Arianna Mae H.
Gomez
BSN 1C
Student Study Guide
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
10.1 Principles of Chemical Communication
A. Endocrine glands
- endocrine glands and cells secrete very
small amounts of chemical messengers
called hormones.
- Hormones circulate through the
bloodstream to specific sites called target
tissues.
- Endocrine= endo — “within”, krino —- “to
secrete”
B. Exocrine Glands
- have ducts that carry their secretions to
the outside of the body, or into a hollow
organ, such as the stomach, or intestines.
- Saliva, sweat, breast, milk, and digestive
enzymes.
CHEMICAL MESSENGERS:
- allow cells to communicate with each other
to regulate body activities.
- Gland — an organ consisting of epithelial
cells that specialize in secretion (the
controlled release of chemicals from a
cell).
- The four classes of chemical messengers
are autocrine, paracrine,
neurotransmitter, and endocrine.
1. Autocrine Chemical messenger
- secreted by cells in a local area
- Influences the activity of the same cell or
cell type from which it was secreted.
- Eicosanoids (prostaglandins,
thromboxanes, prostacyclins, leukotrienes)
2. Paracrine chemical messenger
- Produced by a wide variety of tissues
- Secreted into extracellular fluid
- Has a localized effect on other tissues.
- Somatostatin, histamine, eicosanoids.
3. Neurotransmitters
- produced by neurons
- Secreted into a synaptic cleft by presynaptic
nerve terminals
- Travel short distances
- Influences postsynaptic cells.
- Acetylcholine, epinephrine
4. Endocrine Chemical messengers
- secreted into the blood by specialized cells
- Travel some distance to target tissues
- Results in coordinated regulation of cell
function.
- Thyroid hormones, growth hormones,
insulin, epinephrine, estrogen,
progesterone, testosterone, prostaglandins.
- Endocrine chemical messengers are
called hormones.
10.2 Functions of the Endocrine System
The endocrine system has 10 major functions
that contribute to homeostasis.
1. Regulation of Metabolism
2. Control of food intake and digestion
3. Modulation of tissue development
4. Regulations of ion levels. (Blood ph, Na+,
K+, Ca++)
5. Control of water balance
6. Regulation of cardiovascular functions
7. Control of blood glucose and other nutrients
8. Control of Reproductive functions
9. Stimulation of uterine contractions and milk
release.
10. Modulation of immune system function
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10.3 Hormones
Chemical Nature of Hormones
There are two chemical categories of hormones:
1. lipid-soluble
- Nonpolar molecules
- include steroids, thyroid hormones, and
- some fatty acid derivatives.
Transport of Lipid-Soluble Hormone
- Low solubility in aqueous fluid
- If unprotected, they could be removed easily
by:
- Breakdown by enzymes in the liver
or enzymes in the lungs.
- Excretion into urine by the kidneys
- Breakdown by enzymes by the blood
would then be excreted in the urine
or in bile produced in the liver.
- Bound to binding proteins (chaperone)
Humoral Regulation of Hormone Secretion
- Some hormones are released when the
blood levels of a certain chemical
changes.
- If blood Ca++ levels decrease, PTH is
secreted.
- If blood Ca++ levels increase, PTH
secretion slows.
- Some hormones are secreted in direct
response to changes in certain blood-borne
chemicals, such as Ca++.

2. Water-soluble
- polar molecules
- include proteins, peptides, and amino
acid derivatives. 2. Neural stimuli cause hormone secretion
Transport of Water-Soluble Hormone in direct response to action potentials in
- circulate freely in the blood. neurons, as occurs during stress or
- Proteases degrade protein and peptide exercise.
hormones in the blood; the breakdown
products are then excreted in the urine.
- However, some water-soluble hormones
have chemical modifications, such as the
addition of a carbohydrate group, which
prolongs their life span.

a. Hormones from the hypothalamus

that cause the release of other
hormones are called releasing
hormones.

3. Hormonal stimulation of other hormone

10.4 Control of Hormone Secretion
secretions is common in the endocrine
Stimulation of Hormone Release
system.
- occurs when a hormone is secreted that,
Three types of sumul result in hormone secretion:
in turn, stimulates the secretion of other
humoral, neural, and hormonal.
hormones.
a. Hormones from the anterior pituitary
1. Humoral stimulation is exhibited by
that stimulate hormones from other
hormones that are sensitive to
endocrine glands are called tropic
circulating blood levels of certain
hormones.
molecules such as glucose or calcium.
- ions in the bloodstream are stimulated by
hormones.
- Refers to body fluids including blood.

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 2. Positive feedback is a self-promoting
system whereby the stimulation of hormone
secretion increases over time.

Inhibition of Hormone Release

- Although the stimulus of hormone secretion
is important, inhibition is equally important.

1. Humoral substances can inhibit the

10.5 Hormone Receptors and Mechanisms of
secretion of hormones.
Action
- hormone’s release is sensitive, there exists
Classes of Receptors
a companion hormone whose release is
Each of the two groups of hormones has its own
inhibited by the same humoral stimulus.
class of receptors.
1. Lipid-soluble hormones bind to nuclear
2. Neural stimuli can prevent hormone
receptors located inside the nucleus of
secretion
the target cell.
- If only the neurotransmitter is inhibitory.
- Some lipid-soluble hormones have
rapid actions that are most likely
3. Inhibiting hormones prevents hormone
mediated via a membrane-bound
release.
receptor.
- prevent the secretion of tropic hormones
from the anterior pituitary gland.

Regulation of Hormone Levels in the Blood

Two processes regulate the overall blood levels of
hormones: negative feedback and positive
feedback.

1. Negative feedback prevents further

hormone secretion once a set point is
achieved.
- self-limiting system.

2. Water-soluble hormones bind to

membrane-bound receptors, which are
integral membrane proteins.

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Action of Nuclear Receptors
1. Nuclear receptors have portions that allow them
to bind to the DNA in the nucleus once the
hormone is bound.
- The hormone-receptor complex
activates genes, which in turn
activate the DNA to produce
mRNA.
- The mRNA increases the
synthesis of certain proteins that
produce the target cell’s
response.
- Nuclear receptors cannot respond
immediately because it takes time to
produce the mRNA and the protein.
Membrane-Bound Receptors and Signal
Amplification
1. Membrane-bound receptors activate a
cascade of events once the hormone
binds.
2. Some membrane- bound receptors are
associated with membrane proteins
called G proteins.
- When a hormone binds to a
membrane-bound receptor, G
proteins are activated.
- Then a subunit of the G protein can
be bound to ion channels and cause
them to or change the rate of
synthesis of intracellular mediators,
such as cAMP.
3. Second messenger systems act as rapidly
because they act on already existing
enzymes and produce an amplification
effect.
10.6 Endocrine Glands and Their Hormones
1. The endocrine system consists of ductless
glands.
2. Some glands of the endocrine system
perform more than one function.
Pituitary and Hypothalamus
A. The pituitary is connected to the
hypothalamus in the brain by the
infundibulum.
a. It is divided into anterior and
posterior portions.
B. Secretions from the anterior pituitary are
controlled by hormones that pass through
the hypothalamic-pituitary portal system
from the hypothalamus.
C. The hormones released from the anterior
pituitary are growth hormone (GH),
thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH),
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH),
luteinizing hormone (LHI),
follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH),
prolactin, and melanocyte- stimulating
hormone (MSH).
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 Parathyroid Glands
- The parathyroid glands secrete
parathyroid hormone, which helps
regulate blood Ca++ levels. Active
vitamin D also helps regulate blood
Ca*+ levels.

Adrenal Glands
1. The adrenal medulla secretes primarily
epinephrine and some norepinephrine.
D. Hormones secreted from the posterior
These hormones help prepare the body for
pituitary are controlled by action potentials
physical activity.
carried by axons that pass from the
2. The adrenal cortex secretes three classes
hypothalamus to the posterior pituitary.
of hormones.
a. Glucocorticoids (cortisol) reduce
E. Hormones released from the posterior
inflammation and break. Down
pituitary include antidiuretic hormone
proteins and lipids, making them
(ADH) and oxytocin.
available as energy sources to other
tissues
b. Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone)
help regulate blood Na+ and K+
levels and water volume.
i. Renin, secreted by the
kidneys, helps regulate blood
ii. pressure by increasing
angiotensin II and
aldosterone production.
iii. These hormones cause
blood vessels to constrict
and enhance Na+ and water
retention by the kidney.
c. Adrenal androgens increase female
sexual drive but normally have little
effects in males.

Thyroid Gland
- The thyroid gland secretes thyroid
hormones, which control the metabolic rate
of tissues, and calcitonin, which helps
regulate blood Ca?+ levels.

Pancreas, Insulin, and Diabetes

A. The pancreas secretes insulin in response
to elevated levels of blood glucose and
amino acids.
a. Insulin increases the rate at which
many tissues, including adipose
tissue, the liver, and skeletal
muscles,take up glucose and amino
acids.

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 B. The pancreas secretes glucagon in
response to reduced blood glucose and
increases the rate at which the liver
releases glucose into the blood.
C. The pancreas secretes somatostatin in
response to food intake.
a. Somatostatin inhibits insulin and
glucagon secretion and gastric tract
activity.
4. Erythropoietin from the kidney stimulates
red blood cell production.
5. The placenta secretes human chorionic
gonadotropin, estrogen, and progesterone,
which are essential to the maintenance of
pregnancy.

Testes and Ovaries

A. The testes secrete testosterone, and the
ovaries secrete estrogen and progesterone.
a. These hormones help control
reproductive processes.
B. LH and FSH from the pituitary gland control
hormone secretion from the ovaries and
testes.
Thymus
- The thymus secretes thymosin, which
enhances the function of the immune
system.

Pineal Gland
- secretes melanin, which may help regulate
the onset of puberty by acting on the
hypothalamus.

10.7 Other Hormones

1. Hormones secreted by cells in the stomach
and intestine help regulate stomach,
pancreatic, and liver secretions.
2. The prostaglandins are hormones that have
a local effect, produce numerous effects on
the body, and play a role in inflammation.
3. ANH from the right atrium of the heart
lowers blood pressure.

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