CHEMISTRY 2ND PRELIM NOTES

● GILBERT LEWIS
- Stated that atoms combine in order to achieve stability

● VALENCE ELECTRONS
- The only electrons that participate in chemical bonding

3 ways to classify valence electrons:

1. Outermost electrons
2. Last electrons in the electron configuration
3. Group number
- Except for helium the number of valence electron an atom has is
the same group number of the element

● LEWIS DOT SYMBOL

- Consists of the symbol of an element and one dot for each valence electron in an
atom of the element

Ex 1. H Ex 2. P Ex 3. S

Since Hydrogen has 1 Since Phosphorus has 5 Since Sulfur has 6 valence
valence electron valence electrons electrons

● MAXIMUM STABILITY
- 8 valence electron
- When an atom is isoelectronic with a noble gas

a. ISOELECTRONIC
- Atoms, ions, or molecules that have the same number of electrons

b. NOBLE GAS
- Unreactive, meaning they are already stable

● OCTET RULE
- When the valence electron reaches 8, achieving maximum stability

● DUET RULE
- Only needing 2 valence electron to achieve stability
- Only applicable to Hydrogen (H) and Helium (He)
 ● ELECTRONEGATIVITY
- Atoms being able to attract electrons

● IONIZATION ENERGY
- Energy needed to pull electrons

● ELECTRON AFFINITY
- Energy given off when a neutral atom attracts an electron

METALS NONMETALS

Low electronegativity High electronegativity

Low ionization energy High ionization energy

Low electron affinity High electron affinity

IONIC BOND

● IONIC BOND (Metal and nonmetal)

- The electrostatic force that holds ions together in an ionic compound
- When electrons are transferred

Na (metal) losing electrons

Cl (nonmetal) adding electrons
+
𝑁𝑎 → 𝑁𝑎
−
𝐶𝑙 → 𝐶𝑙
Ex 1. Li + F = LiF

❖ IONIZATION OF Li (metal)

❖ ACCEPTANCE OF ELECTRON BY F/ IONIZATION OF NONMETAL

❖ FORMATION OF LiF
(cancel the charges)

or LiF
Ex 2. 2𝐶𝑎(𝑠) + 𝑂2(𝑔) → 2𝐶𝑎𝑂(𝑠)

Ca + O → CaO (Simplify)

❖ IONIZATION OF Ca (metal)

❖ ACCEPTANCE OF ELECTRON BY O / IONIZATION OF NONMETAL

❖ FORMATION OF CaO

Ex 3. 3𝑀𝑔 + 2𝑁 → 𝑀𝑔3𝑁2

❖ IONIZATION OF Mg (metal)

(Since there are 3 Mg, and it has 2

valence electron, therefore the
electrons released will be 6)

❖ ACCEPTANCE OF ELECTRON BY N / IONIZATION OF NONMETAL

❖ FORMATION OF 𝑀𝑔3𝑁2

(Cancel out the charges)

Ex 4. 𝐴𝑙2𝑂3

2Al + 3O → 𝐴𝑙2𝑂3

❖ IONIZATION OF Al (metal)

❖ ACCEPTANCE OF ELECTRON BY O / IONIZATION OF NONMETAL

❖ FORMATION OF 𝐴𝑙2𝑂3

Ex 5. 𝐵𝑎 𝐻2

Ba + 2H → 𝐵𝑎 𝐻2

❖ IONIZATION OF Ba (metal)

❖ ACCEPTANCE OF ELECTRON BY H / IONIZATION OF NONMETAL

(following the DUET RULE)

❖ FORMATION OF 𝐵𝑎 𝐻2
 ● ENTHALPY (H)
- the measurement of energy in a thermodynamic system
- Heat and energy

a. EXOTHERMIC
- system to surroundings
- Negative energy
- Releasing

b. ENDOTHERMIC
- Surroundings to system
- Positive energy
- Absorbing

LATTICE ENERGY

● LATTICE ENERGY
- The energy required to completely separate 1 mole of a solid ionic compound
into gaseous ions
- Solid to gad (Sublimation)
- The greater the lattice energy, the more stable the ionic compound
- Always a positive energy, as it is an endothermic process

● HESS LAW
𝑜
- ∆𝐻 𝑟𝑥𝑛
(standard enthalpy changed reaction)

𝑜 𝑜 𝑜 𝑜 𝑜 𝑜
∆𝐻 𝑟𝑥𝑛
= ∆𝐻 1
+ ∆𝐻 2
+ ∆𝐻 3
+ ∆𝐻 4
+ ∆𝐻 5...

1
Ex 1. Find the lattice energy of 𝐿𝑖(𝑠) + 2
𝐹2 → 𝐿𝑖𝐹 (sum of enthalpy= − 594𝑘𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙)

❖ SUBLIMATION OF Li (metal)

𝑜
𝐿𝑖(𝑠) → 𝐿𝑖(𝑔) ∆𝐻 1
= 155. 2𝑘𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙

❖ DISSOCIATION OF 𝐹2 (nonmetal)

1 𝑜
2
𝐹2 = F ∆𝐻 2
= 75. 3𝑘𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙

❖ IONIZATION OF Li (metal)
𝑜
∆𝐻 3
= 520𝑘𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙
 ❖ ACCEPTANCE OF ELECTRON BY F/ IONIZATION OF NONMETAL

𝑜
∆𝐻 4
= − 328𝑘𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙

❖ FORMATION OF LiF

𝑜
or LiF ∆𝐻 5
= ?

𝑜 𝑜 𝑜 𝑜 𝑜 𝑜
∆𝐻 𝑟𝑥𝑛
= ∆𝐻 1
+ ∆𝐻 2
+ ∆𝐻 3
+ ∆𝐻 4
+ ∆𝐻 5

𝑜
− 594𝑘𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙 = (155. 2𝑘𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙) + (75. 3𝑘𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙) + (520𝑘𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙) + (− 328𝑘𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙) + ∆𝐻 5

𝑜
− 594𝑘𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙 = 422. 5𝑘𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙 + ∆𝐻 5

𝑜
− 594𝑘𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙 − 422. 5𝑘𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙 = ∆𝐻 5

𝑜
∆𝐻 5
= − 1017𝑘𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙

Lattice energy= 1017𝑘𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙

𝑜
(Lattice energy is the inverse of ∆𝐻 5
and will always be positive)
 COVALENT BONDING

● COVALENT BONDING
- Electrons are shared
- First thought of by Gilbert Lewis
- Nonmetal and nonmetal

● LEWIS STRUCTURE
- A representation of covalent bonding in which shared electron pairs are shown
either as lines or as pairs of dots between two atoms
- Only valence electrons

Ex 1. 𝐻2

Each hydrogen atom has 1 valence and requires having 2 in order to achieve maximum stability
(Duet rule).

or (the line represents the covalent bond)

The 2 hydrogen atoms share electrons to achieve maximum stability

Ex 2. 𝐹2

(contains 6 lone pairs)

Each F atom has 7 valence electrons and requires another 1 to achieve maximum stability, the 2
F atoms share 1 from each other to be able to achieve maximum stability.

➢ LONE PAIRS
- Pair of valence electrons that are not involved in the covalent bond

● BOND LENGTH
- Distance between the nuclei of 2 covalently bonded atoms

● BOND STRENGTH
- Energy required to break a chemical bond
 ● SINGLE COVALENT BOND
- Longest length
- Weakest strength
- Only 1 valence electron shared

Ex. 1 𝐻2 - 2 valence electron shared

Ex 2. 𝐹2
or

● DOUBLE COVALENT BOND

Ex 1. 𝐻2𝑂

(contains 2 lone pairs)

● TRIPLE COVALENT BOND

- Shortest length
- Strongest strength
- 3 valence electron shared

Ex 1. 𝑁2

2 TYPES OF ATTRACTIVE FORCES IN COVALENT BONDS

● INTRAMOLECULAR FORCE (covalent bond)

- Holds the atoms together in a molecule
- Within the molecule

● INTERMOLECULAR FORCE
- Operates between molecules
- Usually quite weak, relatively easy to break up aggregates of molecules to form
liquids (from solids) and gasses (from liquids)
 ● POLAR COVALENT COMPOUNDS
- molecules in which the shared electrons between atoms are unevenly distributed,
leading to a separation of electric charge within the molecule.
- Due to differences in electron negativity

● NONPOLAR COVALENT COMPOUNDS

- molecules in which the shared electrons between atoms are evenly distributed

ELECTRONEGATIVITY DIFFERENCE

------> The Electronegativity Trend on the table of elements is that its (en) increasing from left
to right

IONIC COMPOUND 2.0 above

POLAR COVALENT COMPOUND 0.4 - 1.9

NON POLAR COVALENT COMPOUND 0 - 0.3

Ex 1. HBr

H = 2.1 en, Br = 2.8 en

2.8 - 2.1 = 0.7, therefore HBr is a polar covalent compound

Ex 2. NaCl

Na = 0.9 en, Cl = 3.0 en

3.0 - 0.9 = 2.1, therefore NaCl is an Ionic compound

Ex 3. 𝐻2
H = 2.1 en

2.1 - 2.1 = 0, therefore 𝐻2 is a nonpolar covalent compound