‭ )TROPISM- the biological phenomenon of growth or body movements of an organism in‬

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‭response to an environmental stimulus .‬
‭2)SEMEN- is the mixture of sperms and secertions from seminal vesicles,prostrate gland and‬
‭Cowper’s glands.‬
‭3)MENARCHE- is the onset of menstruation in a young female at about the age of 13 yrs.‬
‭4)MENOPAUSE- is the permanent stoppage of menstruation in females at about the age of‬
‭45yrs.‬
‭5)FERTILISATION - the fusion of the male gamete and female gamete to form a zygote .‬
‭6)IMPLANTATION- the process of fixing of the blastocyst to the wall of the uterus is termed as.‬
‭7)PARTURITION- is the act of expelling the full term foetus from the mothers uterus at the end‬
‭of gestation.‬
‭8)REFLEX ACTION- it is an automatic involuntary action in the body brought about by a‬
‭stimulus.‬
‭9)SYNAPSE- point of contact between the terminal branches of the axon of a nueron with the‬
‭dendrites of another neuron seperated by a fine gap.‬
‭10)MICTURATION-urine is expelled from the urinary bladder through the urethera (in the penis‬
‭in males,and directly in females)by relaxation of spincter muscles located at the opening of the‬
‭urinary bladder into the urethera under the impulse from the nervous system.‬
‭11)APICAL DOMINANCE- suppression of lateral buds by apical buds is called .‬
‭12)GUTTATION- It occurs from the edges of leaf by hydathodes in uninjured part.it occurs‬
‭during early mornings or late nights.‬
‭13)BLEEDING- it occurs from any cut or injured part of a plant.it occurs at the time of injury.‬
‭14)IMBIBITION- is a phenomenon by which living or dead plant cells absorb water by surface‬
‭attraction.‬
‭15)OSMOSIS- movement of water molecules from the region of higher concentration to their‬
‭lower concentration through a semi- permeable membrane.‬
‭16)LAW OF DOMINANCE- out of a pair of contrasting characters present together ,only one is‬
‭able to express itself while the other remains suppressed.‬
‭17)LAW OF SEGREGATION- the two members of a pair of factors seperate during the‬
‭formation of gametes.‬
‭18)LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT- when there are two pairs of characters,the‬
‭distribution of the alleles of one character into the gametes is independent of the distribution of‬
‭the alleles of the other character.‬
‭19)URINE- the filtrate left after reabsorption and tubular secretion.‬
‭20)ULTRAFILTRATION- this high pressure causes the liquid part of the blood to filter out from‬
‭the glomerulus into the renal tubule.this filtration under extraordinary force is called.‬
‭21)LIGHT ADAPTATION - it is the adjustment of eyes when people move from a dimly lit area to‬
‭a brightly lit one .‬
‭22)DARK ADAPTATION- it is the adjustment of eyes when people move from a brightly lit area‬
‭to a dimly lit one .‬
‭23)ARTERY - thich muscular walls , narrow lumen‬
‭24)VEIN- thin muscular walls, wider lumen‬
‭25)MITOSIS- in the somatic cells, to provide fro growth ,repair and replacement.‬
‭26)MEOSIS- in the reproductive cells. Only for gamete formation.‬
‭ 7)RODS- more numerous. Mostly at the periphery of retina.‬
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‭28)CONES- less numerous. Mostly located in the centre of retina.‬
‭29)Endocrine glands- 1. Ductless glands which pour their secretion directly into blood 2.‬
‭Secretions are called as hormones.2 Secretions are called hormones.‬
‭30‬‭)Exocrine‬‭- 1. Glands which possess ducts, pour their secretion via ducts or directly on to‬
‭target organs 2. Secretions are enzymes, mucus etc .‬
‭31)A. Adrenal Glands‬‭Location: like caps on top of each kidney Adrenal gland has two parts‬
‭Adrenal cortex: peripheral region of adrenal gland and Adrenal medulla: central region of‬
‭adrenal gland.‬
‭32)Adrenaline (or epinephrine)-‬‭Adrenaline is hormone secreted by adrenal medulla. It is‬
‭stimulates sympathetic nervous system More adrenaline is released into blood during emotional‬
‭stress (example when excited or angry) Reason: Adrenaline is called as flight or fight hormone‬
‭or emergency hormone because it stimulates sympathetic nervous system and prepares the‬
‭body to meet emergency situations by performing following functions 1. It increases heart beat‬
‭and blood pressure 2. It increases blood supply to muscles.‬
‭33)Cortical hormones (or corticoids)‬‭- Corticoid hormones are secreted by adrenal cortex.‬
‭They are of following categories 1. Mineralocorticoids: regulates mineral metabolism especially‬
‭K+ and Na+ 2. Glucocorticoids: regulates fat, carbohydrate and protein metabolism .Overgrowth‬
‭of adrenal cortex in adult men and women: causes Adrenal virilism in which females develop‬
‭certain male characteristics (facial hair, deep male voice) and males develop feminine‬
‭characteristics.‬
‭34)Addison’s disease‬‭- 1. Caused by hyposecretion of cortisone from adrenal cortex 2.‬
‭Symptoms: hypoglycemia, fatigue .‬
‭35)Cushings diesease-‬‭1. Caused by hypersecretion of cortisone from adrenal cortex 2.‬
‭Symptoms: hyperglycemia, obesity .‬
‭36) Pancreas‬‭Location: In the abdominal cavity, behind the stomach Reason: Pancreas is‬
‭called as exo-endocrine glands. It can act as exocrine (duct land) by pouring its secretion‬
‭pancreatic juice into duodenum via pancreatic duct for digestion. It also has group of hormone‬
‭secretin cells called as Islets of Langerhans, which secret hormones directly into blood‬
‭37)Insulin-‬‭Insulin hormone is secreted by beta cells of Islets of Langerhans in pancreas‬
‭Function: Insulin Prevents increase of blood sugar level (or lowers blood sugar level). It does‬
‭this in following ways 1. Promoting glucose utilization by body cells 2. Promotes conversion of‬
‭glucose to glycogen in liver and muscle cells Undersecretion of insulin: causes Diabetes‬
‭mellitus (sugar diabetes). Symptoms of diabetes mellitus: Hyperglycemia (high sugar level in‬
‭blood) Sugar in urine (glycosuria) Excessive thirst due to frequent urination Oversecretion of‬
‭insulin: Hypoglycemia, nerve cell starvation and brain coma Insulin shock: is caused due to‬
‭overdose of insulin in a diabetic patient. Patient may become unconscious due to hypoglycemia.‬
‭38)Glucagon Glucagon is a hormone secreted by alpha cells of Islets of Langerhans in‬
‭pancreas. Function: Stimulates liver to convert glycogen into glucose and raises blood sugar‬
‭level .Reason: Insulin is not given orally but injected into blood because it is a peptide hormone‬
‭and if taken orally it will be digested by protein digesting enzymes in the digestive tract.‬
‭39)Undersecretion of thyroxine (hypothyroidism) 1. Simple goitre: enlargement of thyroid, visible‬
‭as swelling in neck (fig 12.6) 2. Cretinism: dwarfism and mental retardation in children 3.‬
‭ yxoedema: swelling of face and hands and sluggishness in adults Oversecretion of thyroxine‬
M
‭(hyperthyroidism) Exophthalmic goitre: protruding eyes, shortness of breath, restlessness.‬
‭40)Pitutary gland‬‭L- hangs from base of midbrain, just below the hypothalamus R: It is called‬
‭as master gland because it controls all other endocrine glands Two lobes: anterior and posterior‬
‭Hormones secreted from anterior pituitary 1. Growth hormone (GH, somatotropin) Function:‬
‭Promotes growth of whole body, particularly skeleton Dwarfism Cause: Deficiency of GH in‬
‭childhood Gigantism Cause: Oversecretion of GH in childhood Symptoms: Long bones‬
‭lengthened beyond normal Acromegaly-Cause: Oversecretion of GH in adults Symptoms:‬
‭Excessive growth of bones in face, hands and feet, large nose and thick lips.‬
‭41)2. Thyroid stimulating hormone‬‭(TSH) F: Activates thyroid to secrete thyroxin 3. Gonad‬
‭stimulating hormone (gonadotropic hormone) F: regulates the activity of ovaries and testis‬
‭Three types of gonadotropic hormones a. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) F: Stimulates egg‬
‭formation (oogenesis) and estrogen secretion in females Stimulates sperm formation‬
‭(spermatogenesis) in males b. Luteinizing hormone (LH) F: In females-Promotes ovulation and‬
‭formation of corpus luteum, stimulates production of progesterone from corpus luteum In males:‬
‭stimulates testis to produce male hormone testosterone c. Prolactin F: promotes lactation (milk‬
‭secretion) 3. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) F: stimulates adrenal cortex.‬
‭43)Hormones secreted from posterior pituitary‬‭- 1. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) or‬
‭vasopressin Functions: increases reabsorption of water from glomerular filtrate by kidney‬
‭tubules constricts blood vessels and causes rise in blood vessels Undersecretion causes‬
‭Diabetes insipidus (water diabetes) Oversecretion causes elevation of blood pressure‬‭2.‬
‭Oxytocin‬‭Functions: uterine contractions during child birth stimulates milk ejection Tropic‬
‭hormone (definition): are hormones which stimulate other endocrine glands to produce their‬
‭specific hormone. Ex: ACTH, gonadotropic hormone.‬
‭44)TRH (thyroid releasing hormone)‬‭1. Secreted by hypothalamus 2. Stimulates anterior‬
‭pituitary to produce TSH . TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone)- 1. Secreted by anterior pituitary‬
‭2. Stimulates thyroid gland to produce thyroxine.‬
‭45)(i) PROPHASE (A and B) • Centrioles start moving apart and reach opposite poles. •‬
‭Chromosomes become distinct. ii) METAPHASE (C) 1) Chromosomes line up in one plane at‬
‭equator. 2) Each chromosome gets attached. iii) ANAPHASE (D and E) 1)Centromere attaching‬
‭the two chromatids divides/splits. 2) A furrow starts in the cell membrane at the middle in animal‬
‭cell. iv) TELOPHASE (F) 1) Two sets of daughter chromosomes (chromatids) reach opposite‬
‭poles. 2)Spindle fibres disappear.‬
‭@)Chiasma: The point of attachment between two non-sister chromatids of a pair of‬
‭homologous chromosomes formed during meiosis is termed as chiasma. It helps in the process‬
‭of crossing over.‬
‭@)Crossing over: The process of exchange of genetic material during meiosis between two‬
‭non-sister chromatids of a pair of homologous chromosomes is termed as crossing over. This‬
‭process results in the genetic recombination of the offsprings. @) Traits- the alternative forms of‬
‭a character.‬
‭@) Homologous chromosomes- a pair of corresponding chromosomes of the same shape and‬
‭size, one obtained from each parent.‬
‭@) Genotype The set of genes present in the cells of an organism‬
‭@)Phenotype - The observable characteristics which are genetically controlled‬
.‭ @) ALLELES: Alternative forms of a gene, occupying the same position (locus) on‬
‭homologous chromosomes and affecting the same characteristic but in different ways.‬
‭@) Dominant Allele: The kind of allele which expresses itself regardless of the presence of‬
‭another allele/s for a given gene. e.g. The dominant allele for height in garden pea is tall.‬
‭@)Recessive Allele: The kind of allele whose expression is suppressed in presence of a‬
‭dominant allele for a given gene. A recessive allele can only express itself in presence of the‬
‭same recessive allele. e.g. The recessive allele for height in garden pea is dwarf.‬