Professional Documents
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Unit 2
Unit 2
Structure
2.1 Introduction
Objectives
2.2 Pattern Making
2.2.1 Pattern Materials
2.2.2 Types of Pattern
2.2.3 Pattern Making Allowances
2.2.4 Colour Coding for Patterns
2.2.5 Core Prints
2.2.6 Core Boxes
2.2.7 Master Pattern
2.3 Foundry
2.3.1 Composition of Moulding Sand
2.3.2 Types and Properties of Moulding Sand
2.3.3 Sand Testing
2.3.4 Methods and Types of Moulding Processes
2.3.5 Definition of Gating System
2.3.6 Function of an Ideal Gating System
2.3.7 Types of Gate
2.3.8 Factors of Directional Solidification
2.3.9 Types of Core
2.3.10 Metal Melting Furnaces
2.4 Summary
2.5 Answers to SAQs
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The process of making a wooden or metallic pattern is known as pattern making.
Pattern acts as a principle tool during the casting process and can be defined as a
model of desired casting, so constructed that may be used for forming an
impression or cavity called mould in moulding sand or other suitable material.
This mould or cavity when filled up with molten metal, forms the desired shape
of casting after solidification of the poured metal.
Flow ability of metals is a very important and useful characteristics of metals.
Foundry engineering deals with the process of producing castings in moulds
prepared by patterns. The whole process of producing castings may be classified
into different stages. Except pattern making stage, all other stages are done in
foundry shop.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
• classify the pattern materials,
• describe the types of patterns,
• distinguish between core and core print,
• explain the pattern making allowances,
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Workshop Technology • classify the types and properties of moulding sand,
• describe the different methods of moulding process,
• explain parts and functions of gated system,
• elaborate classification of cores, and
• conceptualize about crucible and cupola furnace.
Split Pattern
Whenever the design of casting offers difficulty in making of mould and
withdrawal of pattern with a single piece pattern, split or two-piece pattern
is most suitable. This type of pattern eliminates this difficulty and can be
used to form the mould of intricate design or unusual shape of casting. Split
patterns are made in two parts so that one is placed in cope and other in
drag with the dowel pins holding the two together (Figure 2.2). The surface
formed at the line of separation of the two parts, usually at the centre line of
the pattern, is called parting line.
Parting Line
Core Prints
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Workshop Technology Gated Pattern
In mass production, a number of castings are prepared in a single
multicavity mould by joining a group of patterns. In such type of
multicavity mould, gates or runners for the molten metal are formed by
connecting parts between the individual patterns as shown in Figure 2.3.
Section on AB
A B
Loose
Pieces
Rammed Core Mould
Pattern Prints Cavity
Sand
Loose Pieces
being Withdrawn
Figure 2.4 : Loose Piece Pattern
Usually, this type of pattern requires much maintenance and are slower to
mould.
Sweep Pattern
Large sizes of symmetrical moulds are generally prepared by means of
sweep patterns. It consists of a base, a wooden sweep board and a vertical
spindle. The outer end of sweep board carries a shape corresponding to the
shape of desired casting. Usually, sweep patterns are employed for
moulding part carrying circular sections. The sweep board is attached with
the vertical spindle.
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After holding the spindle in vertical position, the moulding sand is rammed Pattern Making and
Foundry
in place. As the sweep board is rotated about the spindle it will form a
desired cavity in the moulding sand as depicted in Figure 2.5.
Sweep
Spindle
Parting Line
Parting
Line
Core Print
Produced
Core
Core Box
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Pattern Making and
Foundry
SAQ 1
(a) What is pattern? Name some of the materials of which pattern are
made.
(b) What are the common allowances provided on patterns and why?
(c) How are the pattern classified? Explain the use of a gated pattern?
(d) Write short notes on the following :
(i) Core prints
(ii) Sweep pattern
(iii) Pattern colours
(iv) Core boxes
2.3 FOUNDRY
Foundry or casting may be defined as a process of forming desired metallic
products by melting the metal, pouring this molten metal into a mould and then
allowing it to solidify. When this solidified shape of metal is separated from the
mould it will be of same shape as the mould. The mould is a cavity or impression
in the moulding sand which is produced by means of pattern. The process of
producing this cavity is known as “moulding”. A core is pre-determined shaped
mass of dry sand which is made separately or within the mould to obtain the
desired recesses and cavities in the mould. The process of producing the cores is
called “Core Making”.
2.3.1 Composition of Moulding Sand
The principal constituent of moulding sand are silica sand, binder, additives and
water. These are described below :
Silica Sand
33
Workshop Technology As per composition, silica sand is the main constituent of moulding sand. It
is a product of the breaking up of quarry stone or decomposition of granite.
Silica sand imparts permeability, chemical resistivity and refractoriness to
the moulding sand. Silica sand is specified according to the average shape
and size of its grains.
Binder
The main function of binder is to impart the sufficient strength and
cohesiveness of the moulding sand, so that it may retain its shape after
ramming. The common binders may be divided as
(i) organic binders, and
(ii) inorganic binders.
The organic binders such as molasses, dextrin, linseed oil and resins are
usually used in core making while in the inorganic group the common
binders are portland cement, clay and sodium silicate. Amongst all, the clay
binders are widely used.
Additives
Materials which are added to the moulding sand to improve its existing
properties or to include certain new properties, are known as additives. As
per demand coal dust, wood flour, mollases, cornflour and pitch may be
used as an additive.
Water
When water is added to clay it furnishes the bounding action of clay. It
penetrates the mass of clay and forms a microfilm. The bonding quality of
clay totally depends on the maximum thickness of microfilm it can hold. In
general, water quantity varies from 2 to 8 percent.
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It is used directly next to the surface of pattern. When the mould is Pattern Making and
Foundry
poured with the molten metal it comes directly in contact with the
molten metal. As it is subjected to most severe conditions, it must
possess high strength and refractoriness. It is made of silica sand and
clay in fine powder form.
Loam Sand
It is a mixture of clay (about 50%), sand and water (about 18-20%) to
obtain a thin plastic paste which is used to plaster on moulds with soft
bricks and hardens on drying. This is particularly employed for loam
moulding usually for rough and large castings.
Backing Sand
It is the sand obtained from mould and is used again and again. Due to
its black colour which is due to burning and addition of coal dust, it is
also known as black sand.
Parting Sand
It is fine sharp dry sand used to keep the green sand from sticking to
the pattern and also to keep the moulding boxes (drag and cope)
separated.
Core Sand
This is silica sand mixed with core oil which is composed of linseed
oil, light mineral oil, resin and other binding materials. For the sake of
economy, pitch or flours and water may also be used in case of large
cores.
Properties of Moulding Sand
A good moulding sand must possess the undermentioned properties of
porosity, plasticity, adhesiveness, cohesiveness and refractoriness etc. All
the properties are supposed not only by the chemical composition, but by its
moisture content, by the amount of clay and lastly by the size and shape of
the silica sand grains.
Porosity or Permeability
The passage of gaseous materials, water and steam vapour through the
moulding sand is related to porosity. Molten metal always contains a
certain amount of dissolved gases, which are evolved during the
solidification of metal. A very large volume of gas and steam is also
generated when the molten metal is poured into the mould due to the
heating of moistures, coal dust and similar other materials present in
the sand. If these gases are not allowed to escape completely through
the mould, they will form pores and gas holes in the casting. So, for a
good sand it must be sufficiently porous to allow the gases or
moisture present or generated into the atmosphere freely. This
property of sand is called porosity.
Plasticity or Flowability
It refers to the condition of acquiring predetermined shape under
pressure and to retain it when the pressure is removed. This property
of moulding sand increases as clay and water content increase.
Adhesiveness
35
Workshop Technology The sand particles must be capable of sticking to the other bodies
particularly to the moulding box of flask and it is due to only the
property of adhesiveness that moulding sand mass is held in the
moulding box properly. Due to this property, moulding sand can be
manipulated as desired without any chance of its falling out.
Cohesiveness
The ability of sand particles to stick together is denoted as
cohesiveness or the strength of moulding sand. Due to this property,
mould retains its shape even after the molten metal is poured in the
mould. In green state this property is termed as “green strength” or
“green bond” while for dry state as a “dry strength” or “dry bond”.
Cohesiveness property is largely effected by the clay and moisture
content, and size of grains.
Refractoriness
It is ability of the silica sand to withstand high temperature without
fusing or breaking down as due to poor refractoriness sand may burn
at high temperature. This property of sand is measured by the sinter
point rather than melting point of sand.
Sieve Cover
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Figure 2.13
The sand sample to be tested is washed to remove the clay and then dried. A
weighed quantity of this sand is placed in the coarsest sieve, mounted on the top
of sieve shaker and the unit shaken for about 15 minutes. The test of fineness is
conducted by screening sand grains by means of standard sieves. After due time,
the percentage amount of sand remaining on each sieve is calculated and
multiplied by a constant. The products of this multiplication are added to find out
total product. By applying the given formula, fineness number may be calculated
Total Product
Fineness Number =
Total Percentage of sand retained on screen
Moisture Content Test
For determining moisture content, a moisture teller instrument is widely
used. It consists of a cast iron stand, an infra-red-heater bulb fitted in the
shade and a drying pan with a handle.
For test, take about 25 gms sand as a sample in pan and then arrange this
pan under the shade. The bulb is switched on for about 2-3 minutes and
then switched off. Remove pan and weigh the sand again. The difference in
the weight of sample before and after drying indicates the amount of
moisture content. It is expressed as a percentage of the total weight of sand
sample.
Clay Content Test
The difference between original weight of a dried sand sample and the final
weight of a dried sand sample after the mud has been washed away gives
the mud content of the sand. It may be easily expressed as a percentage of
the original weight of the sand sample.
The method for determining the clay content of sand consists of stirring the
sand sample in distilled water at room temperature so as to separate the clay
particles from the sand which remains suspended in water. The material
which fails to settle within a period of 5 minute is designated as a clay
content.
Permeability Test
The volume of air in cubic centimeter that will pass per minute under a
pressure of 1 gm per cm2 through a standard specimen of sand having 1 cm2
in cross-sectional area and 1 cm deep is defined as a permeability number.
The permeability number can be calculated by using the following formula.
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Workshop Technology V ×h
Permeability Number =
p×a×t
where, V = volume of air in cubic cm,
h = height of specimen in cm,
p = air pressure in gm/cm2,
a = cross sectional area of the specimen in cm2, and
t = time in minutes taken by the air to pass.
Strength Test
The foundry sand should be capable to develop a maximum compressive
strength in moist condition. For strength test, a well rammed sand specimen
of 5.08 cm high and 5.08 diameter is pushed out of the specimen tube and
then placed on the upper plate of universal testing machine with its end. A
continuously increasing load at a rate of about 200 kgf/cm2 is applied on
this specimen until rupture of the specimen takes place. The compression
value may be read directly on the green compression scale of the testing
machine.
Mould and Core Hardness Test
The hardness of a mould and core can be tested easily by means of a
hardness tester. The tester is about the size of a pocket watch and the
hardness test can be performed within few seconds. It carries a tip at its
bottom which is penetrated into the testing surface. A spring loaded shaft
inside the hollow body of the instrument actuates the needle of dial gauge
fitted at the top. The dial of this gauge indicates direct reading of the
hardness of testing surface.
2.3.4 Methods and Types of Moulding Processes
The different moulding processes may be classified as follows :
According to the method used
(a) Floor Moulding
(b) Bench Moulding
(c) Pit Moulding
(d) Machine Moulding
According to the mould materials
(a) Green Sand Moulding
(b) Dry Sand Moulding
(c) Loam Sand Moulding
(d) Core Sand Moulding
Floor Moulding
This method of moulding is commonly used for preparing the mould of
heavy and large size of jobs which cannot be conveniently moulded through
bench moulding method. In floor moulding, the floor itself acts as a drag. It
is preferred for such rough type of castings where the upper surface finish
has no importance.
Bench Moulding
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Bench moulding is done on a work bench of a height convenient to the Pattern Making and
Foundry
moulder. It is best suited to prepare the mould of small and light items
which are to be casted by non-ferrous metals.
Pit Moulding
Large size of jobs which cannot be accommodated in moulding boxes are
frequently moulded in pits. Here, the pit acts as a drag. Generally, one box,
i.e. cope is sufficient to complete the mould. Runner and riser, gates and
pouring basin are cut in it.
Machine Moulding
Machine moulding method is preferred for mass production of identical
casting as most of the moulding operations such as ramming of sand, rolling
over the mould, and gate cutting etc. are performed by the moulding
machine. Therefore, this method of moulding is more efficient and
economical in comparison to hand moulding.
Green Sand Moulding
Green sand consists of silica sand, 10 to 15 percent clay and 4 to 6 percent
moisture content. All these materials are thoroughly mixed and riddled. It
should also be given the required condition by proper tempering.
The main methods of green sand moulding are as follows :
(a) Open sand method
(b) Bedded in method
(c) Turn over method
Open Sand Method
The complete mould is prepared in the floor as already discussed in
floor moulding. It is the simplest form of green sand moulding
method and suitable for solid types of patterns. The moulding sand is
rammed highly, just to support the weight of metal during its pouring.
After proper levelling of moulding sand, the pattern is pressed down
in the sand bed for making mould.
This method is employed for simple types of casting, grills, railings,
floor plates and gates etc.
Bedded in Method
This type of moulding technique is usually employed when the upper
surface of casting is not flat or should be smoother than produced by
open-sand method or the parting line of solid pattern is not marked
clearly. In this method, the drag is filled partially and the pattern is
pressed down to bed it into the moulding sand to form the mould
cavity.
After the finishing of mould cavity, the pattern is again pressed
downward until properly rammed mould cavity is obtained. A cope is
then placed over the pattern and rammed properly. The rest of the
procedure followed in the usual way.
Turn Over Method
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Workshop Technology This type of moulding method is most suitable for split patterns as
well as for solid type of patterns. Most of the small and medium sized
castings of non-ferrous metals are made by this method.
In this method, one half of the pattern is placed on the moulding plate
or board with its flat side. The drag part of the moulding box is then
kept over it and rammed. Excess moulding sand from the top of drag
part is parted off by means of strike off bar and the box turned over.
The other half part of pattern is assembled in position with 1st half by
means of dowel pins which control the proper alignment of both the
parts. After that, the parting sand is sprinkled over the top surface of
drag and pattern. The parting sand is used to prevent the joints
between the halves of a mould from adhering to one another when the
two parts of the moulding box are separated.
Pattern
Drag
Moulding
Board
(First Step)
Cope
Parting Line
Drag
(Second Step)
Vents
Riser Weight
Pouring Basin
Runner
Moulding
Board
Gate
Core
(Third Step)
(Completed-Mould)
Figure 2.14
The upper half pattern is followed by cope and two tapered wooden
pegs are placed in proper position on the pattern which serve as
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runner and riser. Next, the cope is filled with moulding sand and Pattern Making and
Foundry
rammed. Excess sand is then cut off. Wooden pegs are taken out and
the pouring basin is made as shown in Figure 2.14. Venting process is
also applied to provide the vents. The cope is then rolled over, the
pattern pieces are taken out from both the moulding boxes and gates
are cut in the drag from the pattern to runner side. The dry sand core,
if any, is also located in position and the mould is closed for pouring
of molten metal. The metal is poured into the mould through the
runner.
Dry Sand Moulding
This process of moulding is just similar to green sand moulding except the
composition of constituents in mixture. Here, in the preparation of mixture
for dry sand moulding, special binding materials such as resin, molasses,
flour, or clay are mixed to give strong bond to the sand. All parts of mould
are completely dried before casting. Dry sand moulding is widely used for
large size of work such as parts of engine, large size of fly wheel and rolls
for rolling mill. This process is costlier than green sand moulding but much
superior in quality.
Loam Sand Moulding
This process is used for extremely large size of casting which are to be
made in very small numbers. Loam sand moulds are prepared with coarse
grained silica sand, clay, coke, horse manure and water. This process of
moulding is performed in different way. First, a rough structure of desired
shape is made by hand by using bricks and loam sand. This structure is then
finished by means of strickle and sweep. The surfaces of structure are
blackened and dried before being casted.
Core Sand Moulding
For core sand moulding, mixture is prepared with silica sand, olivine,
carbon and chamotte sands. Sand that contains more than 5% clay may not
be used as a core sand. For core making by hand, the core sand is filled and
rammed in the core box properly. The whole operation takes a short time
after that the core box is withdrawn and the core removed.
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Workshop Technology (d) develop such temperature gradient in molten metal and the mould
which will lead to the directional solidification of the casting towards
riser.
(e) prevent the formation of oxide and dross in the molten metal while
flowing through it.
(f) prevent the entry of slag, sand and the other particles from the mould.
2.3.7 Types of Gate
A gate is a passage or channel through which the molten metal flows from the
runner to the mould cavity. However, it should be located where it can be easily
removed without any loss to the casting. As per their position in the mould cavity,
gates may be classified as follows :
Parting Line Gate
It is the simplest type of gate and the molten metal enters the mould cavity
at the parting line. Such type of gate is cut by hand when the cope and drag
are separated or it can be formed by an attached gate to the pattern.
Top Gate
In this type of gate, the molten metal from the top flows down directly into
the mould. As all the molten metal enters the casting at the top therefore,
the hottest metal comes to rest at the top of casting. With the result, proper
temperature gradient is formed to enable directional solidification of casting
from the bottom side towards the riser. The gates themselves may be cut to
serve as the risers. Main drawback of this type of gating is the erosion of
the mould, which takes place by the falling metal. The cavity of mould,
therefore, should be much hard and strong to resist this impact.
Strainer Core
Pouring Basin
Casting
Figure 2.15
Bottom Gate
In this type of gate, the molten metal from the pouring basin flows down and
enters to the mould cavity at or near its bottom. Bottom type of gate
facilitates the mould to be prepared in two moulding boxes. During pouring
of molten metal, bottom types of gate enable to reduce the erosion of mould
and core and minimize the turbulence of metal (Figure 2.16).
Mould Cavity
Figure 2.16
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Pattern Making and
2.3.8 Factors of Directional Solidification Foundry
As the molten metal cools and solidifies in the mould, shrinkage of metal will
take place which creates voids inside. Solidification of metal free of internal
voids and shrinkage is called as a directional solidification. The factors which are
used to control this directional solidification are
(a) proper design and positioning of risers,
(b) proper design and positioning of gating systems,
(c) use of padding,
(d) use of metal chills, and
(e) use of exothermic materials.
Riser
It is a passage of sand made in the cope part of moulding box through
which the molten metal rises after the mould is filled up completely. The
main functions of a riser are given below :
(a) Riser acts as a reservoir and feeds the molten metal to the casting to
compensate the shrinkage during solidification.
(b) It permits the escape of gas, air and steam as the mould cavity is being
filled up with the molten metal.
(c) It controls the solidification time, which should be greater in it than
that in the mould cavity.
(d) It helps to ensure that the mould cavity has been completely filled up
with molten metal.
Use of Padding
Padding means adding of some extra metal to the original section of casting
in varying thickness to attain the required directional solidification.
Use of Chills
Chills in shape of extra metal are also used in achieving directional
solidification. If a casting consists of sections of uneven thickness, rate of
cooling will be different as per thickness of section. The thin sections tend
to solidify earlier than the thick ones, resulting in uneven shrinkage and
severe distortion. To accelerate the cooling rates of thick sections, chills are
inserted in these sections and thus, obtain the desired directional
solidification.
Use of Exothermic Materials
The proper directional solidification of casting can be further controlled by
the use of exothermic materials. These materials produce large amount of
heat when come in contact with the molten metal. These are added to the
surface of molten metal through riser side. The materials used as
exothermic materials are the oxides of iron, copper and nickel etc. mixed
with suitable amount of aluminium.
2.3.9 Types of Core
A core is made by core sand and prepared separately in a core box. It is used to
form a desired recess and cavity in casting. Different types of cores are used in
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Workshop Technology foundry work and are employed according to their shape and their position in the
mould. The main types of cores are described below :
Horizontal Core
It is the simplest type of core which is placed horizontally at the parting line
of the mould. As per cross section, it may be of any shape but cylindrical
shaped core is mostly used as shown in Figure 2.17.
Sand
Mould
Parting Line Core
Figure 2.17
Vertical Core
Cope
Cavity
Mould
Core
Drag
Figure 2.18
Balanced Core
It is suitable to produce a blind hole along a horizontal axis in casting. The
overhanging length of the core is supported by means of chaplets as shown
in Figure 2.19.
Cope
Mould
Core
Drag
Figure 2.19
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Pattern Making and
Cope Foundry
Core
Drag
Mould
Figure 2.20
Sliding
Door
Crucible
Gate
Natural
Draght
Refractory
Workshop Technology
Spark Arrester
Refractory Lining
Stack
Shell
Charging Door
Charging
Platform
Coke Bed
Melting Zone
Blast Pipe Reducing Zone
Combustion Zone
Wind Belt
Tuyeres
Tap Well
Slag Spout Hole
Figure 2.23
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bottom door. When the cupola is in operation, the bottom door is supported Pattern Making and
Foundry
by a prop. At the end of operation, the charge feeding is stopped, air supply
cut off and the prop removed. As soon as the prop is removed, the bottom
door drops down providing a passage for the residue of molten metal with
slag to fall down. The amount of air required is forced into the wind belt by
blower which enters the furnace, through tuyeres. Charging door is
provided above the charging platform. Through charging door, the charge is
fed into the furnace. The shell is continued above the charging door to form
a chimney. At the top of furnace a conical construction called the spark
arrester is attached to prevent the spark from emerging to the outside as
shown in Figure 2.23.
Zones in a Cupola
A number of combustion reactions take place in the cupola. Therefore, the
entire shell of cupola may be divided in zones which are as under :
Well Zone
The metal after melting is collected here and then tapped out. Well zone is
the space between top of sand bed and the bottom of tuyeres.
Combustion Zone
It is located about 15 cms to 30 cms above the top of tuyeres and also
may be called as oxidizing zone. As the actual combustion takes place
in this zone, a lot of heat is produced which is supplied from here to
other zones. A temperature of about 1550oC to 1850oC is produced in
this zone.
Reducing Zone
Reducing zone is located from the top of combustion zone to the top
of the coke bed. In this zone, the temperature falls to about 1200oC at
the coke bed on account of reducing atmospheres. This zone protects
the charge against oxidation.
Melting Zone
The 1st layer of metal charge above the coke bed and extend upto a
height of about 90 cm. Being temperature around 1600oC, the
complete combustion of coke and iron takes place in this zone.
Preheating Zone
It extends from above the melting zone to the bottom of charging door
and contains the cupola charge (alternate layers of coke, flux and
metal). In this zone, the charge is preheated at a temperature of about
1100oC before coming to the melting zone.
Stack Zone
It is the empty portion of cupola above the preheating zone to the top
of the cupola which carries the gases generated within the furnace to
the atmosphere.
Preparation and Charging of Cupola
First of all the waste material and slag etc. are removed from the cupola
which are dumped under the furnace after the previous melting. The bottom
door is brought and secured in position by means of prop, and then a sand
bed is laid at the bottom. The surface of the sand bed is sloped towards the
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Workshop Technology tapping hole so that the molten metal may be drained from the cupola at any
time.
As a bed charge, soft and dry wood is placed over the sand bed followed by
a bed of coke. The wood is ignited through the tap hole. As soon as the
coke bed is built up to the correct height and ignited uniformly throughout,
an alternate layers of pig iron, coke and limestone are charged from the
charging door until the cupola is full to the charging door. Usually, in
practice, the charge ratio between metal and coke is kept 8 : 1 to 10 : 1.
Amount of limestone in charge depends upon the amount of metal which is
about 40 to 50 kg per metric ton of metal charge.
SAQ 2
(a) What is moulding? What are the main characteristics, which a good
moulding sand should possess?
(b) Why testing of foundry sand is necessary? What are the common tests
performed on foundry sands?
(d) Distinguish between green sand moulding and dry sand moulding.
(e) What do you understand from the term “Gating system”? What are
the main requirements expected of an ideal gating system?
2.4 SUMMARY
Pattern is the model of the desired casting, which is used for forming an
impression, called mould in the damp sand or other suitable moulding materials.
They are made of timber, metal, plaster of paris or plastic. As per nature of work,
different types of pattern are used in practice. Number of casting, appearance and
surface finish of casting are the important consideration which a pattern maker is
to make in order to plan the pattern successfully.
A mould is the cavity or impression which is prepared in moulding sand by
means of pattern. It will produce a casting when filled with molten metal. The
process of producing this cavity is known as moulding. According to use,
moulding sands are classified into a number of varieties. A good moulding sand
must possess the properties of porosity, adhesiveness, cohesiveness and
refractoriness etc.
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Cores are separate shapes of sand that are generally required to form the hollow Pattern Making and
Foundry
interior of the casting or a hole through the casting. A sand casting is produced by
pouring the molten metal into the mould through a passage called gate. As per
situation, gates may be classified as top gates, parting line gates and bottom gates.
Crucible and cupola furnaces are commonly used in foundries for melting of
various varieties of ferrous and non-ferrous metals and alloys.
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