectively possible.
This will place the decision-making power near the actual operations.
This would give the top management more free time to devote to strategic
planning and overall policy making. This is specially necessary in large
complex organizations. This principle is known as decentralization of power
as against centralized power where all decisions are made at the top.
5. The number of levels of authority should be as few as possible. This

would make the communication easier and clear and the decision-making
faster. A longer chain of command generally results in run around because
the responsibilities are not clearly assigned and hence become ambiguous.
According to Gilmore, most organizations do not need more than six levels of
supervision, including the level of the president.
6. The principle of specialization should be applied wherever

possible. Precise division of work facilitates specialization. Every person
should be assigned a single function wherever possible. This rule applies to
individuals as well as departments.
The specialized operations will lead to efficiency and quality. However,

each area of specialization must be interrelated to the total integrated
system by means of coordination of all activities of all departments.
7. The line function and the staff function should be kept separate. The
overlapping of these functions will result in ambiguity. The line functions
are those that are directly involved with the operations that result in the
achievement of the company objectives.

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Staff functions are auxiliary to the line function and offer assistance
and advice. For example, legal, public relations and promotional functions
are all staff functions. The activities of line managers and staff managers
should be coordinated so as to achieve synergetic results.
8. The span of control should be reasonable and well established. The span
of control determines the number of positions that can be coordinated by a
single executive. The span of control could be narrow where there are
relatively few individuals who report to the same manager or it could be wide
where many individuals are under the supervision of the same manager.
However, such a span of control would depend upon the similarity or

dissimilarity of the subordinate positions and how interdependent these
positions are. The more interdependent these positions are, the more
difficult is the coordination. In such interlocking positions, it is advisable to
have no more than five or six subordinates working under any one
executive.
9. The organization should be simple and flexible. It should be simple

because it is easier to manage and it should be flexible because it can
quickly adapt to changing conditions. It should be such that it can easily be
expanded or reduced, as the times demand. Furthermore, simplicity would
make the communication much easier, fast and accurate, which is
necessary for successful organizations.
While these principles, in general, apply to classical organizations as

proposed by Frederick Taylor and Henry Fayol, and have been adopted to
facilitate administration, some more recent principles have evolved which
have become an integral part of most modern organizations.
These new principles of participative decision-making, challenging

work assignments, management by objectives, decentralization of
authority and so on have been integrated with the traditional ones. The idea
is to stimulate creativity, encourage growth and optimize the utility of all
resources in reaching the goals of the organization.

Page 168 of
Communication
Self- Check 1.3-5
TRUE or FALSE: Each sentence below then write TRUE if the statement if
correct and FALSE if the statement is no correct.
1. The classical form means a bureaucratic structure where there is a

hierarchy of power and responsibility and the directions primarily flow
from the top management to the lower levels of workers through its
hierarchical ranks.
2. The lines of authority should be clearly stated and should run from
the top to the bottom of the organization.
3. The senior managers are not responsible for the acts of their
subordinates.
4. Staff functions are not auxiliary to the line function and offer
assistance and advice

Page 169 of
Communication
5. The organization should be simple and flexible. It should be simple
because it is easier to manage and it should be flexible because it can
quickly adapt to changing conditions.
Answer Key 1.3-5
1. True
2. True
3. False
4. False
5. True

Page 170 of
Communication
Organizational Guideline
to:
1. Identify the guidelines on effective organization management

2. Identify the line of organization

Page 171 of
Communication
How to Write a Good Documentation: Home
This guide will help you to prepare your code for publishing through
writing a good documentation.
Documentation
Why to Write Documentation
Documentation effectively connects humans and machines.
Why writing documentation:
 For you
o You will be using your code in 6 months
o You want people to use your code and give you credit
o You want to learn self-determination
o Others would be encouraged to contribute to your code
 For others:
o Others can easily use your code and build upon it
 For science:
o Advance the science
o Encourage open science
o Allow reproducibility and transparency
Best Practices for Documenting Your Project

An example for README file.
Best practices for writing documentation:
1. Include A README file that contains

o A brief description of the project
o Installation instructions
o A short example/tutorial
2. Allow issue tracker for others
3. Write an API documentation
o What a function do
o What the function's parameters or arguments are
o What a function returns
An example for code documentation.
4. Document your code

5. Apply coding conventions, such as file organization, comments,
naming conventions, programming practices, etc.
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Communication
6. Include information for contributors
7. Include citation information
8. Include licensing information
9. Link to your e-mail address at the end
10. List all the version of the files along with the major edits you did
in each version
An important tip: Naming files should be descriptive and consistent!
Self-Check 1.3-6
Enumeration: What are the 10 best practices in writing documentation

Page 173 of
Communication
Answer Key 1.3-6
1. Include A README file that contains

2. Allow issue tracker for others
3. Write an API documentation
4. Document your code
5. Apply coding conventions, such as file organization, comments,
naming conventions, programming practices, etc.
Page 174 of
Communication
6. Include information for contributors
7. Include citation information
8. Include licensing information
9. Link to your e-mail address at the end
10. List all the version of the files along with the major edits you did in
each version
References:
Read more at: https://www.skillsyouneed.com/ips/questioning.html
http://www.nzdl.org/gsdlmod?e=d-00000-00---off-0fnl2.2--00-0----0-10-0---0---0direct-10---
4-------0-1l--11-pl-50---20-about---10-0-1-00-0--4----0-0-11-10-0gbk-
00&cl=CL2.4.2&d=HASH17f0cdc379897dbcb03f48.13&gt=1#:~:text=The%20general
%20purpose%20of%20data,resources%20available%20for%20the%20study.

Page 175 of
Communication
Read more at: https://www.skillsyouneed.com/ips/questioning.html
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/data-evaluation

Page 176 of
Communication

1 Participate in A Work Place Communication

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1 Participate in A Work Place Communication

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HOW TO USE THIS COMPETENCY-BASED LEARNING

Welcome to the Module in Participating in Workplace

 Work through all the information and complete the activities in

 Most probably your trainer will also be your supervisor or manager.

 You will be given plenty of opportunity to ask question and practice

 Talk to more experience workmates and ask for their guidance.

Date Developed: September 2020 Document No.

Date Developed: September 2020 Document No.

4 Develop career Developing career 400311213

6 Present relevant Presenting relevant 400311215

Exercise efficient Exercising efficient

Date Developed: September 2020 Document No.

UNIT OF COMPETENCY: Participate in Workplace Communication

MODULE TITLE : Participating in Workplace Communication

MODULE DESCRIPTOR: This module covers the knowledge, skills and

SUMMARY OF LEARNING OUTCOMES:

Upon completion of this module, the trainee/students must be able to:

LO 1. Obtain and convey workplace information

LO 2. Complete relevant work related documents

LO 3. Participate in workplace meeting and discussion

1. Specific relevant information is accessed from appropriate sources.

Date Developed: September 2020 Document No.

The following resources must be provided:

Date Developed: September 2020 Document No.

OBTAIN AND CONVEY WORKPLACE INFORMATION

Date Developed: September 2020 Document No.

1. Identify the different sources of information

Sources of information are often considered primary, secondary, or

A primary source of information is one that provides data from an

Here are some examples of primary information sources.

A secondary source of information is one that provides information

Here are some examples of secondary information sources.

Tertiary Information Sources

A tertiary information source lists, compiles, or indexes primary and

Here are some examples of tertiary information sources.

All organisations generate a substantial amount of information

 Marketing and sales information on performance, revenues, markets

An external source of information is concerned with what is

1. A primary source of information is one that provides data from an

Date Developed: September 2020 Document No.

Date Developed: September 2020 Document No.

1. Identify the different questioning skills and techniques

Gathering information is a basic human activity – we use information to

Questioning is the key to gaining more information and without it

We find questions and answers fascinating and entertaining – politicians,

Why Ask Questions?

To help maintain control of a conversation

Express an interest in the other person

Questions are commonly used in communication to clarify something that

To encourage further thought

Questions may be used to encourage people think about something more

Questioning in group situations can be very useful for a number of reasons,

1. What are the reasons why you have to ask questions

Date Developed: September 2020 Document No.

1. Whatare the reasons why you have to ask questions

2. What are the techniques in asking question?

Date Developed: September 2020 Document No.

1. Enumerate the importance of listening and speaking skills

Listening is the ability to accurately receive and interpret messages in

Listening is key to all effective communication. Without the ability to

Good listening skills also have benefits in our personal lives,

A greater number of friends and social networks, improved self-esteem

Studies have shown that, whereas speaking raises blood pressure,