1

2nd Lecture (15th – 21st Oct 2017)/3rd

Glands:
Definitions of glands: (1). A single cell or a cluster of cells or an organ in the
body that produces a substance (as saliva, sweat, or bile) to be used by the body
or given off from it. According to number of cells they are made up of they could
be classified to either single (unicellular or many cells, multicellular. (2). A
specialized cell, group of cells, or organ of endothelial origin that selectively
removes materials from the blood, concentrates or alters them, and secretes
them for further use in the body or for elimination from the body. Glands
synthesizes substances such as hormones to release into the bloodstream (endocrine
gland) or into cavities inside the body or its outer surface (exocrine gland) or for
discharge into the surroundings. Numerous glands exist throughout the human body
including the head. They all are developed as either at the epithelial tissues i.e. goblet
cells or as an in-growth from the epithelium down to the underneath Connective
Tissue (Co.T.) where they reside for the rest of the life (Fig. 1, 2 and 3).

1 2 3 4 5
(Fig. 1): Various possible glandular arrangements. These are: (1): the simple tubular;
(2): Simple branched tubular; (3): simple coiled tubular; (4): simple acinar, and (5):
simple branched acinar glands, respectively.

1 2 3
(Fig. 2): Various possible glandular arrangements. These are (1): Compound tubular;
(2): Compound acinar and (3): Compound tubulo-acinar glands.
Development:
Every gland is formed by an ingrowth from an epithelial surface which may at the
beginning possess a tubular structure, but in other instances glands may start as a solid
column of cells which subsequently becomes tubulated. As growth proceeds, the
column of cells may divide or give off offshoots, in which case a compound gland is
formed. In many glands the number of branches is limited, in others (salivary,
pancreas) a very large structure is finally formed by repeated growth and sub-division.
As a rule, the branches do not unite with one another, but in one instance, the
liver, this does occur when a reticulated compound gland is produced. In compound
glands the more typical or secretory epithelium is found forming the terminal portion
 2

of each branch, and the uniting portions form ducts and are lined with a less modified
type of epithelial cell.

(Fig. 3): Shapes of glands, simple and compound.

Classification of Glands:
1) According to their shape.
 If the gland retains its shape as a tube throughout it is termed a tubular gland.
 In the second main variety of gland the secretory portion is enlarged and
the lumen variously increased in size, these are termed alveolar or saccular
glands (Fig.4).
 3

 2). According to their Function

(Figure 4): The differences between Endocrine and Exocrine glands where the major
difference is that Exocrine glands secrete substances out of the body and Endocrine
glands secrete substances into capillaries and blood vessels.
The Endocrine System Essentials
 The endocrine system is composed of a network of glands (Fig.5)..
 These glands secrete hormones to regulate many bodily functions, including
growth and metabolism.
 Endocrine diseases are common and usually occur when glands produce an
incorrect amount of hormones.
The endocrine system helps control the following processes and systems:
 Growth and development
 Homeostasis (the internal balance of body systems)
 Metabolism (body energy levels)
 Reproduction
 Response to stimuli (stress and/or injury)

a). Endocrine glands:

The endocrine system is a complex collection of hormone-producing glands that
control basic body functions such as metabolism, growth and sexual development.
The endocrine glands consist of: pineal; thyroid and parathyroids; thymus;
adrenals; pancreas; pituitary gland, ovaries (female); and testes (male).
Endocrine glands secrete substances that circulate through the blood stream. These
glands that secrete their products through the basal lamina into the blood stream and
lack a duct system. These glands often secrete hormones, and play an important role
in maintaining homeostasis.
"Hormones" are the chemical signaling molecules produced by the endocrine
glands and secreted directly into the bloodstream. They travel through the blood to
distant tissues and organs, where they can bind to specific cell sites called
receptors. By binding to receptors, hormones trigger various responses in the
tissues containing the receptors. In addition to the classical endocrine organs,
many other cells in the body secrete hormones. Myocytes in the atria (single
 4

atrium) of the heart and scattered epithelial cells in the stomach and small intestine
are examples of what is sometimes called the "diffuse" endocrine system. If the
term hormone is defined broadly to include all secreted chemical messengers, then
virtually all cells can be considered part of the endocrine system.

Tip: Advances in molecular genetics have led to a greatly strengthened

understanding of the mechanisms of certain of the hereditary endocrine disorders.
This section of genes and disease focuses on disorders for which the primary gene
defect has been characterized or recently identified. This part will thoroughly be
studied in another module.

The endocrine system includes all of the glands of the body and the hormones
produced by those glands. The glands are controlled directly by stimulation from the
nervous system (NS) as well as by chemical receptors in the blood and hormones
produced by other glands. By regulating the functions of organs in the body, these
glands help to maintain the body’s homeostasis. Cellular metabolism, reproduction,
sexual development, sugar and mineral homeostasis, heart rate, and digestion are
among the many processes regulated by the actions of hormones.

(Fig.5): Distribution of the glands of the human endocrine system.

b). Exocrine glands:
Exocrine glands secrete their products through a duct onto an outer surface of the
body i.e. the skin or the human gastrointestinal tract. Secretion is directly onto
the apical surface. The glands in this group can be divided into three groups:

(a): Merocrine glands cells secrete their substances by exocytosis (e.g.,

mucous and serous glands). Also called "eccrine". e.g. max sweat gland of
humans, goblet cells, salivary gland, tear gland, intestinal glands (Fig. 5a).
 5

(2): Apocrine glands, a portion of the secreting cell's body is lost during

secretion.  Apocrine gland are those which use the apocrine method of
secretion. e.g. mammery gland, sweat gland of arm pit, pubic region, skin
around anus, lips, nipples (Fig 5b).

(3): Holocrine glands, the entire cell disintegrates to secrete its substances

sebaceous gland (Fig. 5c).

(Fig. 6) Classification of glands upon their mode of secretion into (a): Merocrine;
(b): Apocrine and Holocrine glands.
 6

(Fig. 7): The development, production and secretion of a "holocrine" gland its
contents of hormones.

(Fig. 8): Formation of hormones and mechanism of secretion.

 7

(Fig 9): The mechanism of production, accumulation and secretion of the above three
types of glands. Note the secreted hormones of each unicellular gland will be
accumulated inside the lumen before they are secreted outside via a duct.

Classification according to The type of secretory product of exocrine glands may

also be one of three categories:

(1): Serous glands secrete a watery fluid like, often protein-rich product e.g.

sweat gland.

(2): Mucous glands secrete a viscous product, rich in carbohydrates (e.g.,

glycoproteins) goblet cell (Fig. 9).

(3): Sebaceous glands secrete a lipid product. These glands are also known as oil

glands, e.g. skin, pancreas, gastric gland.

(Fig. 10): Anatomical differences between mucous and serous glands. Note that
nuclei of Mucous glands are flattened and pushed towards the base due to the
higher viscosity of the mucine. Both types of glands could make a mixed gland.
 8

(Fig. 10A)

(Fig. 11A & B): Locations of the oral glands.

 9

(Fig. 12): Mixed types of secretory produce glands are found within the glands
located at the oral.

(Fig. 13): Shapes of mixed mucous and serous glands as found together making
demilunes.
 10

Skin: There are several specialized glands within the human integumentary system
that are derived from apocrine or sebaceous gland precursors. There are no
specialized variants of eccrine glands (Fig.14).

(Fig. 14): Section in thin skin of human shows sebaceous gland.

Sebaceous Glands:
Sebaceous glands are simple and branched tubular gland however, the secretory
portion consists of alveoli. Basal cells in the outermost layer of the alveolus are
flattened. Basal cells are mitotically active. Some of the new cells will replenish the
pool of basal cells, while the remaining cells are displaced towards the centre of the
alveolus as more cells are generated by the basal cells. The secretory cells will
gradullay accumulate lipids and grow in size. Finally their nuclei disintegrate, and the
cells rupture. The resulting secretory product of lipids and the constituents of the
disintegrating cell is a holocrine secretion. They empty their secretory product into
the upper parts of the hair follicles. They are therefore found in parts of the skin
where hair is present. The hair follicle and its associated sebaceous gland form
a pilosebaceous unit. Sebaceous glands are also found in some of the areas where no
hair is present e.g. lips, oral surfaces of the cheeks and external genitalia.

The lipid secretion of the sebaceous glands has no softening effect on the skin, and it
has only very limited antibacterial and antifungoid activity. Its importance in humans
is unclear. Clinically the sebaceous glands are important in that they are liable to
infections (e.g. with the development of acne).

Sweat Glands

Two types of sweat glands are present in humans. They are distinguished by their
secretory mechanism into merocrine (~eccrine) sweat glands andapocrine sweat
glands. In addition, they differ in their detailed histological appearance and in the
composition of the sweat they secrete.
 11

Merocrine sweat glands are the only glands of the skin with a clearly defined
biological function. They are of critical importance for the regulation of body
temperature. The skin contains ~3,000,000 sweat gland which are found all over the
body - with the exception of, once again, parts of the external genitalia.Sweat glands
are simple tubular glands. The secretory tubulus and the initial part of the excretory
duct are coiled into a roughly spherical ball at the border between the dermis and
hypodermis.

The secretory epithelium is cuboidal or low columnar. Two types of cells may be
distinguished: a light type, which secretes the watery eccrine sweat, and a dark type,
which may produce a mucin-like secretion. The cells have slightly different shapes
and, as a result of the different shapes, the epithelium may appear pseudostratified.

 A layer of myoepithelial cells is found between the secretory cells of the

epithelium and the basement membrane.
 The excretory duct has a stratified cuboidal epithelium (two layers of cells).

The excretory ducts of merocrine sweat glands empty directly onto the surface of the
skin.

(Fig. 15): Section in skin shows a few sweat gland as simple tubular running down
from epithelium down to the dermis to end up as simple tubular coiled gland.
 12

Adenosis is any disease of a gland. The diseased gland has abnormal formation or

development of glandular tissue which is sometimes tumorous.

Scientific tips:
1. Cavities (Tooth Decay): Cavities are areas of damaged tooth enamel that
form when acid erodes away at a tooth.
2. What Causes Cavities? Bacteria are normally present on teeth as plaque.
Bacteria produce acid as a byproduct from feeding on sugar in the diet.
The acid produced then erodes the enamel and exposes dentin that, in
turn, can become pitted and result in a cavity.