Anatomy

for
Para Medical
courses.
(A Guide for sure Success)

ANATOMY ADHYAPAK

Email: anatomyacharya@gmail.com

Haribabu Murugesan
 Contents

GENERAL ANATOMY

Unit: I Introduction to Anatomical terms and organization of the human body

1. Human cell structure.
2. Tissues – Definition,Types, Charecteristics, Classification, Location, Functions and formation.
3. Membranes and glands – Classification and structure.
Unit: II The Skeletal System
1. Bones – Types, structure, Axial & Appendicular Skeleton, Bone formation and growth
2. Joints – Classification and structure
Unit: III The Muscular System
1. Types and structure of muscles
2. Muscle groups

SYSTEMIC ANATOMY

Unit: IV The Nervous System

1. Structure of Neuroglia & Neurons
2. Somatic Nervous System – Structure of brain, spinal cord, cranial nerves,
spinal nerves and peripheral nerves
3. Autonomic Nervous System- Sympathetic, Parasympathetic – structure, location and
functions
Unit: V The Sensory Organs
1. Structure of Skin
2. Eye – Structure and Optic pathway
3. Ear – Structure and Auditory pathway
4. Nose – Structure and Olfactory pathway
5. Tongue
Unit: VI The Circulatory & Lymphatic System
1. The Circulatory System – Heart, Circulation and blood vessels
2. The Lymphatic System – Lymph, Lymphatic organs
Unit: VII The Respiratory System
1. Structure of the organs of respiration
2. Muscles of respiration
Unit: VIII The Digestive System
1. Structure of Alimentary tract
2. Accessory organs of digestive system
Unit: IX The Excretory System
1. Organs of Urinary system
2. Kidney, Ureter, Urinary bladder & Urethra
Unit: X The Endocrine System
1. Pituitary gland
2. Thyroid & Parathyroid gland
3. Pancreas
4. Adrenal gland
Unit: XI The Reproductive System including Breast
1. Female reproductive organ – Parts and Structure
 2. Male reproductive organ - Parts and Structure
3. Mammary gland.

Unit:1 Introduction to anatomical terms and organization of the human body.

1) Define cell. Mention the structures present in the cell.

Definition: Cell is the structural and functional unit of the body.
Structure of cell:
It consists of plasma membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus.
i) Plasmamembrane forms the outer boundary of the cell
ii) Cytoplasm consists of organelles namely;
Endoplasmic reticulum, exists in two forms – rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum,
which helps in synthesis of lipids and glycogen.
Ribosomes are attached to the endoplasmic reticulum or scattered singly in the cytoplasm,
helps in synthesis of protein.
Mitochondria are the power house of the cell. They are rod like bodies which provide
metabolic energy for the cell by generating ATP.
Golgi Apparatus composed of sacs and vesicles. They process the proteins into small
membrane bond vesicles called secretory granules.
Lysosomes are granular structures that involve in the breakdown of the material that has been
brought into the cell by pahgocytosis.
Centrioles are a pair of rod shaped bodies present near the nucleus. They take part in the
formation of mitotic spindle during cell division
iii) Nucleus contains the genetic material of the cell, chromatin, nuclear membrane and nucleoli.

2) Mention the types of cell division.

There are two types of cell division:
i) Mitosis ii) Meiosis
Mitosis is a process of cell division in which a cell divides into two daughter identical cells. It
occurs in somatic cells. Eg; Stomach cell, kidney cell and liver cell
Stages of mitosis:
Prophase,
Prometaphase,
Metaphase,
 Anaphase
Telophase.
Meiosis is a process of cell division in which a cell divides into two daughter cells with
haploid number of chromosomes. It occurs in germ cells. Eg; Sperm and ovum
Stages of meiosis:
First Meiotic division: Prophase I, Prometaphase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I and Telophase I.

Second Meiotic division: Prophase II, Prometaphase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II and
Telophase II.

MITOSIS – CELL DIVISION

MEIOSIS – CELL DIVISION

3) Define Tissue. Mention the types of tissues.

Definition:
Group of cells performing similar function constitutes tissue.
Types: Basically there are four types of tissue.:
Epithelial tissue, Connective tissue, Muscular tissue and nervous tissue.

4) Define Epithelial tisse.Describe the classification of epithelial tissue with suitable

example.
Definition:
Epithelial tissues are composed of closely aggregated polyheadral cells with very little intercellular
substance.
Classification of Epithelial tissue:
i) COVERING AND LINING ii) GLANDULAR
EPITHELIUM EPITHELIUM

Covering and Lining Epithelium:

Depending upon the layers and cell shapes the covering and lining epithelium may be classified
into
1. Simple Epitheliun: It consists of single layer of epithelial cells arranged on a basement
membrane. Simple epithelium may be classified into
a)Simple squamous epithelium: It consists of single layer of squamous(flat) epithelial cells.

Eg; i) Alveoli of lungs,

ii) Serous pericardium, Pleura, and Peritoneum- (Mesothelium)
iii) Epithelium lining blood and lymph vessels – (Endothelium)

b)Simple cuboidal epithelium: It consists of single layer of cuboidal cells.

(Diagram – epithelial – No.1)

Eg; Follicles of Thyroid gland and Epithelium lining the surface of the ovary(Germinal epithelium).

c)Simple columnar epithelium: It consists of single layer of cylindrical cells.

Eg; Stomach and Large intestine

With Microvilli - Small intestine and Gall bladder
Ciliated - Respiratory tract, Uterus, Uterine tube & central canal of spinal cord.

2. Strtified Epithelium: It consists of more than two layers(or multilayer) of cells. It may be
classified into
a) Stratified squamous epithelium:
It may either Keratinised (pigmented) or Non- Keratinised (non-pigmented).
Keratinised -Eg; Skin, Outer surface of Tympanic membrane
Non- Keratinised-Eg; Oral cavity, Tongue, Pharynx, esophagus,Vagina, cornea and Anal canal.

b) Stratified cuboidal epithelium: Eg – Seminiferous tubules

c) Stratified columnar epithelium: Eg –Ducts of large glands

3. Transitional Epithelium(Urothelium): As it alters its shape hence it is called transitional.

(Urothelium – Present only in urinary tract)

Eg; Urinary bladder, Urethra &Ureter.

4) Pseudo stratified ciliated columnar epithelium:

Eg; Trachea & Primary Bronchi.

5) What are the special types of epithelial cells.

Neuro epithelial cells: They are cells of epithelial origin with specialised sensory function. Eg; Cells of
Taste buds.
Myoepithelial cells: Specialized in contraction. Eg; Sweat, Mammary & Salivary glands.

6) Define Gland. Explain the types of glands.

Definition-Glands are nothing but outgrowths of epithelial cells.
(or)
Epithelial cells that are specialised to perform a secretory function constitute glands.
Classification of Glands (Glandular Epithelium):
a) Depending on way of secretion-
Exocrine glands - Glands with ducts. Eg-Salivary glands & Goblet cells
Endocrine glands – Glands without ducts. Eg- Thyroid gland & pituitary gland.
b) Depending on nature of secretion-
Serous type – Secretion is thin(watery).Eg:Parotid gland
Mucous type – Secretion is thick (Gel) in nature. Eg:Goblet cell
c) Depending on shape of secretion portion-
Alveolar (Round shape)
Tubular (Tube shape)
Acinar (Flask shape)
d) Depending upon mechanism secretion –
Holocrine- Eg: Sebaceous gland
Apocrine- Eg: Mammary gland
Merocrine- Eg: Most of the Exocrine glands.
( Holo – Entire cell: Crine – Secretion, Apo – Apical portion, Mero – Secretion by a process called
exocytosis.)
 6) Define connective tissue. Mention the cells and fibres of connective tissue.
Definition: It is characterised by presence of abundance of intercellular substance produced by its cells
itself.
Eg: Cartilage, Bone, Blood, Ligaments, Tendons and Addipose tissue.

General features:
 Connective tissue consists of three basic elements: Cells, Ground substance and Fibres.
 It is highly vascular (Except Cartilage and Tendon).
 It has nerve supply (Except for Cartilage).
 It is derived from mesoderm.
Cells of Connective Tissue:
a) Macrophage: A large cell having the property of phagocytosis.
Tissue Macrophage(Fixed Histiocytes): Eg- Kupffer’s cells in the Liver, Alveoli of Lungs and
Macrophages of Spleen and Bone marrow.
Free Histiocytes: Eg- Neutrophils and Monocytes.
b) Mast cells: They are small round/ oval cells. They release Heparin(which prevents clotting of
blood) Histamine & Serotonin (Associated with production of allergic reactions).
c) Plasma cells: It is one of the types of B-Lymphocyte. They produce antibodies (which are
globulin in nature) called immunoglobulin.
d) Mesenchymal cells:They are the cells found in the Trilaminar germ disc of the embryo.
e) Pigment cells: They contain brown pigment (Melanin) in their cytoplasm. Eg- Skin, Choroid
and Iris of Eye ball.
f) Leucocytes: They are colourless and nucleated formed element of blood. They play an
important role in defence mechanism of body.
Fibres of Connective Tissue:
 a)Collagen fibres - Type-I. Eg: Tendon, Aponeurosis & Fasciae.
Type-II. Eg: Articular cartilage.
 b) Reticular fibres - Eg: Spleen, Lymph node, Kidney and Bone marrow.
 c) Elastic fibres- Eg: Large blood vessels.

7) Define cartilage. Explain the types of cartilages.

Definition: The cartilage is a special type of connective tissue composed of chondrocytes embedded in
a matrix of ground substance and fibres.
General features:
 Cartilage is derived from mesenchyme.
 With increasing age it tends to become calcified.
 It is avascular & alymphatic. Invasion of the cartilage by blood vessels results in
calcification and death of cartilage.
 Except at articular surfaces,each cartilage is surrounded by a connective tissue membrane called
its perichondrium.
 Replacement of cartilage by bone is called Ossification.
 A cartilage can never be converted into a bone. A cartilage can be only replaced by bone.
 Types of Cartilage

Hyaline Cartilage White fibro Cartilage Elastic Cartilage

i) The matrix(Ground It consists of large bundles of It consists of coarse elastic fibres.

substance) consists of fine collagen fibres.
collagen fibres.

ii) It undergoes calcification. Do not undergo calcification. Do not undergo calcification.

iii) Eg. Lateral wall of nose,
Cartilages of Larynx(Thyroid,
Cricoid & Arytenoid),
Trachea, Articular cartilages,
Epiphyseal plates and Costal
cartilages.
Eg. Secondary cartilaginous
joints- Inter-vertebral discs,
Articular disc of T.M joint,
Glenoidal labrum and
Acetabular labrum.
Eg. Pinna(Largest piece of Elastic
Cartilage), Cartilages of Larynx
(epiglottis, Corniculate & cuneiform).
 Unit: II The Skeletal System

1) Define bone. Mention the general features and functions of bone.

Definition: The bone is a specialised connective tissue in the body which is made upof osteocyte.
General features:
 It is derived from embryonic mesenchyme.
 It is highly vascular.
 The bone cells are known as Osteocyte.
 The bone contains organic material as well as inorganic elements mainly calcium, phosphorous,
Magnesiun and iron.
 The bone has two important properties
Tenacity- Power to withstand stress & strain.
Resilience- Flexibility or coming back to normal after strain.
Functions of bone:
It forms the skeletal framework of the body .
It gives attachment for muscles, tendons and fascia.
It gives protection for important organs like heart, lungs and brain.
It is an important haemopoietic centre.
It is a storage centre for calcium.

2) How will you classify the bones.

Classification of Bones:
A bone may be classified according to
i) Morphology- as long bone, short bone, flat bone & irregular bone.
ii) Structure- as compact bone & spongy bone(cancellous bone).
iii) Ossification (Development) - as membrane bone & cartilagenous bone.
iv) Pnemaatic Bone – Bones filled with air. Eg: Maxilla, Ethmoid and Sphenoid bone.
v) Seasomoid Bone – Eg: Patella,Pisiform bone & Fabella

3) Explain the Histology/Structure of Bone:

In a cross section the bone consists of
 A central canal called Haversian canal in which there are blood vessels and nerves.
 Surrounding the Haversian canal there is a variable number of bony lamellae or plates arranged
in a concentric manner.
 The lamellae are laid down by the bone cells called osteoblast and the bone cell itself gets
trapped between the layers of lamellae to form the osteocyte.
 Osteocytes lie within a space called Lacunae. The lacuna of one cell is connected with that of
another by canaliculli.
 The canal joining two Haversian canals is called Volkmann’s canal.
 4) Mention the types of skeleton.
There are two types of skeleton namely;
i) Axial Skeleton and
ii) Appendicular Skeleton.
i) Axial Skeleton: The bones present in the central axis of the body costitute the axial skeleton. Eg-
Skull, Sternum and Vertebral column.
ii) Appendicular Skeleton: The bones of upper and lower limb constitutes the appendicular
skeleton. Eg- Humerus, Radius, Ulna, Femur, Tibia and Fibula.

5) Define Ossification. Mention the types of ossification.

Definition: The process by which a new bone is formed is called ossification (Development of bone).
Ossification is of two types:
1) Membranous ossification – In this type of ossification, the bone developes directly from
embryonic mesenchymal tissue (osteoprogenitor cells directly forms the bone).
Eg: Skull bones( Frontal, Parietal and Occipital bone) and clavicle.
2) Cartilagenous ossification (Endochondral ossification) – In this type the cartilage is formed first
from the mesenchymal tissue which later on ossify to form bone (mesodermal cells forms a
cartilagenous model which is latter replaced by bone).
Eg: Long bones (Humerus, Radius, Ulna, Femur, Tibia and Fibula).

6) Define periosteum. Mention its function.

Periosteum: It is the outermost coveting of the bone. It has got two layers. An outer fibrous layer and an
inner cellular layer (osteogenic layer).
The periosteum is anchored to the deeper part of the bone by collagen fibres running perpendicular to the
surface of the bone. These are called sharpey’s fibres.
Functions of the Periostium:
 Protection
 Receiving the insertion of the muscle
 It contains periosteal vessels to supply the bone.
 The most important function is new bone formation by the oesteogenic layer when there is a
fracture.

7) Define Joint. Describe classification of Joints in detail.

Definition: Joints are the area where one bone articulates with another bone or it may be more than one
bone articulating.
Classification of Joints:
Joints may be classified according to:
 Structure- as fibrous joint, cartilagenous joint and synovial joint.
  Function- as Synarthrosis(No Movement), Amphiarthrosis (slightly movable joints) and
Diarthrosis (Freely movable joints).

Fibrous joint: In this type of joint the articulating surfaces are connected by fibrous tissue.
i) Suture Type- It is a fibrous joint composed of a thin layer of dense fibrous connective tissue
that unites bones of the skull. Eg- Sagittal suture, Coronal suture & Lambdoid suture.
ii) Gomphosis- It is a type of fibrous joint in which a cone shaped peg fits into a socket. Eg-
Tooth and its socket.
iii) Syndesmosis- In this type, the fibrous connective tissue forms an interosseous membrane or
ligament that permits no movement. Eg- Inferior Tibiofibular joint.

Cartilagenous joint: In this type the articular ends are connected by a piece of articular cartilage.
a) Primary cartilagenous joint - is one where the cartilage separating the two bones is hyaline type
of cartilage which gets replaced with bone so that ultimately no movement is possible. Eg- Union
between epiphysis and diaphysis of growing long bone.
b) Secondary cartilagenous joint - is one where the cartilage separating the two bones is of fibrous type
and it persists throughout life. Eg- Inter-vertebral disc.
Synovial joint:
Definition: The synovial joint is a joint with cavity which is lined by synovial membrane.
General Features: It has the following features;
 The joint itself is covered by a capsule.
 The joint cavity is present.
 This cavity is lined by synovial membrane.
 Synovial fluid is present to act as a lubricant.
 The articular surface of bone is covered by articular cartilage which is of the hyaline type.

Varities of synovial joint :

1. Ball and socket- In this one of the articular surface is spherical and ball like and the other
end presents a concave cup like cavity. It is a polyaxial joint. Eg- Shoulder joint & Hip joint.

2. Hinge/Ginglymus- The concave surface of one bone fits into the concave surface of another
bone. Eg- Elbow joint, ankle joint & interphalangeal joint.

3. Pivot/Trochoid- The rounded or pointed surface of one bone articulates within a ring formed
partly by another bone and partly by another ligament. The movement occurs around
longitudinal axis.
Eg- Atlanto-axial joint &superior and inferior radioulnar joint.

4. Condyloid/Ellipsoid- An oval shaped condyle of one bone fits into an elliptical cavity of
another bone. Eg- Wrist joint, Temporomandibular joint, atlanto-occipital joint & I-
Metacarpophalangeal joint.
 5. Saddle/Sellar- Articular surface of one bone is saddle shaped and the articular surface of the
other bone is shaped like the legs of a rider sitting in the saddle. Eg- I-Carpometacarpal joint
& Sternoclavicular joint.

6. Plane/ Gliding - The two articular surfaces are plane and glides over each other. Eg-
Superior Tibiofibular joint, Acromioclavicular joint.

8) Describe shoulder joint.

Type: synovial
Variety: Ball and socket
Articular ends:
Proximally – Glenoid cavity of scapula.
Distally – Head of humerus.
Ligaments:
1) Capsule
2) Glenohumeral ligament
3) Transverse humeral ligament
 4) Coraco acromial ligament
Blood supply: Branches from Axillary artery
Nerve supply: Articular branch from Axillary nerve
Movements:
Flexion – Pectoralis major, Deltoid( Anterior fibres)
Extension – Lattismus dorsi, Deltoid( Posterior fibres)
Abduction – Supraspinatus, Deltoid( Lateral fibres), Trapezius
Adduction – Pectoralis major, Lattismus dorsi
Medial rotation – Subscapularis, Teres major
Lateral rotation – Infraspinatus, Teres minor
Circumduction – Its a combined movement of flexion, extension, Adduction & abduction.

9) Describe elbow joint.

Type: synovial
Variety: Hinge / Ginglymus
Articular ends:
Proximally – Trochlea and capitulum of humerus.
Distally – Trochlear notch of ulna and head of radius.
Ligaments:
1) Capsule
2) Medial ligament of elbow joint
3) Lateral ligament of elbow joint
Blood supply: Anastomosis around elbow joint
Nerve supply: Articular branch from median nerve and radial nerve.
Movements:
Flexion – Brachialis, Common flexor tendon
Extension – Triceps, Anconeus & Common extensor tendon

10) Describe Hip joint.

Type: synovial
Variety: Ball and socket
Articular ends:
Proximally – Lunate surface of acetabulum of innominate bone.
Distally – Head of femur.
Ligaments:
1) Capsule
2) Iliofemoral ligament
3) Pubofemoral ligament
4) Ischiofemoral ligament
5) Round ligament of femur
Blood supply: Branches from femoral artery and superior glueal artery.
Nerve supply: Articular branch from femoral nerve.
Movements:
Flexion – Iliacus, Psoas major
Extension – Gluteus maximus, Hamstring muscles
Abduction – Gluteus medius and Gluteus minimus
Adduction – Adductor longus, adductor brevis and adductor magnus
Medial rotation – Psoas major, pectineus
Lateral rotation – piriformis, superior and inferior gamellus
Circumduction – Its a combined movement of flexion, extension, Adduction & abduction.

11) Describe the knee joint in detail.

Type: synovial
Variety: Modified hinge
Articular ends:
 Proximally – articular surface medial and lateral condyles of femur.
Distally – articular surface of medial and lateral condyles of tibia.
Ligaments:
1) Capsule
2) Tibial collateral ligament(medial liganent) of knee joint
3) Fibular collateral ligament(lateral liganent) of knee joint
4) Cruciate ligament – Anterior & Posterior Cruciate ligaments
5) Semilunar cartilage (meniscus of knee joint)
6) Coronary ligaments
7) Transverse ligament
8) Ligamentum patellae.
Blood supply: Anastomisis around knee joint
Nerve supply: Articular branch from femoral nerve
Movements:
Flexion – Popliteus, Gastronemius, Hamstring muscles
Extension – Quadriceps femoris, articularis genu
Medial rotation – sartorius, semimembranosus
Lateral rotation – biceps femoris
 Unit: 3 Muscle Tissue
1) Define muscle. Write a note on skeletal muscle.
Definition: It consists of elongated fibres which has the specialised function of contraction.
Types of Muscle:
i) Skeletal muscle,
ii) Smooth muscle and
iii) Cardiac muscle
Skeletal Muscle / Voluntary muscle:
i) It consists of elongated cylindrical fibres which do not branch or anastomose.
ii) It is multinucleated and peripherally placed.
iii) Presence of transverse striations.
iv) It is innervated by somatic /spinal nerves.
v) Eg: Deltoid, Gluteus maximus and Muscles of facial expression.

2) Write short notes on

A) Smooth muscle. B) Cardiac muscle.

A) Smooth muscle / Involuntary muscle:

i) It consists of spindle shaped fibres.
ii) It is uninucleated and centrally placed.
iii) Absence of transverse striations.
iv) It is innervated by Autonomic nervous system.
v) Eg: Stomach, Intestine, Urinary bladder and Uterus.

B) Cardiac muscle:
i) It consists of elongated cylindrical fibres which branch and anastomose.
ii) It is uninucleated and centrally placed.
iii) Presence of transverse striations.
iv) It is innervated by Autonomic nervous system.
v) Presence of intercalated disc is the charecteristic feature of cardiac muscle
vi)Eg: Heart.

Muscles used for Intramuscular injection: Deltoid (Shoulder muscle), Gluteus maximus (Gluteal
muscle), Vastus lateralis (Thigh muscle)
 3) Name the muscle groups / compartments present in the upper limb and their action.
Pectoralis Major (Pectoral muscle) – Flexion of arm
Lattismus Dorsi (Muscle of back) -- Exrension of arm
Muscles of anterior compartment of arm – Flexion of Elbow / forearm.
(Brachialis, Biceps, coracobrachialis)
Muscles of posterior compartment of arm – Extension of Elbow / forearm.
(Triceps, Anconeus)
Muscles of anterior compartment of forearm – Flexion of wrist/ hand.
(Flexor carpi radialis, Palmaris longus,
Flexor carpi ulnaris, Flexor digitorum superficialis,
Flexor digitorum profundus)

Muscles of posterior compartment of forearm – Extension of wrist/ hand.

(Extensor carpi radialis longus & brevis,
Extensor digitorum, Extensor carpi ulnaris

4) Name the muscle groups / compartments present in the lower limb and their action.
Psoas major and Iliacus -- Flexion of thigh
Gluteus maximus, -- Extension of thigh
Hamstring muscles
Muscles of anterior compartment of thigh – Extension of leg.
( Quadriceps femoris, Articularis genu)
Muscles of posterior compartment of thigh – Flexion of leg.
( Popliteus, Gastronemius, Hamstring muscles)
Muscles of anterior compartment of leg – Dorsiflexion of foot.
(Tibialis anterior, Extensor digitorum longus,
Extensor halusis longus)
Muscles of posterior compartment of leg – Plantar flexion of foot / Inversion of foot.
Tibialis posterior, Flexor digitorum longus,
Flexor halusis longus)
Muscles of lateral compartment of leg – Eversion of foot.
( Peroneus longus, Peroneus brevis)

5) Write the origin, insertion, nerve supply and action of;

i) Deltoid ii) Gluteus maximus
i) Deltoid
It is the muscle of shoulder reagion.
It forms the contour of the shoulder.
Origin: It arises from
Anterior margin of lateral 1/3rd of clavicle,
Lateral margin of Acromian process,
Lower lip of spinous process of scapula.
Insertion: It is inserted into the deltoid tuberosity of humerus.
Nerve supply: Axillary nerve.
Action: Anterior fibres – flexion of arm
Lateral fibres - Abduction of arm
Posterior fibres – Extension of arm
Applied Anatomy: Lower half of deltoid is used for intramuscular injection.
ii) Gluteus maximus:
It is the muscle of gluteal reagion.
It is the bulkiest muscle present in the gluteal reagion.
Origin: It arises from
 Gluteal surface of ilium behind posterior gluteal line,
Outer sloping surface of iliac crest,
Sacrotuberous ligament,
Posterior surface of sacrum.
Insertion: It is inserted into the iliotibial tract and gluteal tuberosity of femur.
Nerve supply: Superior and inferior gluteal nerve.
Action: Extension of hip/ thigh.
Applied Anatomy: Superolateral quadrant of the muscle is used for intramuscular injection’

Unit IV THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

1) Define nervous tissue. Name the cells present in the nervous tissue.
Definition: It consists of a cell body with an elongated process attached to the cell body, which has the
specialised function of receiving, transmitting and generating the nerve impulses.
The nervous system consists of nerve cells or neurons and neuroglia.
Neuron – It is the structural and functional unit of nervous system.
Neuroglia – The neuroglia form a cellular connective tissue. It covers the nerve cells and isolate them
from each other, form the surrounding tissues of the blood vessels which enter the nervous system
Eg: Astrocytes, Oligodendrocytes, Ependymal cells and Schwann cells.
2) Mention the types of nervous system.
The nervous system may be divided into:
a). Central nervous system b). Peripheral nervous system
a) Central nervous system (CNS):
Definition: The nervous tissue present in the central axis of the body constitutes central nervous system.
Eg. Brain and the spinal cord.
The brain consists of
i). Cerebrum
ii). Cerebellum and
iii). Brain stem – Mid brain, pons and the medulla oblongata.
b) Peripheral nervous system(PNS):
Definition: The nerves arising from the brain and spinal cord constitutes peripheral nervous system.
Eg. 12 pairs of cranial nerves
31 pairs of spinal nerves.
Ganglia
Autonomic nervous system

3) Describe the spinal cord in detail.

The spinal cord or spinal medulla is elongated cylindrical shaped nervous tissue, flattened slightly in its
antero posterior dimension.
Location: It is situated in the vertebral canal and is the most important content of vertebral canal.
Extent: It is about 45cm long and extends from the level of the foramen magnum to the level of the
lower border of the first lumbar vertebra.
External features :
The surface of the spinal cord presents an anterior median fissure and posterior median sulcus.
It presents two enlargements namely:
a). cervical enlargement - ( C3 to T2 )
b). Lumbar enlargement - ( L1 to S3 )
Cervical enlargement is due to brachial plexus formation and Lumbar enlargement is due to lumbar and
sacral plexus formation.
The lowest part of the spinal cord is conical and is called the conus medullaris.
The nerves present in the lower end of the spinal cord forms the Cauda equina.
The meninges (pia mater) covering the spinal cord extends at the lower end as filum terminale.
Blood supply: Anterior and posterior spinal arteries.
(Diagram – Fig spinal)
4) Write a note on the structure of spinal cord (Cross section of spinal cord).
The structure of the spinal cord shows an inner gray matter and outer white matter.
The grey matter is in the form of H-shaped . It is divisible into a larger ventral grey column and a
narrow elongated dorsal grey column. In the thoracic and upper lumber segments it presents lateral grey
column. In the central part of the grey matter, a canal called the central canal is present, which is a
direct continuation of the 4th ventricle.
The white matter behind the posterior gray column is known as posterior funiculus and anteromedial to
ventral grey column is known as anterior funiculus and lateral to anterior and posterior grey column is
known as lateral funiculus.

5) Explain the cerebrum in detail.

Cerebrum is the largest part of the brain, present in the anterior and middle cranial fossa.
It is covered by meninges (Dura, arachnoid and pia matter).
The fold of dura matter that separates the cerebrum from cerebellum is known as tentorium cerebelli.
General features:
The cerebrum consists of two cerebral hemispheres, separated by the median longitudinal fissure. In the
depth of the fissure, the corpus callosum connects the hemispheres across the midline.
Each hemispheres has
i). 3 poles – frontal, occipital and temporal pole,
ii). 3 borders – superomedial , inferolateral and Inferomedial border,
iii).3 surfaces – Superolateral , medial and inferor surfaces.
Location: It is present inside the cranium.It occupies anterior and middle cranial fossa.
Subdivisions: Each hemisphere is divided into four major subdivisions or lobes.
i). Frontal lobe.
ii). Parietal lobe.
iii). Occipital lobe and
iv). Temporal.
The surfaces of the cerebral hemisphere consists of large number of gyri (elevations) and sulci
(grooves).
The important sulci on the superolateral surface are;
 i). Central sulcus (Ralando) - runs between the frontal and the parietal lobes.
ii). Lateral sulcus(sulvian) - runs between the temporal lobe and fronto parietal lobes.
iii).Parieto occipital sulcus - the upper end of this sulcus runs between parietal and occipital
lobes.

6) Mention its functional areas.

Functional areas of cerebrum:
i) Primary motor area – Occupies the precentral gyrus.
ii) Premotor area – Occupies anterior part of precentral gyrus.
Function: Controlls the motor activity of entire one side of the body.
iii) Primary somesthetic area – Occupies the postcentral gyrus.
Function: Sensation from entire one side of the body relays into this area.
iv) Motor speech area (Area of Broca) -Located in the inferior frontal gyrus.
Function: Responsible for the production of speech.
v) Sensory speech area (wernicke’s Area) -Situated in the superior temporal gyrus in the posterior
end of the lateral sulcus mainly in the left cerebral hemispehere.
Function: Responsible for interpretation of language.
vi) Primary auditory area -Situated in the superior temporal gyrus.
vii) Secondary auditory area -Situated posterior to primary auditory area in the lateral sulcus.
viii) Taste area -Situated at the lower end of the postcental gyrus.

7) Write a note on the ventricles of the brain.

Definition: Ventricles are the cavities situated inside the brain.
Subdivisions: There are 2 lateral ventricles, 3rd ventricle and 4th ventricle.
i) The lateral ventricles are two cavities, one situated within each cerebral hemisphere. Each
lateral ventricle consists of a central part which gives off three extension called the anterior, posterior
and inferior horns.
Each lateral ventricle open into the 3rd ventricle through an interventricular foramen.
ii) The III ventricle is a median cavity in the cerebrum, situated between right and left thalamus.
The III ventricle is connected to 4th ventricle through cerebral aquduct .
iii) The IV ventricle is a tent –shaped cavity filled with CSF. It is situated anterior to cerebellum and
posterior to the pons and (the craninal half of) the medulla oblongata.
It is continous with the central canal of spinal cord.
Formation of CSF: It is formed by the choroid plexus lining the cavities of the ventricles.
The CSF drains into the dural venous blood through archnoid granulations.

8) Name the subdivisions of autonomic nervous system. Add a note on its function.
It is the part of nervous system which is divided into two parts;
i) Sympathetic and
ii) Parasympathetic.
The hypothalamus is the control center of autonomic nervous system.

Sympathetic part;
It is the larger part of the two parts of autonomic system.
Functions of the Sympathetic system:
i) Increased heart rate
ii) Constriction of arterioles of the skin and intestine
iii) Dilatation of arterioles of the skeletal muscle
iv) Increased blood pressure
v) Dilatation of pupil
vi) Inhibits smooth muscle of Intestine and Bladder
vii) Constriction of sphincters
Parasympathetic part:
The parasympathetic part of autonomic system are located in the Brainstem and Sacral segments.
Functions of the Parasympathetic system:
i) Decreases heart rate
ii) Constriction of pupil
iii) Peristalsis
iv) Increased glandular secretion
v) Sphincters dilatation
vi) Contraction of Bladder wall.

9) Mention the effects of sympathetic and parasympathetic fibres on varios organs.

Effects of sympathetic and parasympathetic stimulation:

Sympathetic stimulation Parasympathetic stimulation

Eye Pupil dilates Pupil constricts;

Accommodation of lens

Lacrimal gland Vasoconstrictor Secretomotor

Heart Increase in force, rate, Decrease in force, rate, conduction

conduction and excitability and excitability

Lung Bronchi dilate Bronchi constrict; secretomotor to

mucous glands
Skin Vasoconstrictor
Pilo-erection Secretomotor —
to sweat glands

Salivary glands Vasoconstrictor Secretomotor

Musculature of Peristalsis inhibited Peristalsis activated; sphincters

alimentary canal relax

Acid secretion of — Secretomotor

stomach
Pancreas — Secretomotor

Liver Glycogenolysis —

Suprarenal Secretomotor —

Bladder Detrusor inhibited Detrusor stimulated

Sphincter stimulated Sphincter inhibited

Uterus Uterine contraction Vasodilatation

Vasoconstriction

10) Write a note on cerebellum.

It is the second largest part of the brain, situated in the posterior cranial fossa.
It is separated from the cerebrum by tentorium cerebelli ( a fold of dura matter).
Parts: It consists of two cerebellar hemispheres,connected in the midline by a worm like structure called
vermis.
It has two surfaces: superior and inferior surfaces. On the inferior surface there is a deep median notch
known as valecula.
There are three fissures: Fissura prima, Horizontal fissure and posterolateral fissure.
Lobes: It consists of three lobes – Anterior, middle or posterior and flocculonodular lobe
Connections: It is connected to mid brain, pons and medulla oblongata by superior, middle and inferior
cerebellar peduncles respectively.
Nucleus of cerebellum: It consists of Dentate, Globose, Emboliform & fastigi.
Blood supply: Anterior inferior cerebellar artery, posterior inferior cerebellar artery and superior
cerebellar artery.
Functions: It is responsible for Muscle joint co-ordination.
It helps in maintaing the equilibrium and posture.
It plays a role in cognition.
Applied Anatomy:
Ataxia - Inability to walk in a straight line due to non- coordination of muscle group in lower limb.

11) Define Neuron. Describe the structure of neuron.

Definition: It consists of a cell body, with an elongated process attached to the cell body which has
specialised function of recieving, transmitting and generating nerve impulses.
Structure of neuron: It consists of a
Cell body (perikaryon): It has a large nucleus and nissl bodies,
Axon: It is an elongated process attached to the cell body, which carries impulses away from the cell
body
Dendrites: They are small process attached to the cell body which carries impulses to the cell body.
Types of neuron: There are three types of neuron.
Bipolar neuron: Eg. Retina & olfactory epithelium
Multipolar neuron: Eg. Motor neurons present in brain and spinal cord
Pseudo Unipolar neuron: Eg. Neurons present in dorsal root ganglia of spinal cord.

12) Define tracts. Name the ascending and descending tracts of the spinalcord.
Tracts: Bundles of fibers having the same origin, course and terminations are known as
tracts.
Types: There are two types:
 1) Ascending tracts of spinal cord
2) Descending tracts of spinal cord
Ascending tracts of spinal cord
 Anterior Spinothalamic tract - convey impulses associated with light touch and crude touch.
 Lateral Spinothalamic tract - transmits impulses concerned with pain & temperature(thermal
sensation).
 Posterior Spinocerebellar tract – concerned in the fine coordination of posture and movement of
individual limb muscles.
 Anterior Spinocerebellar tract – concerned with the coordinated movement and posture of the
entire lower limb.
 Posterior White column/Fasciculus Gracilis and Fasciculus Cuneatus – concerned with two point
discriminating tactile, maintenance of equilibrium, stance and gait.

Descending tracts of Spinal cord

 Cortico Spinal tract
 Tecto Spinal tract
 Rubro Spinal tract
 Reticulo Spinal tract

13) Describe the pain pathway in detail.

Lateral Spinothalamic tract (Pain pathway):
First order neuron
The free nerve endings present in the skin receive pain and temperature (thermal) sensations.
The impulses are transmitted through dorsal root ganglion to the posterior gray column including
Substantia gelatinosa.
Second order neuron
The axons of the second order neurons arising from posterior gray column crosses obliquely to
the opposite side in the anterior gray and white commisures and ascends in the contra lateral
white column as Lateral Spinothalamic tract.
In the Medulla Oblongata: It ascends between inferior olivary nucleus and the nucleus of the spinal
tract of Trigeminal nerve.
It joins with the anterior Spinothalamic tract and spinotectal tract to form spinal lemniscus.
In the Pons: It ascends in the posterior part of the pons.
In the Midbrain: It lies in the Tegmentum lateral to Medial Lemniscus.
It ends by synapsing in the Ventral posterolateral Nucleus of Thalamus.
Third order neuron
The axons of the third order of neuron arise from the Ventral posterolateral Nucleus of Thalamus
and passes through the Internal capsule, Corona radiata and relays in the somesthetic area in the
postcentral gyrus of the cerebral cortex.

14) Describe the Corticospinal Tract / Pyramidal tract in detail.

The fibres of the corticospinal tract arise as axons of the pyramidal cells situated in the primary
motor area of the cerebral cortex.
The descending fibres converge in the corona radiata and then pass through the internal capsule.
In the midbrain: The tract then continues through the basis pedunculli of the midbrain.
In the Pons: In the pons the tract (fibres) are broken into bundles by the transverse
pontocerebellar fibres.
In the Medulla oblongata: The bundles become grouped to form a swelling in the anterior part
known as pyramid (Hence Pyramidal tract).
At the junction of the medulla oblongata and the spinal cord most of the fibres(80%) cross the
midline at the decussation of the pyramid and enters the lateral white column of the spinal cord
 to form the lateral cortico spinal tract. The remaining fibres descends on the same side in the
anterior white column of the spinal cord as the anterior cortico spinal tract.
These fibres eventually cross the midline and terminate in the anterior gray matter of the spinal
cord.

Unit: 5 Sensory Organs

1) Structure of skin. (5 Marks)
Definition: It is the largest gland present in our body, which covers and protects the boby.
Structure:
It consists of two layers:
i) Epidermis: It is lined by sratified squamous keratinised epithelium.
It is derived from ectoderm.
It consists of five layers – Stratum basale, sratum spinosum, stratum granulosum,
stratum lucidum & stratum corneum.
ii) Dermis: It is made up of connective tissue.
It is derived from mesoderm.
It consists of two layers.
It has blood vessels, nerves, glands (sweat and sebaceous) and hair follicles.

2) Structure of Eye. (5 Marks)

It consists of three layers: Sclera, Choroid and Retina.
Sclera: It is the outer fibrous layer which is avascular. Anteriorly it continues as cornea(transparent
layer).
Choroid: It is the middle layer which is highly vascular. Near its anterior end it consists of ciliary body
(ciliary process &ciliary muscles) and Iris.
Retina: It is the innemost neural layer which is made up of rods and cones.
Macula lutea / Yellow spot – It is rich in rods and cones. It is the point (fovea centralis) where the
image exactly falls on the retina.
Blind spot / Optic disc – It is the point on the retina where fibre of the retina converge to form the optic
nerve.
Anterior compartment – It lies between the cornea and the lens aqueous humour.
Posterior compartment – It lies behind the lens and filled with vitreous humour.
Lens: It is a biconvex transparent structure.
Blood supply: Opthalmic artery.
Applied Anatomy:
Glucoma – Increase in the intraocular pressure causes glucoma.
Cataract – With increasing age, the lens becomes opaque, and the opaque lens is known as cataract.

3) Optic pathway. (5 Marks)

The axons of ganglionic cell layer of retina converge to form the Optic nerve.
The right and left optic nerves joins to form the Optic Chaisma.
The Optic tract arises from the optic chaisma relays in the Lateral geniculate body of Thalamus.
The fibres arising from the Thalamus forms Optic radiation , runs through internal capsule to
reach the Primary visual cortex (Area 17).
Applied Anatomy:
Homonymous Hemianopia- Same half of the visual field is affected in both eyes.
Heteronymous Hemianopia- Different halves of the visual field are affected in both eyes.

4) Structure of Ear. (5 Marks)

It consists of three parts- External ear, Middle ear and Internal ear
External Ear:
Pinna- It is the largest cartilage (elastic cartilage) in the body.
External auditory meatus- It is an S – shaped canal
External ear is separated from the midle ear by the tympanic membrane.
Middle Ear/ Tympanum:
It consists of three ear ossicles- Malleus, incus and stapes and two muscles- Stapedius and tensor
tympani.
It communicates with the nasopharynx through auditory tube, and mastoid antrum through the aditus
to mastoid antrum.
Internal Ear / Labyrinth:
It consists of Cochlea, Vestibule and Semicircular canals.
Cochlea- It resembles the shell of a common snail and forms the anterior part of the internal ear. This
bony canal has two parts – Scala vestibuli and scala tympani.
Vestibule- It is the central part of the internal ear, and opens into the middle ear at the oval window.
Semicircular canals- There are three semicircular canals: Anterior, posterior and lateral.
(The labrynth consists of bony labrynth within which there is membranous labrynth. The
membranous labrynth is filled with endolymph and separated from the bony labrynth by perilymph.)
Applied Anatomy:
Otitis media: Infection in the middle ear is known as otitis media.

5) Olfactory Pathway (5 Marks)

The olfactory nerves arise from the olfactory neurons present in the olfactory epithelium.
The olfactory nerves enter the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone and terminates in the
olfactory bulb.
The fibres arising from the olfactory bulb form the olfactory tract, which ends by terminaing in
the anterior part of the temporal lobe.
 Unit: VI CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

1) Define Heart. Mention its general features, relations, valves, blood supply and nerve
supply. Add a note on its applied anatomy.
Definition: The heart is a conical shaped, hallow muscular organ situated in the middle
mediastinum, inside the pericardium.
General features:
i) It consists of four chambers-two atria and two ventricles. Atria are situated above and behind the
ventricles.
ii) The heart has an apex, a base(or posterior surface), three surfaces- sternocostal, diaphragmatic and
left surfaces, and three borders-right, inferior and left borders.
Apex is formed by left ventricle.
Base: 2/3 of the base by left atrium, and1/3 by right atrium.
Diaphragmatic surface: 2/3 of the diaphragmatic surface by left ventricle and1/3 by right ventricle.
Sterncostal surface: 2/3ofthe sternocostal surface by right ventricle and1/3 by left ventricle.
iii) The atria are separated from the ventricles by a circular groove, coronary sulcus. The ventricles
are separated by anterior and posterior interventricular grooves.
iv) Its size is that of closed fist.
v) It weighs about 300gms in male and 250gms in female.
vi) It measures about 12 x 9 x 6 cms.
Relations:
Anteriorly- Sternum and 3rd to 6th costal cartilages.
Inferiorly- Central tendon of diaphragm.
Posteriorly- Rt. and Lt. bronchus, Oesophagus, Descending Aorta & Thoracic duct.
Rt. and Lt. sides- Mediastinal surface of Rt. and Lt. Lungs.
Valves of the heart:
There are 2 pairs of valves in the heart, a pair of atrioventricular valves and a pair of semi lunar
valves.
The right atrioventricular valve is known as tricuspid valve .The left atrioventricular valve is
known as the bicuspid valve /Mitral valve.
The semi lunar valves include the Aortic and Pulmonary valves.
Blood supply:
The heart is supplied by two coronary arteries. They arise from ascending aorta.
i) Rt.Coronary artery: Arises from anterior aortic sinus. Ends by anastomosing with Lt. Coronary
artery.
Branches: Right marginal artery
Posterior interventricular artery
Sinuatrial nodal artery
ii) Lt.Coronory artery: Arises from posterior aortic sinus. Ends by anastomosing with right
coronary artery.
Branches: Anterior Interventricular artery
Circumflex artery
Diagonal artery

Venous Drainage:
1. Coronary sinus – Chief vein of the heart.
2. Great cardiac vein
3. Middle cardiac vein
4. Small cardiac vein
5. Oblique vein of left atrium
6. Posterir vein of left ventricle.
Nerve supply;
1. Para sympathetic – through Vagus nerve- decreases heart rate
2. Sympathetic – derived from T3 to T5 segments of spinal cord-increases
the heart rate
Conducting system of heart:
The conducting system includes
1. Sino-Atrial node (SA Node)
2. Atrio-Ventricular node (A V Node)
3. Atrio-ventricular Bundle (A V Bundle) or Bundle of HIS
4. Purkinje Fibers
Applied Anatomy
Myocardial infarction: It is a condition in which the branch of coronary arteries (end
arteries) is blocked that results in myocardial ischemia.

2) Write a note on pericardium.

Definition: The pericardium is a fibro serous sac which encloses the heart and the roots of the great
blood vessels.
Layers of pericardium: It is situated in the middle mediastinum and consists of fibrous and serous
pericardium.
The pericardial cavity is a potential space between the fibrous and serous pericardium.
Contents;
Heart, Ascending aorta, terminal part of IVC and SVC, terminal part of pulmonary vein and
pulmonary trunk.
Sinuses of pericardium;
1. Transverse sinus. 2. Oblique sinus.
Nerve supply; Phrenic nerve.
Applied Anatomy;
Collection of fluid in the pericardial cavity is known as pericardial effusion.

3) Describe in detail the portal circulation.

Definition: A portal system carries blood between two capillary networks, from one location in
the body to another without passing through the heart.
Formation of portal vein: The hepato portal vein is formed by the union of the spleenic and
superior mesenteric vein.
Tributaries of portal vein:
i) The spleenic vein drains venous blood from spleen, stomach and pancreas.
ii) The superior mesenteric vein drains venous blood from the small intestine, appendix,
caecum, ascending colon and right 2/3 of transverse colon.
iii). The inferior mesenteric vein drain venous blood form left 1/3 of transverse colon,
descending colon, sigmoid colon and rectum. It opens into the spleenic vein.
iv). The gastric vein drains venous blood from stomach and joints the portal vein.
v). The cystic vein drains venous blood from gall bladder and opens into portal vein.
vi). The vein ends by dividing into right and left branches which enters the liver.
vii). In the liver, the portal vein breaks up into sinusoids which are drained by the hepatic veins
to the IVC.

4) Explain the pulmonary circulation.

The pulmonary circulation carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs and
back to the left atrium.
i). The pulmonary trunk emerges form the right ventricle and divides into right and left
pulmonary artery.
ii). The pulmonary artery enters the hilum of lungs and divide and subdivide and finally they
form capillaries.
iii). The pulmonary capillaries unite, form venules and eventually form pulmonary veins.
iv). The right and left pulmonary veins exit form the lungs and ends in left atrium.
 5) Describe the structure of Right Atrium.
Right Atrium:
The interior of the right atrium has anterior wall, posterior wall (sinus venarum) and setal /
medial wall.
Anterior wall presents Crista terminalis- a smooth muscular ridge, Musculi pectinati- rough
muscular ridges.
Posterior wall also known as sinus venarum presents the following openings: Opening for SVC,
opening for IVC and opening for coronary sinus.
Setal wall presents fossa ovalis, limbus fossa ovalis and Torus aorticus

6) Mention the branches of abdominal Aorta.

Abdominal Aorta( T12 – L4 ):
1. Coeliac trunk
2. Superior mesenteric artery Unpaired
3. Inferior mesenteric artery
4. Inferior phrenic arteries
5. Middle suprarenal arteries
6. Renal arteries Paired
7. Testicular or ovarian arteries
8. Lumbar arteries (4 pairs)
9. Median sacral arteries (unpaired)
10. Common Iliac arteries (paired) – Terminal branches

7) Write a note on blood Supply to brain / Circulus Arteriosus.

The arteries supplying the brain are the internal carotid artery (ICA) & vertebral artery and their
branches. The branches arising from the ICA and vertebral arteries forms an arterial circle known as
Circulus arteriosus / Circle of willis.
The following branches supplies the brain
1. Anterior cerebral artery
2. Middle cerebral artery
3. Anterior communicating artery
4. Posterior communicating artery
5. Posterior cerebral arteries
6. Basilar artery.

Greater part of Superolateral surface – middle cerebral artery

Greater part of Medial surface – anterior cerebral artery and posterior cerebral artery
Greater part of Inferior surface – Middle cerebral artery and posterial cerebral artery

8) Write short notes on saphenous vein. Add anote on its applied anatomy.
(or)
Explain varicose veins.
The veins of the lower limb are classified into superficial and deep veins. The superficial veins
include saphenous veins. The deep veins accompany the arteries.
Superficial veins of the lower limb:
A) Great saphenous vein / Long saphenous vein:
It is the longest vein in the body, which extends from the medial side of the foot to the thigh.
Formation: It is formed by the union of medial marginal vein and medial end of dorsal venous
arch.
It ascends in front of the medial malleolus.
 Termination: It ends by terminating into the femoral vein in the saphenous opening. It drains the
entire lower limb and lower part of anterior abdominal wall.
It is connected to the deep veins of the lower limb by perforating veins.
It has valves, which prevents the back flow of the venous blood.

B) Short saphenous vein / Small saphenous vein:

It the chief vein of the leg.
Formation: It is formed by the union of lateral marginal vein of little toe and the latreal end of
the dorsal venous arch.
It ascends behind the lateral malleolus along with sural nerve.
It ends by terminating into Popliteal vein.

Applied Anatomy:
Varicose vein: The dialatation and tortuous of the wall of the vein results in varicose vein.
This results in pooling of venous blood in the veins.
It is common in the superficial veins of the lower limb.
It is hereditary.
The varicose vein gives unbearable pain and results in varicose ulcers.
Trendelenburgs Test: It is performed to test whether valves of the perforating veins or the
saphenofemoral valve are incompetent.

9) Name the veins of upper limb.Mention the clinical importance of median cubital vein.
The veins of the upper limb are classified into superficial and deep veins. The deep veins
accompany the arteries.
The superficial veins include cephalic and basilic veins. They drain into subclavian vein.
In the cubital fossa both the veins are connected by median cubital vein.
The median cubital vein is used for Intra Venous injection for the following reasons;
It connects both cephalic and basilic veins hence blood flows profusely.
It is separated from the deep structures by bicepital apponeurosis which prevents damage to the
vessels and nerves which lies beneath it.

10) Name the lymphatic organs. Describe the spleen in detail.

Definition: Lymphatic system is a closed system of lymph vessels that transports lymph.
(Lymph is a transudate from blood which contains same plasma proteins but in smaller amount.)
Organs of lymphatic system:
Lymphatic organs are divided into central and peripheral parts:
Central lymphatic organs – Bone marrow and Thymus.
Peripheral lymphatic organs -
1. Lymph node,
2. Spleen,
3. Tonsil and
4. MALT
Spleen:
Definition: It is the largest lymphatic organ, which is situated in the left hypochondrium.
General features:
i) It is a wedge shaped organ, purple in colour and has:
2 surfaces – diaphragmatic and visceral surface,
2 ends – anterior and posterior end,
3 borders – superior, inferior and medial borders.
ii) It is 1 inch thick, 3 inch broad, 5 inch long and weighs about 7 ounces (about 200gms).
iii) The hilum of spleen is present on its visceral surface. The structures present in the hilum are
splenic artery and spleenic vein.
iv) The diaphragmatic surface of the spleen is related to 9th, 10th and 11th ribs.
The visceral surface is related to stomach, left kidney and left colic flexure. The hilum of spleen
is related to tail of pancreas.
 v) Blood supply: Splenic artery
Venous drainage: Splenic vein

Histology:
It has a capsule.
The parenchyma of the spleen consists of Red and White pulp.
The Red pulp consists of scattered lympocytes , trabeculae(septa) and sinusoids.
The White pulp consists of densely packed lympocytes with acentric arteriole.

Applied Anatomy:
Splenomegaly – Enlargement of spleen which occurs in infection is known as splenomegaly.
Splenectomy – During splenectomy (removal of spleen) care should be taken not to remove the
tail of pancreas which results in diabetis mellitus.

11) Write short notes on:

A) Thymus
B) Lymph node
C) Tonsil
D) MALT

A) Thymus:
It is a lymphatic organ, consists of one or two lobes attached to the posterior surface of the
sternum.
It is well developed in fetus and children and begins to atrophy as age increases.
Histology:
It consists of number of lobules.
Each lobe has an outer cortex and inner medulla. The cortex contains densely packed
lymphocytes. The medulla contains diffusely arranged lymphocytes.
Presence of Hassall’s corpuscles in the medulla is the characteristic feature of thymus.

B) Lymph node:
It is a bean shaped organ, which has afferent and efferent lymph vessels.
Eg: Axillary lymph nodes, cervical lymph nodes and inguinal lymph nodes.
Histology: It has a capsule.
The parenchyma consists of an outer cortex and inner medulla.
The cortex consists of number of lymphatic nodules, The medulla consists of lymphocytes
arranged in the form of anastomosing cords.

C) Tonsil:
Definition: Group of lymphatic tissue constitutes tonsil.
There are a pair of;
1) Lingual tonsil,
2) Palatine tonsil
3) Pharyngeal tonsil and
4) Tubal tonsil
The lingual tonsil present in the posterior part of the tongue, the palatine tosil present in the lateral wall
of oropharynx, the pharyngeal tonsil & tubal tonsil present in the nasopharynx are connected by a
circular ring known as waldayer’s ring.
Histology:
It is the only lymphatic organ lined by epithelium(Stratified squamous nonkeratinisedepithelium).
Presence of crypt is the charecteristic feature of tonsil.
Presence of lymphatic nodules below the epithelium.
 D) MALT:
Malt (Mucous Associated Lymphatic Tissue) are the lymphatic follicles present in the
submucosa of certain organs.
Eg: Tonsil, Peyer’s patches present in Ileum, Lymphoid follicles present in Appendix.

12) Write a note on Thoracic duct .

Thoracic duct is the largest lymphatic channel in the body.
The cisterna chyli drains lymphatics from the abdomen and the lower limbs, then passes upwards
through the aortic opening of the diaphragm to become the thoracic duct.
This drains into the commencement of the left brachiocephalic vein .The left jugular, subclavian and
mediastinal lymph trunks, draining the left side of the head and neck, upper limb and thorax
respectively, usually join the thoracic duct, they may also open directly into the large veins at the root of
the neck.
 Unit: VII RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

1. Mention the parts of respiratory system. Describe lungs in detail.

Parts of Respiratory system:

1. Nose
2. Nasal cavity
3. Pharynx
4. Larynx
5. Trachea
6. Bronchi
7, Lungs and its coverings (Pleura).
Muscles of Respiration:
1.Diaphragm
2.Intercostal muscles
3.Pectoralis minor
Lungs:
Definition: The lungs are a pair of collpsable respiratory organs situated in the thoracic
cavity, one on eaither side of mediastinum.
General features: Each lung is conical in shape and has
i) an apex,
ii) a base(Diaphragmatic surface),
iii) 3 borders-anterior, posterior and inferior border,
iv) 3 surfaces- Costal, diaphragmatic and mediastinal surface (medial surface).

On the medial surface there is a slit known as hilum of lung.The structures which enter or leave the hilum
of lung are:
i) Principal bronchus/ primary bronchus
ii) One Pulmonary artery
iii) Two Pulmonary veins
iv) Bronchial arteries and veins
v) Pulmonary plexus of nerves.
Lobes and fissures of lungs:
Rt. Lung presents three lobes -superior, middle and inferior - separated by oblique and
horizontal fissure.
Lt. Lung presents two lobes-superior and inferior separated by oblique fissure.
Difference between the right and left Lungs:

Rt. Lung Lt. Lung

i) Short and wider. i) Longer and narrower.
ii) It has three lobes- superior, middle & ii) It has two lobes- superior & inferior
inferior lobes. lobes,
iii) It has two fissures- oblique and iii) It has one fissure- oblique fissure.
horizontal fissure.
 iv) Absence of cardiac notch. iv) Presence of cardiac notch.
v) Cardiac impression is shallow. v) Cardiac impression is deep.
vi) Absence of lingula. vi) Presence of lingula
vii)Supplied by one bronchial artery. vii) Supplied by two bronchial artery.

Blood supply: Bronchial artery

Venous drainage: Bronchial veins

Nerve supply:
Parasympathetic  Vagus
Sympathetic  T2-T5 Segments.

2) Write a note on bronchopulmonary segments.

The portion of the lung areated by tertiary bronchus and the accompanying branch of pulmonary
artery constitute bronchopulmonary segment.

Lobes Rt. Lung Lt. Lung

Superior lobe Apical, anterior and posterior Apical, anterior and posterior,

Middle lobe Medial & Lateral Superior lingular and inferior lingular.

Inferiorr lobe Superior apical, anterior basal, Superior apical, anterior basal,
posterior basal, medial basal posterior basal, medial basal and
and lateral basal lateral basal

2) Describe the boundaries of nasal cavity.

It is a cavity(space) present behind the nose.
It has a roof, floor, and medial & lateral walls.
Roof: Cribriform plate of Ethmoid bone.
Floor: Hard palate(Palatine process of Maxilla and horizontal plate of Palatine bone).
Medial wall: Vomer, perpendicular plate of Ethmoid bone
Lateral wall: It consists of three self -like bony projections called conchae (superior, middle
and inferior concha). Below and lateral to each concha there is a space known as meatus
(superior, middle and inferior meatus).
The paranasal air sinuses and the nasolacrimal duct opens into it.
3) Write a note on paranasal air sinuses.
Definition: These are air filled spaces in certain of the skull bones.
The para nasal air sinuses are frontal, maxillary, sphenoidal and ethmoidal.
1. Frontal air sinus:
It lies in the frontal bone deep to the superciliary arch. It opens into the middle meatus.
2. Maxillary air sinus:
It lies in the body of the Maxilla, and is the largest of all the paranasal sinuses. It opens
into middle meatus through hiatus semilunaris.
3. Sphenoidal air sinuses:
It lies within the body of the sphenoid bone. It opens into the sphenoethmoidal recess.
 4. Ethmoidal air sinus:
The sinuses are divided into anterior, middle, and posterior groups. They open into
superior and middle meatus.

Applied anatomy:
Infection of a sinus is known as sinusitis. It causes headache and persistant, thick,
purulent discharge from the nose.

4) Write a note on pharynx.

The pharynx is a wide funnel shaped muscular tube, which extends from the base of the skull to
the level of the 6th cervical vertebra.
Subdivisions of pharynx:
The pharyx is divided into three parts:
1) Nasopharynx
2) Oropharynx and
3) Laryngopharynx.
Muscles of the pharynx:
1) Three pairs of constrictors  Superior, middle and inferior constrictor muscles.
2) Stylopharyngeus
3) Palatopharyngeus
4) Salphyngopharyngeus.
Nerve supply:
Motor: All the muscles are supplied by the cranial part of accessory nerve except
stylopharyngeus which is supplied by the glossopharyngeal nerve.
Sensory: 1) Glossopharyngeal nerve
2) Vagus nerve.
Blood supply: 1) Ascending pharyngeal artery 2) Tonsilar branch of facial artery.
Histology:
The mucous membrane of the pharynx is lined by stratified squamous non-keratinized
epithelium.
Applied Anatomy:
Difficulty of swallowing is known as Dysphagia.
5) Define larynx. Mention the cartilages, muscles and nerve supply of larynx.
LARYNX: (Organ of phonation)
It is a non –collapsable tubular organ, which extends from the upper border of the epiglottis to the
lower border of the cricoid cartilage.
It lies opposite the C3-C6 vertebrae.

Cartilages of the larynx:

The larynx contains paired and unpaired cartilages:

Paired cartilages Unpaired cartilages

1) Arytenoid 1) Thyroid
2) Corniculate 2) Cricoid
3) Cuneiform 3) Epiglottis
Laryngeal ligaments and membranes:
1) Thyrohoid membrane
2) Hyoepiglottis
3) Cricotracheal ligament
4) Quadrate membrane
5) Cricovocal membrane

Muscles of Larynx:
1) Cricothyroid -- External laryngeal nerve
2) Postertior cricoarytenoid
3) Lateral cricoarytenoid
4) Transverse arytenoid
5) Oblique arytenoid Recurrent laryngeal nerve
6) Aryepiglottis
7) Thyroarytenoid
8) Vocalis

6) Write a note on the cavity of larynx.

It extends from the laryngeal inlet to the lower border of the cricoid cartilage.
The interior of the larynx presents two folds of mucous membrane;
1) The upper fold - vestibular fold
2) The lower fold - vocal fold(Cord)
The space between the Rt. and Lt. vestibular folds is the rima vestibuli and the space between the
vocal folds is the rima glottidis.
The space between the vestibubalar and vocal folds is called the sinus of the larynx. The anterior
part of the sinus is prolonged and known as saccule of the larynx.
Movements of the vocal folds:
Abduction of vocal cord  Posterior cricoarytenoid
Adduction of vocal cord  Cricothyroid (Tensor of the vocal cord),
Lateral cricoarytenoid (Whispering voice)
Transverse arytenoids.
Nerve supply:
Sensory  Mucous membrane above the level of vocal cord –Internal laryngeal nerve. Mucous
membrane below the level of vocal cord –Recurrent laryngeal nerve.
 7) Write short notes on trachea.
The trachea or wind pipe is a membrano-cartilagenous tube which extends from the lower border
of cricoid cartilage to the lower border of the 6th Thoracic vertebra.
At its lower end the trachea ends by dividing into the right and left bronchi.
Anteriorly it is related to thyroid gland and posteriorly to oesophagus.
Histology:
i) It consists of C-shaped cartilaginous rings which are connected by fibro-elastic membrane and
trachealis muscle on the posterior surface.
ii) The lumen is lined by pseudo stratified ciliated columnar epithelium, and contains many serous and
mucous glands.
Blood supply: Inferior Thyroid artery.
Venous drainage: Left brachio cephalic vein.
Nerve supply: i) Parasympathetic Vagus
ii) Sympathetic  Middle cervical ganglion.
Applied anatomy: Tracheostomy- To make an artificial opening just above the sternal notch in case of
obstruction in upper airway.
8) Write short notes on:
A) Pleura B) Diaphragm

A) Pleura:
The pleura is a delicate and closed serous sac. Each pleural sac consists of visceral (pulmonary)
and parietal layers.
i) Visceral pleura It covers the surfaces and fissures of the lung.
Parietal pleura  It is subdivided into four parts- Costal, Diaphragmatic, Cervical and Mediastinal.
ii) Recesses of pleura: a) Costo diaphragmatic recess
b) Costo mediastinal recess.
iii) Nerve supply: Intercostal and phrenic nerves.
iv) Applied anatomy:
Inflammation of the pleura is known as pleuritis.
Entry of air into the pleural cavity is known as pnemothorax.
Empysema – Presence of pus in the pleural cavity.
B) Diaphragm:
It is a dome shaped musculo-aponeurotic partition which intervenes between the thorax and the
abdomen.
i)Attachment: It arises from sternum, lower margin of 7th to 12th rib and 12th thoracic vertebra. It is
inserted into the central tendon.
ii)Relation: It has two surfaces.
Superior surface  Related to Rt. And Lt. lung and the Heart.
Inferior surface  Related to Liver on the Rt.side and Stomach on the Lt.side.

iii) Openings of the Diaphragm:

Opening for IVC  At the level of T8 or central tendon
Opening for Oesophagus  At the level of T10
Opening for Aorta  At the level of T12
iv) Nerve supply: Phrenic nerve(C3,C4,C5)
v) Blood supply: Musculophrenic artery, Pericardiophrenic artery, Superior and inferior phrenic artery.
 Unit: VIII DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

1) Mention the parts of Digestive System. Describe the stomach under the following headings:
a) Parts ,
b) Situation,
c) Relations,
d) Blood Supply,
e) Nerve Supply,
f) Lymphatic drainage and
g) Histology.

Parts of Digestive system

1. Oral cavity - Teeth and Tongue
2. Pharynx
3. Esophagus
4. Stomach
5. Small intestine-Duodenum, Jejunum and ileum
6. Large intestine-Caecum, Ascending Colon, Transverse Colon, Descending Colon,
Sigmoid Colon and Appendix
7. Rectum & anal canal.
Organs Associated with Digestive System;
1.Liver
2.Pancreas
3.Salivary glands - Parotid, Submandibular and Sublingual salivary glands.
Stomach:
Definition: The stomach is the most dilated part of the digestive tube and intervenes between the
esophagus and the duodenum.
Situation:
It occupies the left hypochondriac, epigastric and umbilical regions.
Capacity of Stomach:
In new born - 30-50ml.
In adult - 1000-1500ml(average).
Shape:
The stomach is J-shaped. In Cadaver the stomach is sickle-shaped.
Clinically, stomach presents three types;
a) Sthenic/Normal type- the longer limb of “J” is slightly oblique.

b) Hypersthenic type - “J” is very oblique (steer horn stomach).

Prone to suffer from duodenal ulcer.

c) Hyposthenic type - “J” is mostly vertical.

Susceptable to suffer gastric ulcer.
Parts :
The stomach presents :
a). Two orifices - cardiac and Pyloric orifice
b). Two curvatures - Lesser and greater curvature
c). Two Surfaces – Anterior and Posterior surfaces
d). Three subdivisions- Fundus, body and pylorus. (The pyloric part consist of Pyloric antrum and
Pyloric canal)
Relations of Stomach:
Anteriorly : Related to the liver, the diaphragm and the anterior abdominal wall.
Posteriorly : The Posterior surface of the stomach is related to the structures forming the stomach bed.
The structures are:
 Diapharam
 Left Kidney
 Left supra renal gland
 Pancreas
 Transverse mesocolon
 Tortuous splenic artery
 Spleen

Blood supply:
The following arteries supplies the stomach
 Left gastric artery
 Right gastric artery
 Short gastric artery
 Right gastric epiploic artery
 Left gastric epiploic artery
 Posterior gastric artery

Nerve Supply :
1. Sympathetic ( from coeliac plexus ) – T6 to T9 segments of spinal cord.
[Stimulate pyloric sphincter, inhibits the rest of the gastric musculature, chief pathway for pain
sensation]
2. Para sympathetic - from both vagal nerves.
[Stimulate gastric musculature, inhibits pyloric sphincter, secretomotor to pyloric glands].
Lymphatic Drainage:
Area A - Pancreatico splenic nodes
Area B - Left gastric nodes
Area C - Right gastroepiploic nodes
Area D - Pyloric nodes

Histology of Stomach :
The wall of the stomach presents four coats from outside inwards ;
1). Serous coat – derived from peritoneum
2). Muscular coat – consists of Outer longitudinal, middle circular and inner oblique fibres.
3). Submucous coat – contains blood vessels, lymphatics and nerves.
4). Mucous membrane – contains the surface epithelium lined by simple columnar epithelium, Lamina
propria which contains gastric glands nad the muscularis mucosae.

2) Mention the Dental formula. What is the dental formula in children.

Teeth:

Dental formula Incisor Canine Premolar Molar

 Adult 2 1 2 3
Children 2 1 0 2

3) Define Tongue. Describe tongue in detail.

Definition: The tongue is the only movable muscular organ situated in the floor of the oral cavity.
General features:
The tongue has ; i) a tip,
ii) a root- attached to mandible and hyoid bone,
iii) Two surfaces-Dorsal and ventral surfaces,
iv) Two lateral borders.
Dorsal surface:
It is divided into an anterior 2/3 rd (oral part) and a posterior 1/3 rd (Pharyngeal part) by a v-shaped groove,
the sulcus terminalis.
The anterior 2/3rd contains taste buds ( Vallate papillae, Fungiform papillae and Filiform papillae).
The posterior 1/3rd contains numerous lymphatic follicles known as lingual tonsils.

Inferior(Ventral) surface:
The inferior surface of the tongue presents the following features:
Frenulum linguae-It is a median fold of mucous membrane connecting the tongue to the floor of the
mouth.
On each side of the frenulum the Plicafimbriata passes upward and medially.
The profunda(deep) lingual vein intervenes between the fimbriated fold and the frenulum.

Muscles of theTongue:

Intrinsic Muscles Extrinsic Muscles

1.Superior longitudinal 1.Genioglossus
2.Inferior longitudinal 2.Hyoglossus
3.Transverse 3.Styologlossus
4.Vertical 4.Palatoglossus

Extrinsic muscles alter the position of the tongue, whereas the intrinisic muscles alter the shape of the
tongue.
Blood supply:
Arterial supply- Lingual artery, branch of External Carotid artery.
Venous drainage- Deep lingual vein, ends in Internal jugular vein.
Nerve supply:

Tongue Sensory Special sensory

Anterior 2/3rd Lingual nerve Chorda tympani
(Branch of Facial nerve)
Posterior 1/3rd Glossopharyngeal nerve Glossopharyngeal nerve
Motor supply: All the muscles of the tongue except the palatoglossus are supplied by
Hypoglossal nerve. The palatoglossus is supplied by XI Cranial nerve (Accessory part).

4) Mention the parts of small and large intestine. How will you differentiate the parts of small
intestine.

Small Intestine:
 1. The small intestine is about 6mts long. It is suspended by a fold of peritoneum called the
mesentery from the posterior abdominal wall.
Duodenum is the shortest ,widest and most fixed part of small intestine.
Jejunum and Ileum: The jejunum constitutes the upper 2/5th of the mobile part of small intestine, while
the ileum constitutes the lower 3/5th.

Duodenum:
It is the most fixed part of the small intestine.
It is situated on the posterior abdominal wall.
It is C-shaped and about 25cm long and curves around the head of the pancreas.
The pancreatic duct and the common bile duct joins to form the Ampulla of Vater and opens into the
second part of duodenum
Blood supply: a) Supraduodenal artery b) Retroduodenal artery.

Duodenum Jejunum Ileum

It is fixed and devoid of It is mobile and suspended by It is mobile and suspended by
mesentery. the mesentery. the mesentery.

Presence of Brunner’s Presence of Payer’s patches Presence of Peyer’s patches

gland. (scanty). (more numerous).

Villi: Large and abduntant. Villi: Shorter and less.

(Mesentery: It is a broad fan shaped fold of peritoneum which suspends jejunum and ileum from the
posterior abdominal wall.)

LARGE INTESTINE:
It consists of four parts:
1) Caecum and Appendix
2) Colon- Ascending, transverse, descending & sigmoid colon
3) Rectum and
4) Anal canal.

Blood supply:
Caecum and Appendix, Ascending colon,
Hepatic flexure & right 2/3 of Transverse colon Branches from Superior mesenteric artery

Left 1/3 of transverse colon,

descending colon, sigmoid colon Branches from Inferior mesenteric artery

5) Mention the difference between Small and Large Intestine.

Difference between Small and Large Intestine:
 Small gut Large gut
1) Gross features: About 6 mts 1) About 1.5 mts long and wider and more fixed.
long,narrower and more
movable(except duodenum).
2) Presence of villi. 2) Absence of villi.
3) Presence of Payer’s patches and 3) Absence of Payer’s patches and Brunner’s
Brunner’s gland. gland.
4) Presence of three cardinal features-Taeniae coli,
Sacculations(Haustrations) and Appendices
epiploicae.

6) Name the major Salivary glands. Mention their types and ducts.

Salivary Glands:
There are 3 pairs of large salivary glands, and numerous minor salivary glands in the buccal
cavity. The 3 large salivary glands are:
1) Parotid gland
2) Submandibular salivary gland and
3) Sublingual salivary gland.
Parotid gland:
It is the largest salivary gland, situated one on each of the face just below the external acoustic meatus.
It is a three sided pyramidal shaped gland, covered by parotid fascia.
It is a serous type of racemose (tubuloalvelor).
The parotid duct(Stensen’s duct),opens into the vestibule of the mouth opposite the upper II molar
tooth.
Submandibular gland:
It is a J- shaped gland, situated in the submandibular fossa.
It is a mixed type of salivary gland.
The submandibular duct(Wharton’s duct) opens in the floor of the oral cavity.
Sublingual gland:
It is mucous type of salivary gland, and situated under the mucous membrane of the floor of the oral
cavity.
The duct of Rivinus(15-20 small ducts) opens directly into the floor of the buccal cavity.

7) Explain the Liver in detail.

It is the second largest gland in the body, reddish brown in colour.
Shape and Situation: It is wedge shaped and situated in the right hypochondrium and extends into the
epigastric and left hypochondrium.
Parts: It has an apex, a base or right lateral surface, anterior, posterior, superior and an inferior surface.
Weight: In the fetuses and children, 1/18th of the total body weight and in adult it is only 1/50 th of the
total body weight.

Lobes:
Anatomically there are two lobes: Right and Left lobes.
The other two lobes are Quadrate (on the inferior surface of the right lobe) and Caudate Lobe (on the
posterior surface of the right lobe).
Hilum of Liver: The hilum of liver or Porta Hepatis is a transverse fissure present in the right lobe of
liver separating quadrate lobe from the caudate lobe.
The hepatic duct emerges out from porta Hepatis.
The right and left hepatic artery and the portal vein enters the portal hepatic and supplies the liver.
A branch of hepatic artery, a branch of hepatic vein, a branch hepatic duct constitutes portal triad.
Blood supplt:
Right and left Hepatic artery.
Venous drainage:
Hepatic vein drains into Inferior vena cava.
8) Write a note on extrabiliary apparatus.
It is formed bythe following structures:
i. Right and left hepatic duct
ii. Common hepatic duct
iii. Cystic duct
iv. Common bile duct
The right and left hepatic duct emerging from the liver unites to form common hepatic duct.
The common hepatic duct joins with the cystic duct to form common bile duct.
The common bile duct joins with the pancreatic duct to form a duct, the Ampulla of Vatter, which
opens into the second part of duodenum.

9) Explain Appendix.

Definition: It is a worm-like tubular structure, attached to the posteromedial aspect of caecum just
below the ilioceacal junction.
Situation: It is an vestigial organ situated in the right iliac fossa. It is suspended by a fold of
peritoneum called mesoappendix.
Position: Mostly it is retrocaecal or retrocolic in position (12’ O clock position).
Blood supply: Appendicular artery.
Applied Anatomy: Inflammation of appendix is known as appendicitis in which maximum
tenderness is felt over the Mc Burney’s point.
 Unit: IX EXCRETORY SYSTEM

1) Mention the parts of Urinary system. Describe the kidney in detail.

Parts of urinary system:
1)A pair of Kidney,
2) A pair of Ureter,
3) Urinary bladder and
4) Urethra.
Kidney:
Definitoin: Kidneys are a pair of excretory organs situated on the posterior abdominal wall, one
on eaither side of first lumbar vertebra(L1).
General features:
i) Each kidney is bean shaped and has;
 two poles- upper and lower,
 two borders- medial and lateral,
 two surfaces- anterior and posterior.
ii) They are retroperitoneal. The right kidney is slightly at a lower level than left kidney, since the
liver occupies the right hypochondrium.
iii) About the middle of the medial border is a slit called the hilum of kidney(Renal hilum). The
renal artery and the renal plexus of nerves enters the hilum while the renal vein ,lymphatics
and the ureter emerge out. The hilum leads into a space called the renal sinus.
iv) Each kidney is surrounded by a capsule.It consists of two layers:
Outer fibrous membrane-false facial capsule /renal facia(Fascia of Gerota).
Inner fibrous connective tissue- True fibrous capsule/ renal capsule.
In between the two layers there is a pad of fat known as perinephric fat or perirenal fat.

Anterior Relations:

Right kidney Left kidney

1. Right suprarenal gland 1. Left suprarenal gland
2. IInd part of duodenum 2. Spleen
3. Inferior surface of Liver 3. Body of Pancreas
4. Right Colic flexure 4. Stomach
5. Coils of Small Intestine. 5. Splenic flexure
6. Coils of Small Intestine

Posterior relations:
Muscles - Psoas major, Quadratus lumborum and Transverse abdominis.
Nerves - Iliohypogastric, Ilioinguinal and subcostal nerve.
 (Diagram)
Blood supply: Right and left renal arteries which are direct branches form the abdominal aorta.
Nerve supply: Sympathetic – T10 to L1
Para sympathetic – Vagus
2) Write a note on Urinary bladder.
Definition: It is a four sided pyramidal shaped hollow muscular organ, situated in the true pelvis
behind the pubic symphysis.
General features:
It has 4 angles - apex ( anterior angle )
- neck ( inferior angle )
- 2 lateral angles.

It has four surfaces - a superior, a posterior and two inferolateral surfaces.

(Diagram)

Relations :
In female
Anteriorly - Pubic symphysis
Posteriorly - Uterus and upper part of vagina
Superiorly - Small intestine
Inferiorly - Urethra
In male
Anteriorly - Public symphysis
Posteriorly - rectum and seminal vesicles
Superiorly - the small intestine
Inferiorly - Urethra and prostrate gland
Blood supply:
Superior and inferior vesical arteries -Branch from internal iliac artery.
(Inferior vesical artery is abscent in female)

Nerve supply:
Parasympathetic: Pelvic splanchmic nerves
Sympathetic: L1
Histology:
The mucous membrane on the inner wall is thrown into folds. In the posterior wall there are no
folds in the mucosa for a triangular area and this is known as trigone of the bladder.
The mucous membrane is lined by transitional epithelium.

3) Write short notes on

A) Ureter
B) Male Urethra

A) Ureter:
Definition: Ureters are the tubular structure which serve to conduct urine from the kidney to
urinary bladder.
They start from the renal pelvis and ends by opening into the superolateral angles of the urinary bladder.
There are 3 constritions in the ureter.
1) at the pelviureteric junction
2) where it crosses common iliac artery
3) just before it enters bladder.
Blood supply - by branches from renal artery,abdominal aorta and gonadal artery.

B) Male Urethra:
Definition: It is a S – shaped tubular structure which extends from the neck of the urinary
bladder to the external urethral orifice.
Parts: It consists of two parts:
Prosstatic urethra – upper part of urethra embraced by prostrate gland
Spongy urethra – tubular part present in the penis.
Function: It acts as common passage for voiding (urine) and ejaculation (seimen).

Unit: 10 Endocrine Glands

1) Define endocrine glands. Describe the Thyroid gland in detail.
Definition: They are ductless glands which pore their secretions directly into the blood stream.
Eg. Pituitary gland,
Thyroid gland,
Parathyroid gland,
Suprarenal gland,
Pancreas,
Testis in male and
Ovary in female.

Thyroid gland:
Definition: It is a H- shaped gland, largest endocrine gland situated in the anterolateral part of the
neck.
General features:
It consists of two lobes (right and left lobes), connected by an isthmus.
Each lobe has an apex, a base, three surfaces – lateral, medial and posterior surface and two
borders – anterior and posterior. The isthmus has two surfaces – anterior and posterior, two
borders – superior and inferior. On the superior border of the isthumus a small pyramidal lobe
projects upwards.
Situation: It is situated at the level of C5 to T1 vertebra and the isthmus lies at the level of 2 nd, 3rd
and 4th tracheal rings.
Capsule of Thyroid Gland:
True capsule – It is inner fibrous stroma adherent ton the gland.
False capsule - It is formed by pretracheal layer of deep cervical fascia.
Blood supply: Superior and inferior thyroid artery.
Venous drainage: Superior and inferior thyroid vein.
Development: It developes from Median thyroid diverticulum / Thyroglossal duct.
Histology: It consists of number of follicles lined by simple cuboidal epithelium.
The follicles are filled with colloid substance (It is the only endocrine gland which stores its
secretion).
Presence of parafollicular cells in the connective tissue of the gland.
Applied Anatomy:
Goiter - Enlargement of thyroid gland is called goiter.
Hyperthyroidism – It is characterised by tremors and exopthalmos.
Hypothyroidism – It causes cretinism in infants and myxedema in adult.
2) Describe Pituitary gland in detail.
Definition: It is a small paenut shaped gland which is suitated in the hypophyseal fossa (Sella
Turtica).
General features:
Parts: It consists of two lobes – Adenohypophysis (Anterior lobe) and neurohypophysis (Posterior
lobe) separated by residual lumen. The intermediate lobe is present between the anterior lobe and
the residual lumen. The adenohypophysis near the infundibulum presents an elevation known as
Pars tuberalis.
It is attached to the base of the brain by a stalk known as infundibulum.
It is covered by a fold of dura matter known as diaphragma sellae.
Blood supply: Superior and inferior hypophyseal artery.
Development: It developes from Rathke’s pouch.
Applied Anatomy:
Gigantism and acromegaly occurs due to excessive secretion of growth hormone.
Pituitary dwarfism occurs due to hjyposecretion of growth hormone.

3) Describe Pancreas in detail.

Definition: It is a fleashy J-shaped or retort shaped gland which extends from the concavity of
the duodenum to the hilum of spleen.
General features:
It is situated on the posterior abdominal wall and it is retroperitoneal.
It lies at the level of T12,L1,L2 & L3 vertebrae.
Parts: It consists of head, neck, body and tail.
It has two processes: Uncinate process is present near the head, Tuber omentale is present in
the body.
The transverse mesocolon is attached to the anterior surface of the pancreas.
Blood supply: Superior and inferior Pancreaticoduodenal arteries and spleenic artery.
Nerve supply: Sympathetic – lower thoracic segment
Parasympathetic – Vagus nerve.
The Pancreatic duct begins from the tail, traverse the whole length of the gland and joins with
the common bile duct to form the Ampulla of Vater, which opens into the second part of the
duodenum.
Histology: It consists of number of lobules made up of numerous acini.Islets of Langerhans
are present amidst the serous acini.
Development: It developes from ventral and dorsal Pancreatic duct.

4) Supra renal Gland.

Definition: It’s a paired endocrine gland situated one on upper pole of each kidney.
General features: Each gland has an apex, base, three surfaces and a medial border.
Shape:The right supra renal gland is pyramidal in shape and the left supra renal gland is
semilunar in shape.
It’s covered by capsule (renal fascia).
Blood supply: Superoir, middle and inferior suprarenal arteries.
Histology: It has an outer fibrous capsule.
The parenchyma is made up of outer cortex and inner medulla.
The cortex contains three group/layers of cells – zona glomurulosa, zona fasciculata and zona
reticularis. The medulla consists of rounded cells with numerous blood vessels and nerves.
Development: The cortex developes from the mesoderm and the medulla developes from the
neural crest cells.
 Unit: 11 Reproductive system

13) Mention the parts of the female reproductive system. Describe the uterus under the
following headings: Definition, situation, shape, parts, dimension, supports, blood supply,
nerve supply, and structure. Add a note on its Applied Anatomy.
Parts of Female reproductive system:
External genital organs – Mons pubis,
Labium majora,
Labium minora,
Clitoris,
Vestibule – Urethral orifice and Vaginal orifice.
Internal genital organs – Uterus
Uterine tube
Ovary
Definition: It is a pear shaped muscular organ, situated in the true pelvis.
Situation: It is present in the true pelvis between the urinary bladder anteriorly and rectum
posteriorly.
Shape: Pear shaped organ.
Parts: It consists of Fundus, Body and Cervix.
Fundus – Upper part of the uterus present above the level of uterine tubes.
Body – Present between the fundus and cervix of the uterus.
Cervix – Small cylindrical lower part present below the body.
Dimension: It measures about 7.5cm in length, 5cm in breath and 2.5cm in thickness.
Ligaments of Uterus: The ligaments attached to the uterus gives strength and support to the
uterus. They are – Broad ligament, Ovarian ligament, Round ligament of the uterus, Uterosacral
ligament and Cardinal ligament.
Blood supply: Uterine artery and ovarian artery.
Nerve supply: Uterovaginal plexus of nerves.
Supports of the Uterus: Pelvic diaphragm, Perineal body, external urethral sphincter and the
ligaments of the uterus.
Structure of Uterus: It consists of three layers.
Perimetrium – Outer peritoneal layer.
Myometrium – Muscular layer made up of smooth muscle fibres.
Endometrium – It is the inner mucous layer lined by simple columnar epithelium.
It contains uterine glands and spiral arteries.
Applied Anatomy:
 Removal of uterus is known as Hysterectomy.
Prolapse of uterus is common in old age.

14) Mention the parts of Male reproductive system. Describe testis in detail.
Parts of Male reproductive system:
Scrotum
Testis,
Epididymis,
Vas deferens,
Ejaculatory duct,
Seminal vesicles and
Prostrate gland.

Testis:
Definition: It is a oval shaped male reproductive gland, suspended in the scrotal sac.
Position: The left testis is situated slightly lower than the level of right testis.
Parts: It has two poles – upper & lower, two surfaces – medial & lateral and two borders – anterior &
posterior.
Structure of Testis: It consists of an outer covering made up of three layers: Tunica Vaginalis, Tunica
Albuginea and Tunica Vasculosa.
From the Tunica Albuginea numerous septa invades the testis, thus dividing the testis into 200 – 300
lobules. Each lobe has one or two seminiferous tubules.
The posterior end of the seminiferous tubules becomes straight to form the Straight tubules, which joins
to form a network known as the Rete testis.
From the upper end of the rete testis 18 – 20 efferent duct arises.They join to form the coiled structure
called Epididymis. Depending upon the coiling nature the Epididymis is divided into Head, Body and
Tail. Near the tail end, the epididymis gradually loses its coiling nature and continues as Vas deferens.
Blood Supply: Right and left Testicular arteries.
Venous drainage: Pampiniform plexus of Veins.

15) Spermatic Cord:

Definition: It’s a tubular / cord like structure that pass to and fro from the testis to the Inguinal canal.
Layers of Spermatic cord: It consists of three layers – External spermatic cord, cremasteric fascia and
internal spermatic fascia.
Contents of Spermatic cord: Vas deferens
Artery to the Vasdeferens
Genital branch of genitofemoral nerve
Remains of Processus Vaginalis
Testicular artery
Pampiniform plexus of veins
16) Prostrate Gland:
It’s a fibro- muscular glandular organ, pyramidal shaped, situated embracing the urethra just below the
Urinary bladder.
Parts: It has an apex, base and four surfaces – anterior, posterior and two inferolateral surfaces..
Lobes: It consist of Anterior, posterior, median and two lateral lobes.
Supports of Prostrate Gland: Urogenital diaphragm & Puboprostatic ligament.
Structure: Fibrous – Forms ¼ of the gland
Muscular – Forms ¼ of the gland
Glandular – Forms the ½ of the gland
Blood Supply: Internal pudental arteries
Nerve supply: Pelvic Splanchnic nerves.

17) Describe Mammary gland in detail: Definition, shape, Structure, Blood & Nerve supply,
Lymphatic drainage. Add a note on its Applied Anatomy.
Definition: It’s a modified sweat gland, present in the pectoral region.
It’s present in both the sexes, which is rudimentary in male and well developed in female at puberty.
Shape: It’s hemispherical in shape.
Extent: Vertically it extends from 2nd to 6th rib, horizontally it extends from the lateral margin of the
sternum to the mid axillary line. The Axillary tail of Spence is a lateral projection from the gland upto
the mid – axillary line.
Structure:
Nipple: It’s a conical projection present in the gland at the level of fourth intercostal space.
Areola: It’s a circular oigmented area, present surrounding the nipple.It contains numerous sebaceous
glands.
Parenchyma of the Gland: It consists of number of lobes, adipose tissue and Suspensory ligament of
Asley Cooper.
Lobes: There are 15- 20 lobes. Each lobe has a number lobules, made up of acini. The lobes drain by a
duct known as lactiferous duct. The end of the duct dialates to form sinus of lactiferous duct. All the
ducts opens into the nipple by 5- 6 openings.
Suspensory ligament of Asley Cooper: It’s a dense fibrous connective tissue which extends from the
pectoral fascia to the skin. It’s responsible for maintaining the shape of the gland.
Retro – mammary space:It’s a loose areolar tissue present between the parenchyma of the gland and
the pectoral fascia.
Blood supply: It’s supplied by branches from Internal thoracic artery, Axillary artery, posterior
intercostals arteries.
Venous Drainage: Axillary vein, Posterior intercostals veins & internal thoracic veins.
Nerve Supply: 2nd to 6th intercostals nerves.
Lymphatic Drainage:
Superomedial quadrant – Internal mammary lymph nodes.
Superolateral Quadrant – Axillary lymph nodes.
Infero medial Quadrant – Sub peritoneal lymph nodes.
Inferolateral Quadrant – Posterior intercostals lymph nodes.
Applied Anatomy:
A cyst or galactocoele is a swelling which developes due to obstruction of the lactiferous duct.
Paeu’d orange or oedema with pitting skin: The cancer cells obstruct the cutaneous lymphatics and
cause the oedema and the pitting of the skin is due to fixation of the hair follicles to the sub cutaneous
tissue.

Placenta: The chorion frondosum with desidua basalis makeup the placenta.

Structure: The placenta has 2 components;

i) A fetal placenta – formed by chorion frondosum and

ii) A maternal placenta – formed by decidua basalis.

Fetal side of placenta is covered by chorionic plate. On maternal side by the deciduas basalis (decidual
plate). Between the chorionic and decidual plates are the intervillous spaces which are filled with
maternal blood.

The decidua forms a number of septa “decidual septa” which project into the intervillous spaces but do
not reach the chorionic plate. As a result of this septum formation, the placenta is divided into a number
of compartments or cotyledons.

Functions of placenta:

Exchange of metabolic and gaseous products.

Exchange of electrolytes and nutrients.
Transmission of maternal antibodies.
Hormone production.
Infectious agents transfer.
Drug transfer.