Advanced Math CHAPTER 4 VectorCalculus

4 Vector calculus
4.1 Overview
The motion of a particle has been studied since ancient times and has intrigued both mathematicians and
physicists. The motion of particles can take many forms, for example, a speck of dust sitting on the outer
edge of a rotating vinyl record or a ball travelling toward the ground in a straight line. In this chapter we will
examine the motion of particles in both two and three dimensions and how differentiation and integration
techniques can be used to analyse the motion. Consider the image below of the young athlete throwing a
javelin. The initial speed and the angle at which the javelin is released will both have an effect on the distance
the javelin will travel. These variables will be investigated in the study of projectile motion in this chapter.
LEARNING SEQUENCE
4.1. Overview
4.2. Position vectors as functions of time: circles, ellipses and hyperbolas
4.3. Differentiation of vectors
4.4. Integration of vectors
4.5. Straight line motion with constant and variable acceleration
4.6. Projectile motion
4.7. Circular motion
4.8. Review: exam practice
Fully worked solutions are available for this chapter in the resources section of your eBookPLUS at
www.jacplus.com.au.
CHAPTER 4 Vector calculus 189

4.2 Position vectors as functions of time: circles,
ellipses and hyperbolas
4.2.1 Position vectors as functions
Parametric equations
The parametric equations of a particle as it moves in two dimensions were examined in Chapter 2,
Section 2.4. The path traced out by the particle is defined in terms of a third variable, t, which is called a
parameter. In the two-dimensional case the path is described by two parametric equations, as both the x- and
y-coordinates depend upon the parameter, t.
x = x(t) [1]
y = y(t) [2]
The position vector of the particle is given by ~r(t) = x(t)î + y(t)ĵ, where î and ĵ are unit vectors in the x
and y directions. This is also called a vector function of the scalar real variable t, where t is called the
parameter, and often represents time.
If we can eliminate the parameter from the two parametric equations and obtain an equation of the form
y = f(x), this is called an explicit relationship or the equation of the path. It may not be possible to obtain
an explicit relationship, but often an implicit relationship of the form f (x, y) = 0 can be formed. The
relationship between x and y is called the Cartesian equation of the path. Careful consideration must be
given to the possible values of t, which then specify the domain (the x-values) and the range (the y-values) of
the equation of the path.
Closest approach
Given the position vector of a particle, ~r(t) = x(t)î + y(t)ĵ, where î and ĵ are unit vectors in the x and y
directions, it is possible to determine the position or coordinates of the particle at a given value of t. It is also
possible to calculate the value of t and the coordinates when the particle is closest to the origin.
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
A particle moves so that its vector equation is given by ~r(t) = (3t − 4)î + (4t − 3)ĵ for t ≥ 0.
Determine:
a. the distance of the particle from the origin when t = 2
b. the distance of the particle from the origin at any time t
c. the closest distance of the particle from the origin.
THINK WRITE
a. 1. To determine the position of the particle at a.
~r(2) = (6 − 4)î + (8 − 3)ĵ
t = 2, substitute the value of t. = 2î + 5ĵ
At t = 2 the particle is at (2, 5).
√
2. To calculate the distance of the particle from |~r(2)| = 22 + 52
the origin, determine the magnitude of the
vector√by applying the formula
|~u| = x2 + y2
√
3. State the distance from the origin at this time. |~r(2)| = 29 units
190 Jacaranda Maths Quest 12 Specialist Mathematics Units 3 & 4 for Queensland
b. 1. Determine the magnitude of the vector at b.
~r(t) = (3t
√
− 4)î + (4t − 3)ĵ
time t√by applying the formula |~r(t)| = (3t − 4)2 + (4t − 3)2
|~r| = x2 + y2
√
2. Expand and simplify to state the distance in |~r(t)| = 9t2 − 24t + 16 + 16t2 − 24t + 9
√
terms of t. = 25t2 − 48t + 25
c. 1. For the closest (or minimum distance), we c. The( minimum ) distance occurs when
need to use calculus. d
|r(t)| = 0.
dt ~ 1
2. Use the chain rule. |~r(t)| = (25t2 − 48t + 25) 2
d ( ) 1
× (50t − 48)
|~r(t)| = √2 =0
dt 25t2 − 48t + 25
3. Solve for the value of t. 50t − 48 = 0
24
t=
25
24
4. Determine the position vector at this value. Substitute t = :
( ) ( 25 ) ( )
24 24 24
r
~ 25 = 3 × − 4 î + 4 × − 3 ĵ
25 25
28 21
=− î+ ĵ
25 25
√
( )2 ( )2
28 21
5. Determine the magnitude of the vector at this |~r(t)|min = − +
time, which represents the closest distance of 25 25
the particle from the origin.
7
6. State the final result. |~r(t)|min =
5
Collision problems
There are a number of problems that can be formulated
around the motion of two moving particles on different
curves in two dimensions.
1. Do the particles collide? For two particles
to collide, they must be at exactly the same
coordinates at exactly the same time.
2. Do the paths of the particles cross without
colliding? This will happen when they are at the
same coordinates but at different times.
3. What is the distance between the particles at
a particular time? To determine this, the
magnitude of the difference between their
respective position vectors must be found.

WORKED EXAMPLE 2
Two particles move so that their position vectors are given by ~r A (t) = (3t − 8)î + (t2 − 18t + 87)ĵ
and ~r B (t) = (20 − t)î + (2t − 4)ĵ for t ≥ 0. Determine:
a. when and where the particles collide
b. where their paths cross
c. the distance between the particles when t = 10.
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Equate the î components for each particle. a. rA (t)
~ = (3t − 8)î + (t2 − 18t + 87)ĵ
~rB (t) = (20 − t)î + (2t − 4)ĵ
3t − 8 = 20 − t
2. Solve this equation for t. 4t = 28
t=7
2
3. Equate the ĵ components for each particle. t − 18t + 87 = 2t − 4
4. Solve this equation for t. t2 − 20t + 91 = 0
(t − 7)(t − 13) = 0
t − 7 = 0 or t − 13 = 0
∴ t = 7, 13
5. Evaluate the position vectors at the common The common solution is when t = 7.
time, t = 7. ~rA (7) = 13î + 10ĵ
~rB (7) = 13î + 10ĵ
6. State the result for when the particles collide. The particles collide when t = 7 at the
point (13, 10).
b. 1. The particles paths cross at different values of t. b. Let rA (s) = (3s − 8)î + (s2 − 18s + 87)ĵ
~
Introduce a different parameter, s. and ~rB (t) = (20 − t)î + (2t − 4)ĵ.
2. Equate the î components for each particle. 3s − 8 = 20 − t
3. Solve this equation for t. t = 28 − 3s
4. Equate the ĵ components for each particle. s2 − 18s + 87 = 2t − 4
5. Solve this equation for s by substituting Substitute t = 28 − 3s:
t = 28 − 3s. s2 − 18s + 87 = 2(28 − 3s) − 4
s2 − 18s + 87 = 56 − 6s − 4
s2 − 12s + 35 = 0
(s − 5)(s − 7) = 0
Using the Null Factor Law s = 5, 7
6. Note that when s = 7, the particles collide, so use ~rA (5) = (15 − 8)î + (25 − 90 + 87)ĵ
s = 5. = 7î + 22ĵ
7. Determine the time when the paths cross by When s = 5, t = 28 − 15
solving for t when s = 5. = 13
8. Evaluate the position vectors at the required time, r
~B (13) = (20 − 13)î + (26 − 4)ĵ
t = 13. = 7î + 22ĵ
9. State the required result. The paths cross at the point (7, 22).
c. 1. Evaluate both the position vectors at the required c. Substitute t = 10:
time, t = 10. ~rA (10) = (30 − 8)î + (100 − 180 + 87)ĵ
= 22î + 7ĵ
~rB (10) = (20 − 10)î + (20 − 4)ĵ

= 10î + 16ĵ
2. Calculate the difference between these two ~rA (10) − ~rB (10) = 22î + 7ĵ − (10î + 16ĵ)
vectors. = 12î − 9ĵ
3. The distance between the particles is the |~rA (10) − ~rB (10)| = |12î − 9ĵ|
√
magnitude of the difference between these = 122 + (−9)2
vectors. √
= 225
4. State the required distance. |~rA (10) − ~rB (10)| = 15 units
4.2.2 Parametric and Cartesian equations of circles, ellipses

and hyperbolas
When eliminating the parameter a number of different methods may be required. These could include direct
substitution or trigonometric identities.
WORKED EXAMPLE 3
Given the vector equation, ~r (t) = (2 + 3 cos (t)) î + (3 sin (t) − 1) ĵ, for t ≥ 0, determine and sketch
the Cartesian equation of the path, and state the domain and range.
THINK WRITE
1. Define the two parametric equations as [1] and [2] x = 2 + 3 cos(t) [1]
y = 3 sin(t) − 1 [2]
x−2
2. Express the trigonometric ratios cos(t) and sin(t) in = cos(t) [3]
terms of x and y respectively. 3
y+1
= sin(t) [4]
3
(x − 2)2
3. Square equations [3] and [4] to utilise a = cos2 (t) [5]
Pythagorean identity and define results as 9
[5] and [6]. (y + 1)2
= sin2 (t) [6]
9
(x − 2)2 (y + 1)2
4. Add equations [5] and [6]. + = cos2 (t)+sin2 (t)
9 9 2
(x − 2)2 (y + 1)
5. Apply the Pythagorean identity, + =1
cos2 (t) + sin2 (t) = 1. The result is the Cartesian 9 9
equation of a circle. ∴ (x − 2)2 + (y + 1)2 = 9
This is a circle of radius 3, with centre
at (2, −1)

6. Determine the domain. Since −1 ≤ cos(t) ≤ 1, it follows
from the parametric equation
x (t) = 2 + 3 cos(t) that the domain is
−1 ≤ x ≤ 5, that is [−1, 5].
7. Determine the range. Since −1 ≤ sin(t) ≤ 1, it follows from
the parametric equation
y (t) = 3 sin(t) − 1 that the range is
−4 ≤ y ≤ 2 , that is [−4, 2].
8. The graph is the whole circle. The exact coordinates y
of the x- and y-intercepts are not required in this
case. 3 (x – 2)2 (y + 1)2
+ =1
2 9 9
1
0 x
–1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
–1
(2 , –1)
–2
–3
–4
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
Given the vector equation, ~r (t) = (6 cos (t)) î + (5 sin (t)) ĵ, for t ≥ 0, determine and sketch the
Cartesian equation of the path, and state the domain and range.
THINK WRITE
1. Define the two parametric equations as [1] x = 6 cos(t) [1]
and [2] y = 5 sin(t) [2]
2 2
2. Square equations [1] and [2] and define x = 36 cos (t)
results as [3] and [4]. x2
= cos2 (t) [3]
36
y2 = 25 sin2 (t)
y2
= sin2 (t) [4]
25
x2 y2
3. Add equations [3] and [4]. + = cos2 (t) + sin2 (t) [3] + [4]
36 25
x2 y2
4. Apply the Pythagorean identity, + =1
cos2 (t) + sin2 (t) = 1. The result is the 36 25
Cartesian equation of an ellipse This is an ellipse, with centre at (0, 0) and
semi-major and semi-minor axes 6 and 5.
5. Determine the domain. Since −1 ≤ cos(t) ≤ 1, it follows from the
parametric equation x (t) = 6 cos(t) that the
domain is −6 ≤ x ≤ 6, that is [−6, 6].
6. Determine the range. Since −1 ≤ sin(t) ≤ 1, it follows from the
parametric equation y (t) = 5 sin(t) that the
range is −5 ≤ y ≤ 5, that is [−5, 5].
7. The graph is the whole ellipse. The exact y
6
ordinates of the x- and y-intercepts are not
5
required in this case. 4
3
2
1
(0, 0)
x
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5
–6
TI | THINK WRITE CASIO | THINK WRITE

1. On a Home page, select 1. On a Menu screen, select
Graph GRAPH
2. Parametric equations can 2. Parametric equations can

be graphed by selecting, be graphed by selecting,
MENU TYPE Param
3: Graph Entry/Edit
4: Parametric
3. Complete the entry 3. Complete the entry

line as line as
6 cos(t) 6 cos T
5 sin(t) 5 sin T
Note: t is entered by Note: T is entered by
pressing the T button on pressing the X, 𝜃, T
the alpha keyboard. button.
4. Press the ENTER button. 4. Press the EXE button.

The answer appears on The answer appears on
the screen. the screen.

WORKED EXAMPLE 5
Given the vector equation ~r(t) = 3 sec (2t)î + 4 tan (2t)ĵ for t ≥ 0, determine and sketch the
THINK WRITE
1. Define two parametric equations as [1] x = 3 sec(2t) [1]
and [2]. y = 4 tan(2t) [2]
x
2. Express the trigonometric ratios sec(2t) [1] ⇒ sec(2t) =
and tan(2t) in terms of x and y 3
y
respectively. [2] ⇒ tan(2t) =
4
3. Eliminate the parameter using an Since sec (2t) − tan2 (2t) = 1, it follows that
2
appropriate trigonometric identity to x2 y2

− =1
determine the Cartesian equation of the 9 16
path. In this case the expression is given This is a hyperbola with centre at the origin. A hyperbola
as an implicit equation. x2 y2 b
of the form 2 − 2 = 1 has asymptotes when y = ± x.
a b a
x2 y2 4x
Therefore the asymptotes of − = 1 are y = ± .
9 16 3
4. Determine the domain. It follows from the parametric equation x(t) = 3 sec(2t)
that the domain is (−∞, −3] ∪ [3, ∞).
5. Determine the range. It follows from the parametric equation y(t) = 4 tan(2t)
that the range is R.
6. The graph is the whole hyperbola. y
− =1
(–3, 0) (3, 0)
0 x
y= x y=− x
The parametric representation of a curve is not necessarily unique. This can be seen by comparing
Worked examples 5 and 6.
WORKED EXAMPLE 6
( ) ( )
3 1 1
Show that the parametric equations x(t) = t+ and y(t) = 2 t − where t ∈ R \ {0}
2 t t
x2 y2
represent the hyperbola − = 1.
9 16
THINK WRITE
( )
3 1
1. Define the two parametric equations as [1] and [2]. x= t+ [1]
2 t
( )
1
y= 2 t− [2]
t
2x 1
2. Express the equations in a form to eliminate the =t+ [3]
parameter. 3 t
y 1
=t− [4]
2 t
4x2 1
3. Square both equations [3] and [4]. = t2 + 2 + 2 [5]
9 t
y2 1
= t2 − 2 + 2 [6]
4 t
4. Subtract the equations [5] − [6] to eliminate the [5] − [6]: ( )
parameter. 4x2 y2 2 1 2 1
− =t +2+ 2 − t −2+ 2
9 4 t t
2 2
4x y
5. Divide by 4. − =4
9 4
x2 y2
− =1
9 16
This gives the hyperbola as required.
Units 3 & 4 Area 2 Sequence 3 Concepts 1&2

Position vectors as functions of time Summary screen and practice questions
Circles, ellipses and hyperbolas Summary screen and practice questions
Exercise 4.2 Position vectors as functions of time: circles,

ellipses and hyperbolas
Technology free
1. WE1 A particle moves so that its vector equation is given by r(t) = (t − 2)î + (3t − 1)ĵ for t ≥ 0.
~
Determine:
b. the distance of the particle from the origin at any time t
c. the closest distance of the particle from the origin.
√
2. A particle moves so that its vector equation is given by r(t) = t î + (2t + 3)ĵ for t ≥ 0. Determine:
~
√
b. the value t when the distance of the particle from the origin is 15 2.
3. WE2 Two particles move so that their position vectors are given by rA (t) = (2t + 6)î + (t2 − 6t + 45)ĵ
~
and ~rB (t) = (t + 11)î + (7t + 5)ĵ for t ≥ 0. Determine:

4. Two particles move so that their position vectors are given by ~rA (t) = (−t2 + 12t − 22)î + (19 − 3t)ĵ
and ~rB (t) = (18 − 2t)î + (t + 3)ĵ for t ≥ 0. Determine:
5. a. A particle moves so that its vector equation is given by r(t) = (2t − 1)î + (t − 3)ĵ for t ≥ 0.
~
Determine:
i. the distance of the particle from the origin when t = 4
ii. the distance of the particle from the origin at any time t
iii. the closest distance of the particle from the origin.
b. A particle moves so that its vector equation is given by r(t) = (4t − 3)î + (3t + 4)ĵ for t ≥ 0.
~
Determine:
i. the distance of the particle from the origin when t = 2
ii. the distance of the particle from the origin at any time t
iii. the closest distance of the particle from the origin.
6. a. A boat moves so that its vector equation is given by
√
~r(t) = (2t − 3)î + 2 t ĵ for t ≥ 0, where distance is
measured in kilometres. Determine:
i. the distance of the boat from the origin when t = 4
ii. the closest distance of the boat from the origin
iii. the times when the boat is 3 kilometres from the origin.
b. A particle moves so that its vector equation is given by
~r(t) = (2t − 7)î + (2t + 2)ĵ for t ≥ 0. Determine:

i. the closest distance of the particle from the origin
√
ii. the time when the particle is 9 5 units from the origin.
7. a. A particle moves so that its vector equation is given by r(t) = (at + b)î + (ct2 + d)ĵ for t ≥ 0. If
~
~r(2) = 5î + 7ĵ and ~r(4) = 13î + 19ĵ, calculate the values of a, b, c and d.
b. A particle moves so that its vector equation is given by r(t) = (at + b)î + (ct2 + dt)ĵ for t ≥ 0. If
~
~r(4) = 13î + 4ĵ and r(6)
~ = 17î + 18ĵ, calculate the values of a, b, c and d.
8. Two particles move so that their position vectors are given by ~rA (t) = (3t − 43)î + (−t2 + 26t − 160)ĵ
and ~rB (t) = (17 − t)î + (2t − 25)ĵ for t ≥ 0. Determine:
9. Two particles move so that their position vectors are given by ~rA (t) = (t2 − 6)î + (2t + 2)ĵ and
1 2
~rB (t) = (7t − 16)î + 5 (17t − t )ĵ for t ≥ 0. Determine:
b. the distance between the particles when t = 10.
10. Two particles move so that their position vectors are given by ~rA (t) = (−t2 + 12t + 53)î + (3t + 38)ĵ
and ~rB (t) = (2t + 29)î + (86 − t)ĵ for t ≥ 0. Determine:
1
11. a. A particle moves so that its vector equation is given by r(t) = t î + ĵ for t > 0. Determine the
~ t
closest distance of the particle from the origin.
A particle moves so that its vector equation is given by ~r(t) = e−t î + et ĵ for t ∈ R. Determine the
b.
12. WE3 Given the vector equation r(t) = 3 cos(t)î + 4 sin(t)ĵ for t ≥ 0, determine and sketch the Cartesian
~
equation of the path, and state the domain and range.
13. Given the vector equation ~r(t) = (5 − 2 cos(t))î + (3 sin(t) − 4)ĵ, for t ≥ 0, determine and sketch the
14. WE4 Given the vector equation r(t) = 5 sec(2t)î + 3 tan(2t)ĵ for t ≥ 0, determine and sketch the
~
( ) ( )
t t
15. WE5 Given the vector equation r(t) = 4 cot î + 3cosec ĵ for t > 0, determine and sketch the
~ 2 2
( ) ( )
5 1 3 1
16. WE6 Show that the parametric equations x = t+ and y = t− where t ∈ R \ {0}
2 t 2 t
x2 y2
represent the hyperbola − = 1.
25 9
6t 3(1 − t2 )
17. Show that the parametric equations x = and y = represent the circle x2 + y2 = 9.
1 + t2 1 + t2
Technology active
For questions 18–23, determine and sketch the Cartesian equation of the path for each of the given vector
equations, and state the domain and range.
2
18. a.
~r(t) = 2tî + 4t ĵ for t ≥ 0 b. r(t) = (t − 1)î + 3tĵ for t ≥ 0
~
1
19. a. r(t) = 2tî + ĵ for t > 0
~ t
b. r(t) = 2tî + (t2 − 4t)ĵ for t ≥ 0
~ ( ) ( )
1 1
c. r(t) = t + î+ t− ĵ for t > 0
~ t t
20. a. r(t) = e −2t î + e2t ĵ for t ≥ 0
~ ( )
b. r(t) = e −t î + 2 + e2t ĵ for t ≥ 0
~ ( )
c. r(t) = et î + 2 + e2t ĵ for t ≥ 0
~
21. a. r(t) = 3 cos(t)î + 3 sin(t)ĵ for t ≥ 0
~
b. r(t) = 4 cos(t)î + 3 sin(t)ĵ for t ≥ 0
~
c. r(t) = 4 sec(t)î + 3 tan(t)ĵ for t ≥ 0
~
22. a. r(t) = (1 + 3 cos(t))î + (3 sin(t) − 2)ĵ for t ≥ 0
~
b. r(t) = (4 + 3 cos(t))î + (2 sin(t) − 3)ĵ for t ≥ 0
~
c. r(t) = (2 − 3 sec(t))î + (5 tan(t) − 4)ĵ for t ≥ 0
~
2
23. a. r(t) = cos2 (t)î + sin (t)ĵ for t ≥ 0
~
3
b. r(t) = cos3 (t)î + sin (t)ĵ for t ≥ 0
~
4
c. r(t) = cos4 (t)î + sin (t)ĵ for t ≥ 0
~
24. If a and b are positive real numbers, show that the following vector equations give the same Cartesian
equation. ( ) ( )
2at a(1 − t2 )
a. r(t) = a cos(t)î + a sin(t)ĵ and r(t) = î+ ĵ
~ ~ 1 + t2 1 + t2
( ) ( )
2at b(1 − t2 )
b. r(t) = a cos(t)î + b sin(t)ĵ and r(t) = î+ ĵ
~ ~ 1 + t2 1 + t2
25. For each of the following vector equations, sketch the equation of the path, using technology.
a. r(t) = cos(2t)î + sin(4t)ĵ for t ≥ 0
~
b. r(t) = cos(2t)î + sin(6t)ĵ for t ≥ 0
~
26. For each of the following vector equations, sketch the equation of the path, using technology.
a. The cycloid r(t) = 2(t − sin(t))î + 2(1 − cos(t))ĵ for t ≥ 0
~
b. The cardioid r(t) = 2 cos(t)(1 + cos(t))î + 2 sin(t)(1 + cos(t))ĵ for t ≥ 0
~

4.3 Differentiation of vectors
4.3.1 Vector functions
The function ~r(t) = x(t)î + y(t)ĵ is called a vector function. It represents the position vector of a particle at
time t in two dimensions. As t changes, both the x- and y-coordinates change; thus, the particle is moving
along a curve. The equation of the curve is called the Cartesian equation of the path.
The derivative of a vector function

Consider an origin, O, and let P be the position of the particle at time t, so that Q
⃗
OP = ~r(t).
δr
Suppose that Q is a neighbouring point close to P at time t + 𝛿t, so ~r(t + δt) ~ P
⃗
that O Q = ~r(t + 𝛿t). ~r(t)
O
⃗
O Q = ⃗ OP + ⃗ PQ
⃗
PQ = OQ − ⃗
⃗ OP
𝛿~r = ~r(t + 𝛿t) − ~r(t)
𝛿r r(t + 𝛿t) − ~r(t) 𝛿r

Consider ~ = ~ , where 𝛿t ≠ 0. Because 𝛿~r is a vector and 𝛿t is a scalar, ~ is a vector
𝛿t 𝛿t 𝛿t
d~r r(t + 𝛿t) − ~r(t)
parallel to 𝛿~r or the vector ⃗
PQ . As 𝛿t → 0, provided the limit exists, we define = lim ~
dt 𝛿t→0 𝛿t
d~r x(t + 𝛿t)î + y(t + 𝛿t)ĵ − (x(t)î + y(t)ĵ)

= lim
dt 𝛿t→0 𝛿t
d~r x(t + 𝛿t) − x(t) y(t + 𝛿t) − y(t)
= lim î + lim ĵ
dt 𝛿t→0 𝛿t 𝛿t→0 𝛿t
d~r dx dy
= î+ ĵ
dt dt dt
dr
The vector ~ = ~r,̇ where the dot indicates the derivative with respect T
dt
to t, is a vector parallel to the tangent T to the curve at the point P.
r ̇ (a) P
The unit tangent vector at t = a is denoted by ~s ̂ = ~ and is defined as the
|~r ̇ (a)|
r(t)
unit vector in the direction of ~r at t = a. ~
O
We do not need to use first principles to find the derivatives of vectors.
4.3.2 Rules for differentiating vectors

In the following sections it is assumed that the derivatives exist for the functions given.
Derivative of a constant vector

dc
If ~c is a constant vector, that is a vector which does not change and is independent of t, then ~ = ~0.
dt
dî dĵ dk̂
Note that = = = 0.
dt dt dt ~
Derivative of a sum or difference of vectors
The sum or difference of two vectors can be differentiated as the sum or difference of the individual
derivatives. That is,
d da db d da db
(~a + ~b) = ~ + ~ and (~a − ~b) = ~ − ~ .
dt dt dt dt dt dt
dr dx dy
Using these rules, if ~r(t) = x(t)î + y(t)ĵ, then ~ = î + ĵ. Simply put, to differentiate a vector we
dt dt dt
merely differentiate each component using the rules for differentiation.
WORKED EXAMPLE 7
Calculate a unit tangent vector to ~r(t) = e3t î + sin (2t) ĵ at the point where t = 0.
THINK WRITE
3t
1. Differentiate the vector by differentiating the individual ~r(t) = e î + sin(2t)ĵ
components of the vector.
d~r d d
= (e3t )î + (sin(2t))ĵ
dt dt dt
d~r
2. State the derivative vector. = 3e3t î + 2 cos(2t)ĵ
dt
d~r |
3. Evaluate the derivative vector at the required value, t = 0. | = 3î + 2ĵ
dt |t = 0
| d~r(0) | √
4. Find the magnitude of the derivative vector by recalling | | = 32 + 22
| dt |
the formula √
= 13
1
5. State the required result, which is a unit vector by ~r ̂ = √ (3î + 2ĵ)
r ̇ (a) 13
substituting into the formula ~s ̂ = ~ .
|~r ̇ (a)|
4.3.3 Vectors describing motion

Velocity vector
dr
Because ~r(t) represents the position vector, ~v(t) = ~ = ~r(t)
̇ represents the velocity vector. Note the single
dt
dot above ~r indicates the derivative with respect to time. Furthermore, if ~r(t) = x(t)î + y(t)ĵ, then
̇ = x(t)î
~r(t) ̇ + y(t)ĵ.
̇
dr
Note the alternative notations that may be used, for example ~v(t) = ~ = ~r(t).̇
dt
Speed and momentum
The speed of a moving particle is the magnitude of the velocity vector. The speed at time t is given by
√
|~r(t)|
̇ = x2̇ + y2̇ .

Momentum is the quantity of motion that an object has, and it is dependent upon both the mass of the
object and the speed of the object. As all objects have mass, all moving objects have momentum. If the
particle has a mass of m, then the momentum, p, acting on the particle is given by p = m~r(t).
̇
~ ~
Acceleration vector
dr
Since ~v(t) = ~ = ~r(t)
̇ represents the velocity vector, differentiating again with respect to t gives the
dt
d
̇
acceleration vector. The acceleration vector is given by ~a(t) = (r(t)) = r(t)
̈ = x(t)î
̈ + y(t)ĵ.
̈ Note that the
dt
two dots above the variables indicate the second derivative with respect to time.
Vectors describing motion

Position vector: ~r(t) = x(t)î + y(t)ĵ
dr
Velocity vector: ~v(t) = ~
dt
= ~r(t)
̇
= x(t)î
̇ + y(t)ĵ
̇
√
̇ = x2̇ + y2̇
Speed: |~r(t)|
Momentum: p = m~r(t)
̇
~
d2~r
Acceleration vector: ~a(t) = 2 or
dt
d~v
~a(t) = dt
d
= ̇
( r(t))
dt ~
= ~r(t)
̈
= x(t)î
̈ + y(t)ĵ
̈
WORKED EXAMPLE 8
A particle spirals outwards so that its position vector is given by ~r(t) = t cos (t) î + t sin (t) ĵ for
t ≥ 0. Calculate:
a. the velocity vector.
3𝜋
b. the speed of the particle at time t and hence find the speed when t = .
4
c. the acceleration vector.
THINK WRITE
a. 1. State the parametric equations. a.
~r(t) = t cos(t)î + t sin(t)ĵ
Then x(t) = t cos(t) and y(t) = t sin(t).
dx d
2. Differentiate x with respect to t. The = ẋ = (t cos(t))
dot notation is used for the derivative dt dt
with respect to t. Recall and apply d d
= cos(t) (t) + t (cos(t))
the product rule. dt dt
= cos(t) − t sin(t)
dy d
3. Differentiate y with respect to t. = ẏ = (t sin(t))
Recall and apply the product rule. dt dt
d d
= sin(t) (t) + t (sin(t))
dt dt
= sin(t) + t cos(t)
4. State the velocity vector. ̇ = (cos(t) − t sin(t))î + (sin(t) + t cos(t))ĵ
~r(t) √
b. | r(t)|
~̇ = x ̇ + y ̇
b. 1. Calculate the speed of the particle 2 2
at time t, by applying
√ the speed x2̇ = (cos(t) − t sin(t))2
formula, |~r(t)|
̇ = x2̇ + y2̇ .
= cos2 (t) − 2t cos(t) sin(t) + t2 sin2 (t)
Substitute for the derivatives and
expand. y2̇ = (sin(t) + t cos(t))2
= sin2 (t) + 2t sin(t) cos(t) + t2 cos2 (t)
2. Simplify using trigonometry, by x2̇ + y2̇ = cos2 (t) − 2t cos(t) sin(t) + t2 sin2 (t) + sin2 (t)
recalling the Pythagorean identity + 2t sin(t) cos(t) + t2 cos2 (t)
sin2 (t) + cos2 (t) = 1.
= cos2 (t) + sin2 (t) + t2 sin2 (t) + t2 cos2 (t)
= 1 + t2
√
3. State the speed at time t. | ~r(t)|
̇ = 1 + t2
( ) √ ( 2)
| 3𝜋 | 3𝜋
4. Find the speed at the required time, | ~r ̇ |= 1+
3𝜋 | 4 | 4
t= . √
4 16 + 9𝜋 2
=
16
( ) √
| 3𝜋 | 1
5. State the speed in simplified form. | ~r ̇ |= 16 + 9𝜋 2
| 4 | 4
d2 x d
c. 1. Recall the acceleration vector c.
2
= ẍ = (cos(t) − t sin(t))
d dt dt
formula ~a(t) = (~r(t))
̇ = ~r(t)
̈
dt d
= x(t)î
̈ + y(t)ĵ
̈ and apply first to the î = − sin(t) − (t sin(t))
dt
component.
= − sin(t) − sin(t) − t cos(t)
= −2 sin(t) − t cos(t)
d2 y d
2. Determine the ĵ component of the 2
= ÿ = (sin(t) + t cos(t))
acceleration vector. dt dt
d
= cos(t) + (t cos(t))
dt
= cos(t) + cos(t) − t sin(t)
= 2 cos(t) − t sin(t)
3 State the acceleration vector in terms ~r(t) = x(t)î + y(t)ĵ
of t. ̈ = −(2 sin(t) + t cos(t))î + (2 cos(t) − t sin(t))ĵ
~r(t)
4.3.4 Extension to three dimensions

If ~r(t) = x(t)î + y(t)ĵ + z(t)k̂ is the position vector of a particle moving in three dimensions,
then the velocity vector is given by ~v(t) = ~r(t)
̇ = x(t)î
̇ + y(t)ĵ
̇ + z(t)k̂.
̇ The speed is given by
√ dv(t)
̇ = x2̇ + y2̇ + z2̇ and the acceleration vector is given by ~a(t) = ~ = ~r(t)
|~r(t)| ̈ = x(t)î + y(t)ĵ + z(t)k̂.
dt

WORKED EXAMPLE 9
t
−
A particle has a position vector given by ~r(t) = t3 î + 6 sin (3t)ĵ + 12e 2 k̂ for t ≥ 0. Determine:
a. the velocity vector b. the acceleration vector.
THINK WRITE
t
3 −
~r(t) = t î + 6 sin(3t)ĵ + 12e
a. 1. Differentiate the position vector to a. 2 k̂
determine the velocity vector. ( )
d d d t
−
̇ = (t3 )î + (6 sin(3t))ĵ +
~r(t) 12e 2 k̂
dt dt dt
t
−
2. State the derivative or velocity vector. ̇ = 3t2 î + 18 cos(3t)ĵ − 6e 2 k̂
~r(t) ( )
d 2 d d t
−
Differentiate the velocity vector to ~̈ = dt (3t )î + dt (18 cos(3t)ĵ − dt 6e
b. r(t) k̂
b. 1. 2
determine the acceleration vector.
t
−
2. State the acceleration vector. ̈ = 6tî − 54 sin(3t)ĵ + 3e
~r(t)
2 k̂
4.3.5 The gradient of the curve

The Cartesian equation of a curve can be determined as either an explicit relationship, y = f (x), or an
implicit relationship, f (x, y) = c. Therefore, the gradient of the curve can be determined using either explicit
or implicit differentiation. Alternatively, the gradient of the curve can be found using parametric
dy dy dt ẏ
differentiation, since = · = . Techniques such as these have been studied in earlier chapters. It
dx dt dx ẋ
may be necessary to solve equations to calculate the maximum or minimum speeds of a particle, the
maximum or minimum values of the acceleration, or the force acting on a particle, given its mass.
WORKED EXAMPLE 10
A particle moves so that its position vector is given by ~r(t) = (3 − 2 cos (2t))î + (2 + 3 sin (2t))ĵ
for 0 ≤ t ≤ 𝜋.
a. Determine the coordinates where the tangent of the curve is parallel to the x-axis.
b. Determine and sketch the Cartesian equation of the path, stating its domain and range.
c. Determine the maximum and minimum values of the speed.
THINK WRITE
a. 1. State the parametric equations. a.
~r(t) = (3 − 2 cos(2t))î + (2 + 3 sin(2t))ĵ
x(t) = 3 − 2 cos(2t) and y(t) = 2 + 3 sin(2t).
2. Differentiate x with respect to t. The dot x(t) = 3 − 2 cos(2t)
notation can be used for the derivative with dx
= ẋ = 4 sin(2t)
respect to t. dt
3. Differentiate y with respect to t. y(t) = 2 + 3 sin(2t)
dy
= ẏ = 6 cos(2t)
dt
dy dy dy dt ẏ
4. Apply the chain rule to find . = × =
dx dx dt dx ẋ
dy 6 cos(2t)
5. Substitute for the derivatives. =
dx 4 sin(2t)
3 cos(2t)
=
2 sin(2t)
dy
6. The tangent is parallel to the x-axis when the = 0 ⇒ cos(2t) = 0, but sin(2t) ≠ 0.
gradient is zero. dx
7. Solve for the values of t. Since cos(2t) = 0, 0 ≤ t ≤ 𝜋
𝜋 3𝜋
2t = ,
2 2
𝜋 3𝜋
t= ,
4 4
𝜋
8. Calculate the coordinates when the tangent is When t = ,
parallel to the x-axis by substituting the ( ) 4 ( )
𝜋 𝜋
values of t into the parametric equations. x = 3 − 2 cos = 3 and
(4) ( 2)
𝜋 𝜋
y = 2 + 3 sin = 5.
4 2
At (3, 5), the gradient is zero.
3𝜋
9. Calculate the other coordinate. When t = ,
( ) 4 ( )
3𝜋 3𝜋
x = 3 − 2 cos = 3 and
4 2
( ) ( )
3𝜋 3𝜋
y = 2 + 3 sin = −1.
4 2
At (3, −1), the gradient is zero.
x−3
b. 1. To determine the Cartesian equation of the b. x = 3 − 2 cos(2t) ⇒ cos(2t) =
path, eliminate the parameter from the −2
y−2
parametric equations. y = 2 + 3 sin(2t) ⇒ sin(2t) =
3
(x − 3)2 (y − 2)2
2. State the Cartesian equation of the path by + =1
substituting the x- and y-terms into the 4 9
Pythagorean identity cos2 (2t) + sin2 (2t) = 1.
3. State the curve and its domain and range. The curve is an ellipse with centre at (3, 2)
and semi-major and minor axes of 2 and 3.
The domain is 3 ± 2 or [1, 5] and the range is
2 ± 3 or [−1, 5].
4. Sketch the curve. Note that at the points (3, 5) and (3, −1) the
gradient is zero.
y (3, 5)
(3, 2) (5, 2)
(1, 2)
0 x
(3, –1)

√
c. 1. Determine the speed at time t by applying the c. |r(t)|
̇ = x2̇ + y2̇
√ ~ √
formula |~r(t)|
̇ = ẋ + ẏ and substituting
2 2
= (4 sin(2t))2 + (6 cos(2t))2
√
for the derivatives.
= 16 sin2 (2t) + 36 cos2 (2t)
√
2. Substitute the Pythagorean identity |~r(t)|̇ = 16 (1 − cos2 (2t)) + 36 cos2 (2t)
√
sin2 (2t) = 1 − cos2 (2t) to express the speed = 16 + 20 cos2 (2t)
in terms of cos (2t) only. √
= 4(4 + 5 cos2 (2t))
√
3. State the speed at time t. |~r(t)| ̇ = 2 4 + 5 cos2 (2t)
4. Determine the maximum value of the speed. The maximum value of the speed occurs
when cos2 (2t) √ = 1.
|~r(t)|
̇ max = 4(4 + 5 cos2 (2t))
√
=2 4+5
5. State the maximum value of the speed. |~r(t)| ̇ max = 6
6. Determine the minimum value of the speed. The minimum value of the speed occurs
when cos2 (2t) √ = 0.
|~r(t)|
̇ min = 2 4
7. State the minimum value of the speed. |~r(t)| ̇ min = 4
4.3.6 Applications of vector calculus

Given the vector equation of a moving particle, its motion can be analysed.
WORKED EXAMPLE 11
The position vector, ~r(t), of a golf ball at a time t seconds
is given by ~r(t) = 15tî + (20t − 4.9t2 )ĵ for t ≥ 0, where the
distance is in metres, î is a unit vector horizontally forward
and ĵ is a unit vector vertically upwards above ground level.
a. Determine when the golf ball hits the ground.
b. Determine where the golf ball hits the ground.
c. Determine the initial speed and angle of projection.
d. Calculate the maximum height reached.
e. Show that the golf ball travels in a parabolic path.
THINK WRITE
a. 1. The time when the golf ball is at ground level is a. y (t) = 20t − 4.9t2 = 0
when the ĵ component is zero. t (20 − 4.9t) = 0
t = 0 or 20 − 4.9t = 0
20
t=
4.9
t ≈ 4.08
At t = 0 and at t = 4.08 seconds the
ball is at the ground level.
2. We can ignore the initial time, t = 0, when the ball The golf ball hits the ground after
is at ground level. 4.08 seconds.
State when the golf ball hits the ground.
b. 1. The distance, or range, R, travelled when the golf b. R = x (4.08)
ball hits the ground is the value of the î component = 15 × 4.08
at this time. Substitute t = 4.08 into the î = 61.2
component.
2. State where the golf ball hits the ground. The golf ball hits the ground at a
distance of 61.2 metres from the
initial point.
c. 1. To determine the velocity vector, differentiate the c. r(t) = 15tî + (20t − 4.9t2 )ĵ
~
position vector. ̇ = 15î + (20 − 9.8t)ĵ
~r(t)
2. Calculate the initial velocity vector, that is, when ̇ = 15î + 20ĵ
~r(0)
t = 0.
3. Determine the initial speed by calculating the The initial speed is the magnitude of
magnitude of the initial velocity vector. the initial√velocity vector.
|~r(0)|
̇ = 152 + 202 = 25 m/s
4. The initial angle of projection is the angle the initial The angle the initial velocity
velocity vector makes with the î axis. vector(makes ) with the î axis is
20
tan−1 = 53.13°.
15
5. State the required results. The golf ball is struck with an initial
speed of 25 m/s at an angle of 53.13°.
d. 1. The golf ball will rise until the vertical component d. y (t) = 20 − 9.8t = 0
of its velocity is zero. Set the j component of the 20
velocity vector to 0 to calculate the time this occurs. t=
9.8
= 2.04
2. The maximum height reached, H, is the value of the H = y(2.04) = 20 × 2.04 − 4.9 × 2.042
ĵ component of the position vector at this time, = 20.41
t = 2.04.
3. State the maximum height reached. The golf ball reaches a maximum
height of 20.41 metres.
x
e. 1. Write the parametric equations. e. x = 15t ⇒ t =
15
y = 20t − 4.9t2
( ) ( )2
x x
2. Substitute the value of t into the equation for y. y = 20 − 4.9
15 15
x
3. Simplify and form common denominators. y=− (49x − 3000)
2250
4. State the result. The parametric equation is of the form
of a parabola, y = ax(x − b) with
a < 0. Therefore, the golf ball travels
in a parabolic path.
Units 3 & 4 Area 2 Sequence 3 Concept 3

Differentiation of vectors Summary screen and practice questions

Exercise 4.3 Differentiation of vectors
Technology free
1. WE7 Calculate a unit tangent vector to ~r(t) = (e2t + e−2t )î + (e2t − e−2t )ĵ at the point where t = 0.
𝜋
2. Calculate a unit tangent vector to ~r(t) = cos(2t)î + sin(2t)ĵ at the point where t = .
6
3. WE8 A particle moves so that its position vector is given by r(t) = te−2t î + te2t ĵ for t ≥ 0. Calculate:
~
1
b. the speed of the particle at time t and hence find its speed when t = .
2
c. the acceleration vector.
4. A particle of mass 4 kg moves so that its position vector is given by ~r(t) = cos2 (t)î + sin2 (t)ĵ for t ≥ 0,
where t is measured in seconds and the distance is in metres. Calculate the magnitude of the momentum
3𝜋
acting on the particle at time t = .
8
5. WE9 A particle moves so that its position vector is given by r(t) = 2t4 î + 4 cos(2t)ĵ + 6e−2t k̂ for t ≥ 0.
~
Determine:
b. the acceleration vector. ( ) ( )
𝜋t 𝜋t
6. A particle moves so that its position vector is given by ~r(t) = 8 cos î + 8 sin ĵ + 4e−2t k̂ for
4 4
t ≥ 0. Calculate the magnitude of the acceleration vector when t = 1.
Technology active
7. WE10 A particle moves so that its position vector is given by ~r(t) = (4 + 3 cos(2t))î + (3 − 2 sin(2t))ĵ
for 0 ≤ t ≤ 𝜋.
a. Determine the coordinates where the gradient of the curve is parallel to the x-axis.
b. Determine and sketch the Cartesian equation of the path, stating its domain and range.
c. Determine the maximum and minimum values of the speed.
8. A particle moves so that its position vector is given by r(t) = 3 sec(t)î + 2 tan(t)ĵ for 0 ≤ t ≤ 2𝜋.
~
a. Determine and sketch the Cartesian equation of the path, stating its domain and range.
4
b. Determine the coordinates where the gradient is .
3
9. WE11 The position vector r(t) of a soccer ball at a time
~
t ≥ 0 seconds is given by ~r(t) = 5tî + (12t − 4.9t2 )ĵ,
where the distance is in metres, î is a unit vector
horizontally forward and ĵ is a unit vector vertically
upwards above ground level.
a. Determine when the soccer ball hits the ground.
b. Determine where the soccer ball hits the ground.
e. Show that the soccer ball travels in a parabolic path.
10. A girl throws a tennis ball. The position vector, r(t), of the tennis ball at a time t ≥ 0 seconds is given by
~
2
r(t)
~ = 24tî + (2 + 7t − 4.9t )ĵ, where the distance is in metres, î is a unit vector horizontally forward
and ĵ is a unit vector vertically upwards above ground level.
a. How long before the tennis ball hits the ground?
b. Determine where the tennis ball hits the ground.
e. Show that the tennis ball travels in a parabolic path.
11. Determine a unit tangent vector to each of the following at the point indicated.
a. r(t) = 2tî + 4t2 ĵ, t ≥ 0 at t = 1
~
b. r(t) = 2tî + 8t3 ĵ, t ≥ 0 at t = 1
~
c. r(t) = 3t2 î + (t2 − 4t)ĵ, t ≥ 0 at t = 3
~ ( ) ( )
1 1
d. r(t) = t + î+ t− ĵ, t ≥ 0 at t = 2
~ t t
12. Determine a unit tangent vector to each of the following at the point indicated.
a. r(t) = e−2t î + e2t ĵ, t ≥ 0 at t = 0
~
b. r(t) = (t2 + t)î + (t2 − t)ĵ, t ≥ 0 at t = 1
~
𝜋
c. r(t) = cos2 (t)î + cos(2t)ĵ, t ≥ 0 at t =
~ 3
𝜋
d. r(t) = sin(t)î + sin(2t)ĵ, t ≥ 0 at t =
~ 3
13. For each of the following position vectors, determine the velocity vector and the acceleration vector.
( )
2 1
a. r(t) = (t + 9)î + ĵ
~ 1+t
b. r(t) = ln(3t)î + (5t2 + 4t)ĵ
~
t
− 2t
~r(t) = 8e î + 4e ĵ
c. 2
d. r(t) = ln(3t + 4)î + 4 cos(3t)ĵ
~
14. For each of the following position vectors, determine the velocity vector and the acceleration vector.
a. r(t) = e−2t î + (t4 − 2t2 )ĵ + (5t2 − 3)k̂
~
2
b.
~r(t) = 3 cos(2t)î − 4 sin(2t)ĵ + (12t − 5t )k̂
c. r(t) = t2 sin(2t)î + te−2t ĵ + 10tk̂
~
2 3 2
d.
~r(t) = cos (3t)î + t cos(3t)ĵ + (12 + t )k̂
15. a. A particle moves so that its position vector is given by ~r(t) = 3 cos(2t)î + 3 sin(2t)ĵ, t ≥ 0.
i. Determine the Cartesian equation of the path.
ii. Show that the speed is constant.
iii. Show that the acceleration is directed inwards.
iv. Show that the velocity vector is perpendicular to the acceleration vector.
√
b. A particle moves so that its position vector is given by ~r(t) = 4 cos(3t)î + 2 2 sin(3t)(ĵ − k̂), t ≥ 0.
i. Show that the speed is constant.
ii. Show that the acceleration vector is perpendicular to the position vector.
16. a. A particle of mass 3 kg moves so that its position vector is given by
~r(t) = (2 + 4 sin(2t))î + (4 cos(2t) − 3)ĵ, t ≥ 0, where the distance is in metres.
i. Determine and sketch the Cartesian equation of the path.
ii. Show that the velocity vector is perpendicular to the acceleration vector.
iii. Determine the magnitude of the momentum acting on the particle.
𝜋
iv. Determine the magnitude of the resultant force acting on the body after seconds.
𝜋 8
v. Calculate the gradient of the curve when t = .
8
b. A particle of mass 2 kg moves so that its position vector is given by
~r(t) = (5 + 2 cos(2t))î + (3 + 4 sin(2t))ĵ, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2𝜋, where the distance is in metres.
i. Determine and sketch the Cartesian equation of the path.
𝜋
ii. Determine the magnitude of the momentum acting on the particle after seconds.
12

𝜋
iii. Determine the magnitude of the resultant force acting on the body after seconds.
12
iv. Determine the maximum and minimum values of the speed.
√
v. Calculate the values of t for which the gradient of the curve is −2 3.
17. A particle moves so that its position vector is given by ~r(t) = a cos(nt)î + a sin(nt)ĵ for t ≥ 0, where a
and n are positive constants.
a. Determine the Cartesian equation of the path.
b. Show that the speed is constant.
c. Show that the acceleration is directed inwards.
d. Show that the velocity vector is perpendicular to the position vector.
e. Describe the motion.
18. a. A particle moves so that its position vector is given by r(t) = 2 sec(t)î + 3 tan(t)ĵ for 0 ≤ t ≤ 2𝜋.
~
i. Determine and sketch the Cartesian equation of the path, stating its domain and range.
𝜋
ii. Calculate the gradient at the point where t = .
4
b. A particle moves so that its position vector is given by r(t) = 2 sec2 (t)î + 3 tan2 (t)ĵ for 0 ≤ t ≤ 2𝜋.
~
ii. Calculate the gradient at any point.
iii. Calculate the minimum value of the speed.
19. a. A particle moves so that its position vector is given by r(t) = 3 cosec(t)î + 4 cot(t)ĵ for 0 ≤ t ≤ 2𝜋.
~
𝜋
ii. Calculate the gradient when t = .
3
iii. Calculate the minimum value of the speed.
b. A particle moves so that its position vector is given by r(t) = (1 + 2 cosec(t))î + (4 − 3 cot(t))ĵ for
~
0 ≤ t ≤ 2𝜋.
ii. Determine the values of t for which the gradient of the curve is 3.
20. A girl throws a tennis ball for her dog. The position vector ~r(t) of the tennis ball at a time t ≥ 0 seconds
is given by ~r(t) = 10tî + (10t − 4.9t2 )ĵ where the distance is in metres, î is a unit vector horizontally
forward and ĵ is a unit vector vertically upwards above ground level.
a. Determine the time taken to reach the ground.
b. Determine the horizontal distance covered.
e. Show that the tennis ball travels in a parabolic path.
4.4 Integration of vectors
4.4.1 The constant vector
When integrating a function, remember to include the constant of integration, which is a scalar. When
integrating a vector function, the constant of integration is a vector. This follows since if ~c is a constant
d
vector, then (~c) = ~0.
dt
4.4.2 Rules for integrating vectors
When differentiating a vector, we differentiate its components, so when we integrate a vector, we integrate
each component using the rules for finding antiderivatives. If q(t) = x(t)î + y(t)ĵ is a vector function, then we
~
define ∫ q(t) dt = ∫ x(t) dtî + ∫ y(t) dtĵ + ~c, where ~c is a constant vector.
~
Note that in the two-dimensional case, ~c = c1 î + c2 ĵ, where c1 and c2 are real numbers.
Velocity vector to position vector
Differentiating the position vector with respect to time gives the velocity vector, therefore integrating the
velocity vector with respect to time, gives the position vector. Given the velocity vector
~v(t) = ~r(t)
̇ = x(t)î
̇ + y(t)ĵ,
̇ the position vector is ~r(t) = ∫ x(t)dtî
̇ + ∫ y(t)dtĵ
̇ = x(t)î + y(t)ĵ + ~c. Note that an
initial condition must be given for us to be able to determine the constant vector of integration.
WORKED EXAMPLE 12
̇ = 2î + 6tĵ for t ≥ 0. If ~r(1) = 3î + ĵ, determine the
The velocity vector of a particle is given by ~r(t)
position vector at any time t.
THINK WRITE
1. ̇ = 2î + 6tĵ
Integrate the velocity vector to obtain the position vector ~r(t)
~ = ∫ 2dt î + ∫ 6tdt ĵ
using the given rules. r(t)
2
2. Perform the integration. Do not forget to add in a ~r(t) = 2tî + 3t ĵ + ~c
constant vector.
3. Substitute to find the value of the constant vector. Substitute t = 1 and use the given
condition.
~r(1) = 2î + 3ĵ + ~c = 3î + ĵ
4. Solve for the constant vector. 2î + 3ĵ + ~c = 3î + ĵ
~c = 3î + ĵ − (2î + 3ĵ)
~c = î − 2ĵ
2
5. Substitute this value of the constant vector into the ~r(t) = 2tî + 3t ĵ + ~c
position vector. = (2tî + 3t2 ĵ) + (î − 2ĵ)
2
6. Simplify the position vector to give the final result. ~r(t) = (2t + 1)î + (3t − 2)ĵ
Acceleration vector to position vector

Differentiating the velocity vector with respect to time gives the acceleration vector, therefore integrating the
acceleration vector with respect to time, gives the velocity vector. Given the acceleration vector
d~v(t)
a(t)
~ = = ~r(t)
̈ = x(t)î
̈ + y(t)ĵ,
̈ the velocity vector is
dt
̇ = ∫ x(t)dtî + ∫ y(t)dtĵ = x(t)î
~v(t) = ~r(t) ̇ + y(t)ĵ
̇ + ~c1 , where ~c1 is a constant vector. By integrating again, as
above, we can find the position vector.

Note that two sets of information must be given to determine the two constant vectors of integration. This
process is a generalisation of the techniques used in earlier studies of integration.
Acceleration, velocity and position vectors

dv(t)
Given the acceleration vector ~a(t) = ~ = ~r(t) ̈ = x(t)î
̈ + y(t)ĵ
̈ we can obtain the:
dt
̇ = ∫ x(t)dtî
Velocity vector: ~v(t) = ~r(t) ̈ + ∫ y(t)dtĵ
̈ = x(t)î
̇ + y(t)ĵ
̇ + ~c1
Position vector: ~r(t) = ∫ x(t)dtî
̇ + ∫ y(t)dtĵ
̇ = x(t)î + y(t)ĵ + ~c2
WORKED EXAMPLE 13
̈ = 6tî, where t ≥ 0. Given that ~r(2)
The acceleration vector of a particle is given by ~r(t) ̇ = 6î − 3ĵ
and ~r(2) = 4î − 2ĵ, determine the position vector at time t.
THINK WRITE
1. Integrate the acceleration vector to obtain the ̈ = 6tî
~r(t)
velocity vector using the given rules. ̇ = ∫ 6tdtî
~r(t)
2. Perform the integration. Do not forget to add in the ̇ = 3t2 î + ~c1
~r(t)
first constant vector.
3. To determine the first constant vector substitute ̇ = 3t2 î + ~c1
~r(2)
t = 2 into the integration and equate with the first = 3(2)2 î + ~c1
̇ = 6î − 3ĵ.
given condition, ~r(2)
= 12î + ~c1
12î + ~c1 = 6î − 3ĵ
4. Solve for the first constant vector. ~c1 = (6î − 3ĵ) − 12î
= −6î − 3ĵ
2
5. Substitute back for the first constant vector, ~ = 3t î + (−6î − 3ĵ)
̇
r(t)
̇ = 3t2 î + ~c1 .
~r(t)
6. Simplify to give the velocity vector. ̇ = (3t2 − 6)î − 3ĵ
~r(t)
~r(t) = ∫ (3t − 6)dtî − ∫ 3dtĵ
2
7. To obtain the position vector, integrate the velocity
vector using the given rules.
3
8. Perform the integration. Do not forget to add in a ~r(t) = (t − 6t)î − 3tĵ + c2
second constant vector.
9. To find the second constant vector substitute t = 2 Substitute t = 2 and use the second
into the integration and equate with the second given condition.
given condition, ~r(2) = 4ĵ − 2ĵ. ~r(2) = (8 − 12)î − 6ĵ + ~c2 = 4î − 2ĵ
−4î − 6ĵ + ~c2 = 4î − 2ĵ
10. Solve for the second constant vector. ~c2 = (4î − 2ĵ) − (−4î − 6ĵ)
= 8î + 4ĵ
3
11. Substitute back for the second constant vector,
3
~r(t) = (t − 6t)î − 3tĵ + (8î + 4ĵ)
~r(t) = (t − 6t)î − 3tĵ + c2 .
3
12. Simplify the position vector to give the final result.
~r(t) = (t − 6t + 8)î + (4 + 3t)ĵ
4.4.3 Determining the Cartesian equation
If the position vector is known then the parametric equations of the path of the particle can be determined.
Eliminating the parameter, we can determine the Cartesian equation of the curve along which the particle
moves.
WORKED EXAMPLE 14
( ) ( )
t t
The acceleration vector of a moving particle is given by cos î − sin ĵ for 0 ≤ t ≤ 4𝜋,
2 2
where t is the time. The initial velocity is 2ĵ and the initial position is î − 3ĵ. Determine the
Cartesian equation of the path.
THINK WRITE
( ) ( )
t t
1. To obtain the velocity vector, state and integrate r ̈ (t) = cos î − sin ĵ
~ 2 2
the acceleration vector using the given rules. ( ) ( )
t t
~r ̇ (t) = ∫ cos 2 dtî + ∫ sin 2 dtĵ
1
2. Perform the integration. Do not forget to add in Since ∫ cos(kx) dx = sin(kx) and
the first constant vector. k
1 1
1
Recall that ∫ cos(kx) dx = sin(kx) and ∫ sin(kx) dx = − cos(kx) with k = ,
k ( )k ( ) 2
1 t t
∫ sin(kx) dx = − cos(kx). ~r ̇ (t) = 2 sin 2 î + 2 cos 2 ĵ + ~c1 .
k
3. Initially means when t = 0. Substitute t = 0
~r ̇ (0) = 2 sin(0) î + 2 cos(0) ĵ + ~c1
and equate with the first given condition to = 2 × 0î + 2ĵ + ~c1
solve for the first constant vector.
2ĵ + ~c1 = 2ĵ
~c1 = ~0 ( ) ( )
t t
4. Substitute back for the first constant vector and r ̇ (t) = 2 sin î + 2 cos ĵ
~ 2 ) 2 ( )
integrate the velocity vector to obtain the (
t t
position vector, using the given rules.
~r (t) = ∫ 2 sin 2 dtî + ∫ 2 cos 2 dtĵ
( ) ( )
t t
5. Perform the integration. Do not forget to add in r (t) = −4 cos î + 4 sin ĵ + ~c2
~ 2 2
a second constant vector.
6. Initially means when t = 0. Substitute t = 0 ~r (0) = −4 cos(0) î + 4 sin(0) ĵ + ~c2
and equate with the second given condition to = −4 × 1î + 4 × 0ĵ + ~c2
solve for the second constant vector.
−4î + ~c2 = î − 3ĵ
~c2 = 5î(− 3ĵ) ( )

t t
7. Substitute back for the second constant vector ~r (t) = −4 cos 2 î + 4 sin 2 ĵ + (5î − 3ĵ)
and state the position
( ) vector,( ) ( ( )) ( ( ) )
t t t t
~r (t) = −4 cos 2 î + 4 sin 2 ĵ + ~c2 . ~r (t) = 5 − 4 cos 2 î + 4 sin
2
−3 ĵ
( ) ( )
t t
8. State the parametric equations. x = 5 − 4 cos , y = 4 sin −3
( ) 2 ( ) 2
t 5−x t y+3
9. Eliminate the parameter and label the cos = , sin =
equations. 2 4 2 4

( ) ( )
t t
10. Square equations
( )and to utilise
( )the Pythagorean cos2 + sin2 =1
t t 2 2
identity cos2 + sin2 = 1. ( )2 ( )2
2 2 5−x y+3
+ =1
4 4
11. State the Cartesian equation in the implicit (x − 5)2 + (y + 3)2 = 16
form. This is a circle with centre at (5, −3) and
radius 4.

Integration of vectors Summary screen and practice questions
Exercise 4.4 Integration of vectors

Technology free
1. WE12 ̇ = (4t − 4)î − 3ĵ for t ≥ 0. If ~r(1) = 3î + ĵ,
The velocity vector of a particle is given by ~r(t)
determine the position vector at time t.
2. The initial position of a particle is given by 3î + ĵ. If the velocity vector of the particle is given by
−2t
~v(t) = 6 sin(3t)î + 4e ĵ, determine the position vector.
2
~̈ = −12t ĵ, where t ≥ 0 is the time. Given that
3. WE13 The acceleration vector of a particle is given by r(t)
̇ = −2î − 16ĵ and ~r(2) = î + 6ĵ, determine the position vector at time t.
~r(2)
4. A particle is moving such that ~r(1) = −2î + 7ĵ and ~r(1) ̇ = 6î + 10ĵ. The acceleration vector of the
̈ = 6î + 2ĵ, where t ≥ 0 is the time. Determine the position vector at time t.
particle is given by ~r(t)
5. WE14 The acceleration vector of a moving particle is given by −45 cos(3t)î + 45 sin(3t)ĵ, where t ≥ 0 is
the time. The initial velocity is −15ĵ and the initial position is 3î + 4ĵ. Determine the Cartesian equation
of the path.
6. A particle is moving such that its initial position is 2î − 2ĵ and its initial velocity is 10ĵ. The acceleration
vector of the particle is given by 12 cos(2t)î − 20 sin(2t)ĵ, where 0 ≤ t ≤ 𝜋 and t is the time. Determine
the Cartesian equation of the path. t
− 3
~̇ = e î + 4t ĵ, where t ≥ 0 is the time. If initially the
a. The velocity vector of a particle is given by r(t)
7. 3
particle is at the origin, determine the position vector.
~̇ = 2tî + 6 sin(2t)ĵ, where t ≥ 0 is the time. If initially
b. The velocity vector of a particle is given by r(t)
the particle is at the origin, determine the position vector.
1 t
~̇ = √
c. The velocity vector of a particle is given by r(t) î− √ ĵ, where t ≥ 0 is the time.
16 − t2 t2 + 9
If ~r(0) = 3î + 2ĵ, determine the position vector.
2 72
~̇ = 2t + 1 î + (3t + 2)2 ĵ, where t ≥ 0 is the time. If
d. The velocity vector of a particle is given by r(t)
~r(0) = 5î + ĵ, determine the position vector at time t.

8. a. The acceleration vector of a particle is given by r(t)
~̈ = 6î, where t ≥ 0 is the time. If initially the
̇ = 4ĵ and the initial position is ~r(0) = 2î − 3ĵ, determine the position vector at
velocity vector is ~r(0)
time t.
b. The acceleration vector of a particle is given by r(t)
~̈ = 4ĵ, where t ≥ 0 is the time. If initially the
̇ = 2î and the initial position is ~r(0) = 4î + ĵ, determine the position vector at
velocity vector is ~r(0)
time t.
c. A moving particle starts at position ~r(0) = 3î − 2ĵ with an initial velocity of zero. The acceleration
̈ = 8î + 6ĵ, where t ≥ 0 is the time. Determine the position
vector of the particle is given by ~r(t)
vector at time t.
d. A moving particle starts at position ~r(0) = 3î + 4ĵ with an initial velocity ~r(0) ̇ = 8ĵ. The acceleration
̈ = 4î + 2ĵ, where t ≥ 0 is the time. Determine the position
vector of the particle is given by ~r(t)
vector at time t.
9. a. The acceleration vector of a particle is given by ~r(t)̈ = (6t − 8)î, where t ≥ 0 is the time. If initially
the velocity vector is ~r(0)̇ = 4ĵ and the initial position is ~r(0) = 5î − 3ĵ, determine the position vector
at time t.
b. The acceleration vector of a particle is given by ~r(t) ̈ = (12t − 6)ĵ, where t ≥ 0 is the time. If initially
the velocity vector is ~r(0) ̇ = 8î and the initial position is ~r(0) = 7î − 4ĵ, determine the position vector
at time t.
c. A particle is moving such that ~r(1) = 9î − 5ĵ and ~r(1) ̈ = 6î − 2ĵ. The acceleration vector of the
̈ = 2î + 2ĵ, where t ≥ 0 is the time. Determine the position vector at time t.
d. A particle is moving such that ~r(1) = 8î − 8ĵ and ~r(1) ̇ = 2î − 10ĵ. The acceleration vector of the
̈ = −2î + 6ĵ, where t ≥ 0 is the time. Determine the position vector at time t.
10. a. A particle is moving such that ~r(1) = 2î and ~r(1) ̇ = 4ĵ. The acceleration vector of the particle is
2 4
̈ = 3 î − 3 ĵ, where t ≥ 0 is the time. Determine the position vector at time t.
given by ~r(t)
t t
b. A particle is moving such that ~r(4) = 8î + ĵ and ~r(4) ̇ = î − 2ĵ. The acceleration vector of the particle
−1
̈ = √ î + 2ĵ, where t ≥ 0 is the time. Determine the position vector at time t.
is given by ~r(t)
t3
−9 32
c. The acceleration vector of a particle is given by ~r(t) ̈ = 2
î+ ĵ, where t ≥ 0 is the
(3t + 1) (2t + 1)3
̇ = 3î − 8ĵ and the initial position is ~r(0)
time. If initially the velocity vector is ~r(0) ̇ = 4î + 3ĵ,
−9 24
d. The acceleration vector of a particle is given by ~r(t) ̈ = 2
î− ĵ, where t ≥ 0 is the
(3t + 1) (2t + 1)4
̇ = 2î − ĵ and the initial position is ~r(0) = 6î + 8ĵ,
time. If initially the velocity vector is ~r(0)
11. a. When a ball is thrown, its acceleration vector is given by ~r(t) ̈ = −10ĵ, where t ≥ 0 is the time. If
initially the velocity vector is 15î + 20ĵ and the initial position is 2ĵ, determine the Cartesian equation
of the path.
b. When a ball is thrown, its acceleration vector is given by ~r(t) ̈ = −9.8ĵ, where t ≥ 0 is the time. If
initially the velocity vector is 5î + 10ĵ and the initial position is ĵ, determine the Cartesian equation of
the path.
12. a. The acceleration vector of a moving particle is given by ~r(t) ̈ = 4e−2t î + 2e2t ĵ, where t ∈ R. If
̇ = −2î + 2ĵ and ~r(0) = 5î − 2ĵ, determine the Cartesian equation of the path.
~r(0)
t t
−
b. ̈ = −e 2 î + 2e 2 ĵ, where t ∈ R. If
The acceleration vector of a moving particle is given by ~r(t)
̇ = 2î + 4ĵ and ~r(0) = −2î + 3ĵ, determine the Cartesian equation of the path.
~r(0)
13. a. A particle is moving such that r(0) = î + 5ĵ and r(0)
~ ~̇ = 4ĵ. The acceleration vector of the particle is
̈ = 8 cos(2t)î − 8 sin(2t)ĵ, where t is the time and 0 ≤ t ≤ 2𝜋. Determine the Cartesian
given by ~r(t)
equation of the path.
( ) ( )
t t
b. The acceleration vector of a moving particle is given by − cos î − sin ĵ, where 0 ≤ t ≤ 6𝜋.
3 3
If ~v(0) = 3ĵ and ~r(0) = 2î + 5ĵ, determine the Cartesian equation of the path.
14. a. A particle is moving such that its initial position is 3î + 5ĵ and its initial velocity −6ĵ. The
acceleration vector of the particle is given by ~a(t) = 9 cos(3t)î + 18 sin(3t)ĵ, where t is the time
and 0 ≤ t ≤ 2𝜋. Determine the Cartesian equation of the path.

( ) ( )
t t
b. The acceleration vector of a moving particle is given by −3 cos î + sin ĵ, where
2 2
0 ≤ t ≤ 4𝜋. If ~v(0) = −2ĵ and ~r(0) = 5î + 3ĵ, determine the Cartesian equation of the path.
15. a. The acceleration vector of a moving particle is given by −2 cos(t)î − 8 cos(2t)ĵ, where t ≥ 0. If
initially the velocity vector is zero and the initial position is 2ĵ, determine the Cartesian equation of
the path, stating the domain and range.
b. A moving particle is such that its initial position is î + 3ĵ and its initial velocity 4ĵ. The acceleration
vector of the particle is given by −8 sin(2t)î − 96 cos(4t)ĵ, where t is the time and 0 ≤ t ≤ 𝜋.
Determine the Cartesian equation of the path, stating the domain and range.
16. a. Particle A has an acceleration of 2î + 4ĵ, an initial velocity of −6î + 5ĵ and an initial position of
13î − 17ĵ. Particle B has an acceleration of 6î + 8ĵ, an initial velocity of −8î − 20ĵ and an initial
position of î + 40ĵ. Show that the two particles collide and calculate the time and point of collision.
b. Car A has an acceleration of 2î − 2ĵ at time t, and after 1 second its velocity is −5î + 6ĵ and its
position is −3î + 2ĵ. Car B has an acceleration of 2î − 6ĵ at time t, and after 1 second its velocity is
−2î + 6ĵ and its position is −15î + 34ĵ. Show that the two cars collide and calculate the time and
point of collision.
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17. a. The acceleration vector of a particle is given by −n2 r cos(nt)î − n2 r sin(nt)ĵ, at time t where a, b, and
r are all real constants. If ~v(0) = nrĵ and ~r(0) = (a + r)î + bĵ, determine the Cartesian equation of
the path.
b. A particle is moving such that its initial position is (h + a)î + kĵ and its initial velocity is bnĵ, where
a, b, n, h and k, are all real constants. The acceleration vector of the particle is given by
−n2 a cos(nt)î − n2 b sin(3t)ĵ, where t is the time. Determine the Cartesian equation of the path.
18. a. The acceleration vector of a moving particle is given by (4 cos(2t) − 2 cos(t)) î + (4 sin(2t)
−2 sin(t))ĵ, where 0 ≤ t ≤ 2𝜋, and ~r(𝜋) ̇ = −4ĵ and ~r(𝜋) = −3ĵ. Determine the position vector and
sketch the equation of the path.
( ) ( )
𝜋 𝜋
b. A particle is moving such that ~r = î + 4ĵ and ~r ̇ = −4î − 4ĵ. The acceleration vector of
2 2
the particle is given by −(16 cos(4t) + 4 cos(t))ĵ + (16 sin(4t) − 4 sin(t))ĵ. Determine the position
vector and sketch the equation of the path.
c. The acceleration vector of a moving particle is given by −8 cos(2t)î − 108 sin(6t)ĵ, where 0 ≤ t ≤ 2𝜋
( ) ( )
𝜋 𝜋
and ~r = −4î and ~r = −3ĵ. Determine the position vector and sketch the equation of
4 4
the path.
4.5 Straight line motion with constant and variable
acceleration
4.5.1 Rectilinear motion
Kinematics is the name given to the study of the motion of bodies, objects or particles. This section will
deal with motion in a straight line only — rectilinear motion — and all objects considered will be treated
as points for mathematical convenience; that is, the objects do not rotate or change shape. First, some basic
concepts are explained.
Position
The position of a particle moving in a straight line measures its location from a x
fixed point of reference, usually the origin O on the line. Positions to the right of O P x
O are usually taken as positive. The point P in this diagram has a position Positive
coordinate x. direction
Displacement
The displacement of a moving particle is its change in position relative F A
S
to a fixed point. Displacement gives both the distance and direction x
that a particle is from a fixed point. –2 0 4
For example, a particle which moves from S to F via A is shown here on a displacement–time line (or
position–time line).
The distance travelled from S to F is 10 units. The displacement of F from S is −2.
Velocity
The average velocity of a particle is the rate of change of its position with respect to time. This can be
illustrated on a position–time graph. For this curve the position x at time t is shown. The curve x(t) is shown.
change in position
Average velocity = y
change in time
x − x1
= 2 x2
t2 − t1 Change in
position
𝛿x
Position
= x1
δx
𝛿t Change in
The instantaneous velocity, v(t), at time t is defined as the limiting time
δt
value of the average velocity as 𝛿t approaches 0.
That is, velocity is the gradient of a position–time graph
𝛿x dx x
or v(t) = lim or v(t) = 0 t1 t2
𝛿x→0 𝛿t dt
Time
Acceleration y
The average acceleration of a particle a during a time interval t2 − t1
is the rate of change of its velocity with respect to time.
v − v1 v2 Change in
Average acceleration = 2
Velocity
velocity
t2 − t1
δv
𝛿v v1
=
𝛿t Change
in time
The instantaneous acceleration, a, at time t is the limiting value of δt
the average acceleration as t approaches 0. 0 x
t1 t2
Time

That is, acceleration is the gradient of a velocity–time graph at a particular time; or
𝛿v
a = lim
𝛿t→0 𝛿t
dv
=
dt
4.5.2 Motion with variable acceleration

We can apply these definitions of velocity and acceleration to equations defining the path of a particle as a
function of time. This allows the calculation of a particle’s velocity and acceleration at any given time.
WORKED EXAMPLE 15
The position of a particle moving in a straight line is given by:
x(t) = 2t3 + t ln(t) − 4, t > 0
Determine:
a. the velocity at any time t b. the acceleration at any time t.
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Recall velocity is the gradient of a position–time a. x = 2t3 + t ln(t) − 4
dx
graph, that is v(t) = . Differentiate x with respect dx
dt v=
dt
to t, using the product rule on t ln(t). ( )
2 1
= 6t + t × + ln(t) × 1
t
2. Simplify. = 6t2 + ln(t) + 1
dv
b. Recall acceleration is the gradient of a velocity– b. a=
dt
dv
time graph, that is a = . Differentiate v with 1
dt = 12t +
respect to t. t
Using anti-differentiation
If the acceleration, a, of a particle is known in terms of time, t, Differentiate Differentiate
then the velocity, v (t), can be found by anti-differentiation. Thus,
Displacement
(or position) Velocity Acceleration
v(t) = a(t)dt + c1
∫ Antidifferentiate Antidifferentiate
where c1 is a constant due to integration; generally it is the initial velocity, v (0).

Similarly, the position, x (t), can be found by anti-differentiating velocity with respect to time:
x(t) = v(t)dt + c2
∫
where c2 is a constant due to integration; generally it is the initial position, x (0).
Determining the constant
The constant of anti-differentiation can be determined if initial conditions are given.
Velocity: v(t) = ∫ a(t) dt + c1
Displacement: x(t) = ∫ v(t) dt + c2
WORKED EXAMPLE 16
The velocity of an object which is initially 3 metres to the left of O is given by:
v (t) = 3t2 − 2t − 5 m/s
Determine:
a. the displacement from O at any time t b. the acceleration at any time t
c. when the object is at rest d. the distance travelled in the first second
e. the acceleration when the velocity is 0.
THINK WRITE
a. 1. To determine the displacement, x, anti-differentiate a. v(t) = 3t2 − 2t − 5
with respect to t. x(t) = ∫ (3t2 − 2t − 5)dt
= t3 − t2 − 5t + c
2. To calculate c, substitute the initial condition t = 0 When t = 0, x = −3.
and x = −3 into the equation. −3 = 03 − 02 − 5 (0) + c
3. Solve the equation for c. −3 = c
4. State the rule for x. x(t) = t3 − t2 − 5t − 3
d
b. ̇ differentiate the
To determine the acceleration, v(t), ̇ = (3t2 − 2t − 5)
b. a (t) = v(t)
d dt
̇ = [v(t)].
velocity, that is, v(t)
dt a (t) = v(t)
̇ = 6t − 2
c. 1. The object is at rest when v (t) = 0. c. v (t) = 3t2 − 2t − 5 = 0
2. Factorise the LHS. (3t − 5)(t + 1) = 0
5
3. Solve for t by applying the Null Factor Law. t = or t = −1,
3
4. State the answer (t cannot be negative). The domain is t ≥ 0, so only the first
(The answer can be verified by graphing the solution is valid.
velocity function on a graphics calculator.) 2
The object is at rest after 1 seconds.
3
d. 1. The velocity is always negative during the first d. At t = 0
second and so the distance travelled will equal the v (0) = 3t2 − 2t − 5
magnitude of the displacement during the first = 3 × 02 − 2 × 0 − 5
second. The object is always moving to the left = −5 m/s
during the first second. t=1
v (1) = 3t2 − 2t − 5
= 3 × 12 − 2 × 1 − 5
= −4 m/s
Also, v ≠ 0 during the first second.
Thus, the distance travelled will equal
the magnitude of the displacement
during the first second.

2. The displacement is given by by x (t) = t3 − t2 − 5t − 3
x (t) = t3 − t2 − 5t − 3 as per step a.1. Distance travelled
The distance is thus x (1) − x (0). = | x (1) − x (0) |
= |(13 − 12 − 5 − 3) − (−3)|
= | − 8 + 3|
= | − 5|
=5
The object moves 5 m to the left
during the first second.
e. 1. Find when the velocity is 0 by solving v (t) = 0 as e. v (t) = 3t2 − 2t − 5 = 0
in part c. (3t − 5)(t + 1) = 0
5
2. Solve by applying the Null factor Law. Accept only t = or t = −1, but the domain is
positive solutions. 3
5
t ≥ 0, so only t = is valid.
3
dv
3. Substitute the solution into the equation for a=
acceleration. dt
v (t) = 3t2 − 2t − 5
a (t) = 6t − 2
5 5
When t = , a = 6 × − 2
3 3
4. Evaluate for a. a = 10 − 2
=8
5. State the answer. When the velocity is 0, the
acceleration is 8 m/s2 .
WORKED EXAMPLE 17
dv
The acceleration of a particle moving in a straight line is given by: = 5et − 6t + 4 cm/s2 , where
dt
v is the velocity at any time t.
If the particle starts at the origin with a velocity of −1 cm/s, calculate:
a. the velocity at any time t
b. the displacement x (t) from the origin at any time t
c. the displacement from the origin after 1 second.
THINK WRITE
dv
a. 1. To calculate v, anti-differentiate the a. = 5et − 6t + 4
dv dt
acceleration, .
dt v(t) = ∫ (5et − 6t + 4)dt + c
= 5et − 3t2 + 4t + c
2. To determine the constant substitute the initial When t = 0, v = −1.
condition v = −1 when t = 0. −1 = 5e0 − 3 (0)2 + 4 (0) + c
3. Solve for the constant of anti-differentiation. −1 = 5 + c
c = −6
4. State the velocity. Therefore, v (t) = 5et − 3t2 + 4t − 6.
b. 1. The displacement is determined by b. x(t) = ∫ (5et − 3t2 + 4t − 6) dt
anti-differentiating v with respect to t. = 5et − t3 + 2t2 − 6t + c
2. Substitute the initial condition x = 0 when When t = 0, x = 0.
t = 0. 0 = 5e0 − (0)3 + 2 (0)2 − 6 (0) + c
3. Solve for the constant of anti-differentiation. 0=5+c
c = −5
4. State the displacement. Therefore, x (t) = 5et − t3 + 2t2 − 6t − 5.
3 2
c. 1. Substitute t = 1 into the rule for x. c. x (1) = 5e1 − (1) + 2 (1) − 6 (1) − 5
2. Evaluate. = 5e − 1 + 2 − 6 − 5
= 5e − 10
3. Give an approximate answer correct to a Therefore, the displacement from O after 1
useful number of decimal places. second is approximately 3.59 cm.
(The answer can be verified by graphing the
displacement function on a graphics
calculator.)
4.5.3 Motion under constant acceleration

Having investigated the link between position, velocity and acceleration, we shall now review the situation
where acceleration is constant. These quantities are vectors, but as motion is in a straight line, we are going
to use the sign of the quantity to indicate direction.
Suppose a particle is travelling in a straight line with constant acceleration a. The equation of motion can
be found using the quadratic expression x = lt2 + mt + n
The derivative of this function results in v = 2lt + m and a = 2l (a constant value)
Unless otherwise stated, assume that the object starts at 0.
Motion under constant acceleration

Under constant acceleration the equation of motion is determined by x = lt2 + mt + n.
The velocity is the derivative of the equation of motion: v = 2lt + m
The acceleration is the derivative of the equation of velocity: a = 2l
WORKED EXAMPLE 18
A particle moves from rest with a constant acceleration, reaching a speed of 20 m/s in 8 seconds.
Calculate:
a. the acceleration b. the distance travelled by the particle.
THINK WRITE
a. 1. List the given information and what has to a. v0 = 0 m/s, v8 = 20 m/s, t = 8 s, x = 0 m
be found. Require a.
2. As acceleration is constant; the position x = lt2 + mt + n
will be a quadratic.

3. Derive the equation for velocity and v = 2lt + m
substitute known values to solve for Initially, t = 0 and v = 0; therefore m = 0
l and m. State the equation for v. When t = 8, 20 = 2l × 8
l = 1.25
v = 2.5t
4. Differentiate v to find a. a = 2.5
The acceleration is 2.5 m/s2 .
b. 1. Substitute the values for l, m, n into the b. Assume that the particle starts at the origin.
equation for x. Assume that the initial Therefore n = 0
position is the origin. x = 1.25t2
2. As we are finding distance, check if the The equation x = 1.25t2 is increasing and
object changes direction in the time period. therefore does not change direction. The
distance covered will be the same as position.
3. Solve for t = 8 s. State the solution. t = 8 s, x = 1.25 × 82 = 80
The distance covered is 80 m.
THINK WRITE
Alternative method 1 – developing the equations
change in velocity
a. Use the definition of acceleration formula. average acceleration =
change in time
20 − 0
=
8−0
20
=
8
= 2.5 m/s2
b. 1. To determine the velocity, v, integrate with a(t) = 2.5
respect to t.
v(t) = 2.5 dt
∫
= 2.5t + c
2. The particle is initially at rest. To calculate When t = 0 and v = 0:
c, substitute t = 0 and v = 0 into the 0 = 2.5 × 0 + c
equation and solve for c. 0=c
3. State the rule for v. v(t) = 2.5t
4. The determine the position, x, integrate x(t) = v(t) dt
∫
with respect to t.
= 2.5t dt
∫
= 1.25t2 + c
5. The particle is initially at rest. To calculate When t = 0 and x = 0:
c, substitute t = 0 and x = 0 into the 0 = 1.25 × 02 + c
equation and solve for c. 0=c
6. State the rule for x. x(t) = 1.25t2
7. Calculate the distance travelled by the x(8) = 1.25(8)2
particle after 8 seconds by making the = 80
substitution t = 8.
8. State the answer. The distance covered is 80 m.
Alternative method 2 – constant acceleration formulas
1
b. Once the acceleration has been s = ut + at2
determined, the distance travelled by the 2
1
particle can be calculated using the = 0 × 8 + × 2.5 × 82
constant acceleration formula 2
1 = 80
s = ut + at2 where u = 0, t = 8
2
and a = 2.5.
WORKED EXAMPLE 19
A ball is thrown directly upward from a platform 16 metres above the ground with an initial
velocity of 24.5 m/s. Determine:
a. the time taken to reach the maximum height
b. the maximum height above the ground that the ball reaches
c. the total time the ball is in the air
d. the time taken for the ball to fall to the ground from the maximum height
e. the speed of the ball when it hits the ground
f. the speed of the ball when it returns to the level of the platform.
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Sketch a diagram of the motion of the a. v0 = 24.5 and vt = 0
ball. Consider up to be positive and v=0
down to be negative. a = –9.8 m/s2
Platform
t=0
16 m u = 24.5
Ground
2. At its maximum height, the velocity vt = 0 at the ball’s maximum height.

of the ball is 0 m/s.
3. List what is given and what has to be v0 = 24.5 m/s, a = −9.8 m/s2 , vt = 0
found (acceleration is due to gravity). Require xt
4. As acceleration is constant; the x = lt2 + mt + n
position will be a quadratic.
5. Derive the equations for velocity and v = 2lt + m
acceleration. Substitute known values Initially, t = 0 and v = 24.5; therefore
to solve for l and m. m = 24.5
State the equation for v. a = 2l
−9.8 = 2l
l = −4.9
v = −9.8t + 24.5
6. Find when v = 0. 0 = −9.8t + 24.5
Solve for t. t = 2.5

7. State the solution. It takes 2.5 s for the ball to reach its maximum
height.
b. 1. Let the ground position be x = 0. b. Initially, x = 16, therefore n = 16
State the equation for x. Find the x = −4.9t2 + 24.5t + 16
height when t = 2.5 s.
t = 2.5, x = −4.9 × 2.52 + 24.5 × 2.5 + 16
= 46.625
2. State the solution. The maximum height above the ground is 46.625 m.
c. 1. When the ball lands, x = 0. Solve c. When the ball lands, x = 0.
for t. Use the quadratic formula or 0 = −4.9t2 + 24.5t + 16
graphics calculator to solve. √
√ −b ± b2 − 4ac
−b ± b2 − 4ac t=
x= . 2a
2a √
−24.5 ± (24.5)2 − 4 × −4.9 × 16
=
−9.8
t = 5.585, −0.585
t = 5.585 or t = −0.585
Ignore the negative solution.
2. State the solution. The ball takes 5.585 s to reach the ground.
d. 1. The ball took 2.5 s to reach its d. Time to fall from the maximum height
maximum height, and 5.585 s to land. = 5.585 − 2.5
= 3.085
2. State the solution. It takes 3.085 s to fall from the maximum height.
e. 1. It takes 5.585 s for the ball to reach the e. v = −9.8 × 5.585 + 24.5
ground. Determine the velocity at = −30.23
t = 5.585 s.
2. State the solution (speed doesn’t have The speed when it hits the ground is 30.23 m/s.
direction).
f. 1. Calculate the time when the position f. x = 16
is 16 m by substituting x = 16 into 16 = −4.9t2 + 24.5t + 16
position equation. 0 = −4.9t2 + 24.5t
= −4.9t(t − 5)
t = 0 or t = 5
The ball will return to the platform level after 5 s.
2. Calculate the velocity after 5 s by t = 5, v = −9.8 × 5 + 24.5
using the velocity equation. = −24.5
State the solution (speed doesn’t have The speed when it passes the platform will be
direction). 24.5 m/s.
THINK WRITE
Alternative method – developing the equations
a. 1. The path of the ball is considered as a dv
a= = −9.8
vertical straight line with the origin O dt
at ground level. Vertically up is taken
as the positive direction.
dv
2. To determine the velocity, v, integrate v(t) = dt
∫ dt
with respect to t.
= −9.8 dt
∫
= −9.8t + c
3. The particle has an initially velocity When t = 0 and v = 24.5:
of 24.5 m/s. To calculate c, substitute 24.5 = −9.8 × 0 + c
t = 0 and v = 24.5 into the equation 24.5 = c
and solve for c.
4. State the rule for v. v(t) = −9.8t + 24.5
5. At maximum height, the velocity of 0 = −9.8t + 24.5
the ball is 0 m/s. 24.5
t=
9.8
t = 2.5 s
6. State the solution. It takes 2.5 s for the ball to reach its maximum
height.
b. 1. To determine the position, x, integrate x(t) = (−9.8t + 24.5) dt
∫
v(t) with respect to t.
= −4.9t2 + 24.5t + c
2. The ball is initially released from a When t = 0 and x = 16:
height of 16 m above the ground. To 16 = −4.9 × 02 + 24.5 × 0 + c
calculate c, substitute t = 0 and 16 = c
x = 16 into the equation and solve
for c.
3. State the rule for x. x(t) = −4.9t2 + 24.5t + 16
4. The maximum height is reached when Find x when t = 2.5.
the ball is instantaneously at rest, i.e. x(2.5) = −4.9(2.5)2 + 24.5(2.5) + 16
when v = −9.8t + 24.5 = 0, which = 46.625
has previously been calculated to
occur when t = 2.5.
5. State the solution. The maximum height above the ground is 46.625 m.
c. –f. Now that the position and velocity functions have be determined, the other parts of this question
can now be answered as previously shown.

Straight line motion with constant and variable acceleration Summary screen and practice questions
Exercise 4.5 Straight line motion with constant and variable

acceleration
Technology active
1. WE15 For each of the following, determine i. the velocity and ii. the acceleration at any time t.
√
a. x = t3 + 2t2 − 5t b. x = 4t − t + 2 c. x = et + 2e−t
−1 t
d. x = t2 − ln(t + 3) e. x = sin f. x = t(5 − t)(t + 2)
3

2. The displacement from O of a particle travelling in a straight line is: x = t3 − 6t2 + 11t − 6, where x is
in cm and t is in seconds.
a. At what time does it pass through the origin? b. Determine the velocity at any time.
c. When is the velocity equal to 0? d. Calculate the minimum velocity.
e. Calculate the distance travelled in the first
second.
3. An object travelling in a straight line has its displacement given by:
x = 2 cos(3t − 1) + 3
Determine:
a. the minimum and maximum displacement b. when the velocity is first equal to 0
c. how long after it is first at rest is it next at rest d. the acceleration in terms of the displacement.
4. WE16 The velocity of an object which is initially 2 m right of O is given by:
v (t) = 6t2 − 2t − 8 m/s
Determine:
a. the displacement x (t) from the origin at any time t
b. the acceleration ẍ (t) at any time t
c. when the object is at rest
d. the distance travelled in the first second
e. the acceleration when the velocity is 0.
5. The velocity of an object moving in a straight line, which is initially positioned at x = −1, is given by:
dx
= 2t2 − 9t + 4 cm/s
dt
Determine:
a. the displacement at time t
b. the acceleration at time t
c. when the object is at rest
d. the distance travelled during t = 3 to t = 5
e. the average speed during the time interval t = 3 to t = 5
f. the average velocity during the time interval t = 3 to t = 5.
6. The acceleration of a body moving in a straight line is given by:
a (t) = 6 − 12t m/s2
Initially, the body is at rest at x = 4. Determine:

a. the velocity at any time b. the position at any time
c. the time and position when the velocity is 0 m/s d. the distance travelled in the first 3 seconds.
7. WE17 The acceleration of a particle travelling in a straight line is given by:
dv
= 4e2t − 2t + 3 cm/s2
dt
If the particle starts from the origin with a velocity of 2 cm/s, then determine:
a. the velocity at any time t
b. the displacement from the origin at any time t
c. the displacement from the origin after 3 seconds (correct to 2 decimal places).
8. MC A particle travelling in a straight line has an initial velocity of −1 m/s and initial displacement
of −2 m. The acceleration of the particle is given by:
ẍ = 6t − 2 m/s2
a. MC The particle is stationary when t is equal to:

1
A. B. 2 s C. 3 s D. 1 s
3
b. MCThe particle is at the origin when t is equal to:
A. 0 s B. 2 s C. −1 s D. 3 s
2
9. MC If the velocity of a body moving in a straight line is: x = t + 2t − 3 cm/s then the distance, in cm,
travelled in the first 2 seconds is equal to:
2 1
A. 1 B. 2 C. 4 D. 1
3 3
10. A body is travelling in a straight line with a velocity given by:
dx t
= 2 m/s
dt t +1
If the body starts at the origin, determine:

a. the initial velocity b. the displacement at any time
c. the acceleration at any time d. the maximum velocity
e. the minimum acceleration.
11. The acceleration of a stone falling from rest from a height of 100 m is given by:
ẍ = −10e−t m/s2
Determine the velocity at any time t.

a.
Sketch a velocity versus time graph.
b.
Estimate the time taken, to the nearest second, to reach the ground.
c.
12. The velocity of a particle is given by:
dx 4
= m/s
dt 1 + t2
where the initial displacement is 1 m. Determine:

a. the displacement at any time t b. the maximum velocity and when it occurs
c. the acceleration at any time t d. the acceleration when t = 1.
13. The acceleration of a particle is:
a(t) = 4 sin (2t) where t = 0, v = −2 and x = 0
Determine:
a. the velocity at any time t b. the displacement at any time t
c. the acceleration in terms of the displacement x d. the acceleration in terms of the velocity v.
2
14. A particle moves from rest with constant acceleration of 2 m/s . Answer the following questions on the
particle, which has travelled 25 metres.
a. MC The velocity at this time is equal to:
A. 12.5 m/s B. 10 m/s C. 25 m/s D. 5 m/s
b. MC The time taken for the particle to reach a speed of 20 m/s is:
A. 5 s B. 40 s C. 15 s D. 10 s
c. MC The distance travelled when it reaches 20 m/s is:
A. 100 m B. 20 m C. 1600 m D. 5 m

15. WE18 A particle moving from rest with constant acceleration reaches a speed of 20 m/s in 5 seconds.
Calculate:
a. the acceleration b. the distance travelled.
16. A train decelerates uniformly for 20 seconds over a distance of 320 metres before coming to a stop.
Calculate:
a. the acceleration b. the initial speed.
17. A car accelerates from rest at 12 m/s2 over a distance of 400 metres. Calculate:
a. the time taken to travel the 400 metres
b. the final velocity of the car.
18. An object accelerates at 9 m/s2 over a distance of 40 metres until it reaches a speed of 60 m/s. Calculate:
a. the initial velocity b. the time taken.
19. An object is thrown from the ground at 39.2 m/s. Calculate:
a. the maximum height reached by the object b. the total time that the object is in flight.
20. WE19 A stone is dropped from a tower that is 50 metres above ground level. Determine:
a. how long it takes the stone to reach the ground b. the speed of the stone on impact.
21. A stone is dropped down a deep well and it takes 4 seconds for it to hit the water at the bottom.
a. How deep is the well?
b. What is the speed of the stone on impact with the water?
4.6 Projectile motion

The motion of a particle when acted upon by gravity
and air resistance is called projectile motion.
In the modelling approach to projectile motion in
this course, certain assumptions are made. The first is
to assume that the projectile, no matter how big, is
treated as a point particle. Further assumptions are to
ignore air resistance, assume that the Earth is flat,
ignore the rotation of the Earth and ignore the
variations in gravity due to height. For projectiles
moving close to the Earth’s surface at heights of no
more than approximately two hundred metres,
these assumptions are generally valid.
4.6.1 General theory of a projectile

Consider a projectile fired in a vertical two-dimensional plane y
g
from the origin, O, with an initial speed of V m/s at an angle of
V
𝛼 degrees to the horizontal. T is the time of flight, H is the maximum
height reached by the projectile during its motion, and R is the H
range on the horizontal plane, that is, the horizontal distance travelled. Ĵ
As the motion is in two dimensions, x = x(t) is the horizontal î
α
displacement and y = y(t) is the vertical displacement at time t seconds,
O R x
where 0 ≤ t ≤ T.
Taking î as a unit vector of 1 metre in the positive x direction and ĵ as a unit vector of 1 metre in the
positive upwards y direction,
~r(t) = x(t)î + y(t)ĵ is the position vector,
̇ = x(t)î
~r(t) ̇ + y(t)ĵ
̇ is the velocity vector and
~ ̈
r(t) = ̈
x(t)î + ̈ is the acceleration vector.
y(t)ĵ
The only force acting on the projectile is the weight force, which acts downwards, so that g = −gĵ,
~
where g = 9.8 m/s2 .
Using vectors:
̈ = −gĵ and ~r(t)
~r(t) ̇ = −gt ĵ + ~c1 (integrating the acceleration vector to get the velocity vector). But
̇ = V cos(𝛼)î + V sin(𝛼)ĵ (the initial velocity vector).
~r(0)
Therefore, ~c1 = V cos(𝛼)î + V sin(𝛼)ĵ.
~̇ = V cos(𝛼)î + (V
r(t)
(
sin(𝛼) − gt) ĵ (substituting for the first constant vector)
)
1 2
~r(t) = Vt cos(𝛼)î + Vt sin(𝛼) − gt ĵ + c2 (integrating the velocity vector to get the position vector)
2
As the projectile is fired from the origin, O, ~r(0) = ~0, so c2 = ~0; thus,
( )
1 2
~r(t) = Vt cos(𝛼)î + Vt sin(𝛼) − 2 gt ĵ
Note that if the projectile is not initially fired from the origin but from some initial height h above ground
level, then c2 = hĵ.
Then the parametric equations of the projectile are
1
x(t) = Vt cos(𝛼) and y(t) = Vt sin(𝛼) − gt2 + h.
2
A projectile can be described by the equations:

( )
1 2
Cartesian equation: ~r(t) = Vt cos(𝛼)î + Vt sin(𝛼) − gt ĵ
2
1
Parametric equations: x(t) = Vt cos(𝛼) and y(t) = Vt sin(𝛼) − gt2 + h.
2
Time of flight
The time of flight is the time that the projectile takes to go up and come down again, or the time at which it
returns to ground level. To find the time of flight, solve y = 0 for t.
1
Vt sin(𝛼) − gt2 = 0
2
( )
1
t V sin(𝛼) − gt = 0
2
( )
1
t = 0 or V sin(𝛼) − gt = 0
2
1
gt = V sin(𝛼)
2
2V sin(𝛼)
t=
g
2V sin(𝛼)
The result t = 0 represents the time when the projectile was fired, so T = represents the time of
g
flight.
Time of flight:
2V sin(𝛼)
T=
g

The range
The range is the horizontal distance travelled in time T.
R = x(T) = VT cos(𝛼)
( )
2V sin(𝛼) 2V sin(𝛼)
Substitute T = : R = V cos(𝛼)
g g
2
V 2 sin(𝛼) cos(𝛼)
Expand: R=
g
Applying the double-angle formula sin(2A) = 2 sin(A) cos(A),
V2 sin(2𝛼)
R=
g
Note: for maximum range, sin(2𝛼) = 1, so 2𝛼 = 90° or 𝛼 = 45°. This applies only for a projectile fired
from ground level.
Range of flight:
V2 sin(2𝛼)
R=
g
Maximum height
The maximum height occurs when the particle is no longer rising. This occurs when the vertical component
̇ = 0.
of the velocity is zero, that is, y(t)
V sin(𝛼) T
Solving ẏ = V sin(𝛼) − gt = 0 gives t = = , which is half the time of flight.
g 2
This applies only for a projectile fired from ground level.
T
Substituting for into the y component gives
2
( ) ( ) ( )2
T V sin(𝛼) g V sin(𝛼)
H=y = V sin(𝛼) −
2 g 2 g
2 2 2 2
V sin (𝛼) V sin (𝛼)
H= −
g 2g
2 2
V sin (𝛼)
H=
2g
Maximum height:
V2 sin2 (𝛼)
H=
2g
WORKED EXAMPLE 20
A golf ball is hit off the ground at an angle of 53.13∘ to the horizontal with an initial speed of
25 m/s. Calculate:
a. the time of flight
b. the range
c. the maximum height reached.
THINK WRITE
a. 1. State the value of the parameters. a. V = 25 and 𝛼 = 53.13°
2V sin(𝛼)
2. Apply the time of flight formula to the value of the T=
parameters. g
2 × 25 sin(53.13)°
T=
9.8
3. State the time of flight. T = 4.08 seconds.
V2 sin(2𝛼)
b. 1. Apply the range of flight formula to the value b. R =
of the parameters. g
252 sin(2 × 53.13°)
R=
9.8
2. State the range. R = 61.22 metres.
V2 sin2 (𝛼)
c. 1. Apply the maximum height formula to the value c. H =
of the parameters. 2g
25 sin2 (53.13°)
2
H=
2 × 9.8
2. State the maximum height reached. H = 20.41 metres.
Improving the range

2V sin(𝛼)
The formulas for the time of flight T = y
g V
V2 sin(2𝛼) Ĵ
and the range R = derived above are only true when H
g î α
the projectile is released from the origin, O. In many situations,
the projectile is released from a height h above ground level. h
In these situations, we need to solve the appropriate parametric
equations x(t) = Vt cos(𝛼) and y(t) = h + Vt sin(𝛼) − 12 gt2 O R x
to find the time of flight and the range. The result for the
V2 sin2 (𝛼)
maximum height, H = , is still valid, but it gives
2g
only the height above h.
It can also be shown that the path of the projectile is a parabola. An interesting question in these situations
is how we determine the maximum range on the horizontal plane (ground level) for a given speed of
projection.

WORKED EXAMPLE 21
A boy throws a ball from the top of a hill 2 metres above ground level with an initial speed of
10 m/s at an angle of 40∘ to the horizontal.
a. Calculate the time of flight and the horizontal distance travelled.
b. Calculate the maximum height reached.
c. Determine the speed and angle at which the ball lands.
d. Show that the ball travels in a parabolic path.
THINK WRITE
a. 1. State the value of the parameters. a. V = 10 m/s and 𝛼 = 40°
10 m/s
40°
2m
2. Start with the acceleration vector and the ~r(t)̈ = −9.8ĵ

~ = 10 cos(40°)î + 10 sin(40°)ĵ
̇
initial velocity vector to find the velocity r(0)
vector at time t. ̇ = 10 cos(40°)î + (10 sin(40°) − 9.8t)ĵ
~r(t)
3. State the position vector at time t. Since the initial position is 2 metres above the
ground, ~r(0) = 2ĵ,
r(t) = 10t cos(40°)î + (2 + 10t sin(40°) − 4.9t2 )ĵ
4. The time the ball hits the ground when the y = 2 + 10t sin(40°) − 4.9t2 = 0
vertical component is zero. That is, when t = −0.26, 1.57
y = 2 + 10t sin(40°) − 4.9t2 = 0. Since t ≥ 0, the time of flight is 1.57 seconds.
Use technology to solve the quadratic.
5. Determine the horizontal distance x(1.57) = 10 × 1.57 cos(40°)
travelled by substituting t = 1.57 into the = 12.04
x-component of the position vector The horizontal distance travelled is 12.04
determined in step 3. metres.
b. 1. The ball will rise and reach maximum b. Solve ẏ = 10 sin(40°) − 9.8t = 0 for t.
height when the vertical component of its 10 sin(40°)
velocity is zero. t=
9.8
= 0.656
Note that this is not half the time of flight.
2. State the maximum height reached by y(0.656) = 2 + 10 × 0.656 sin(40°) − 4.9 × 0.6562
substituting into the y-component of the The maximum height reached is 4.11 metres.
position vector determined in step a. 3.
c. 1. Use the time when the ball lands to find
~̇
c. r(1.57) = 10 cos(40°)î + (10 sin(40°) − 9.8 × 1.57)ĵ
its velocity vector at this time. = 7.66î − 8.96ĵ
√
2. Find the speed at which the ball lands. |~r(1.57)| = x2̇ + y2̇
√
= 7.662 + (−8.96)2
The ball lands with a speed of 11.8 m/s.
3. Determine the angle that the velocity Let 𝜓 be the angle with the ground when the ball
vector makes with the ground, when the lands.
ball lands. ẏ
tan(𝜓) =
ẋ
( )
−1 8.96
𝜓 = tan
7.66
= 49.5°
d. 1. State the parametric equations and d. x = 10t cos(40°), y = 2 + 10t sin(40°) − 4.9t2
eliminate the parameter t. x
t=
10 cos(40°)
( )2
10x sin(40°) x
y=2+ − 4.9
10 cos(40°) 10 cos(40°)
2
49x
2. The Cartesian equation is parabolic as it y = 2 + x tan(40°) − sec2 (40°)
is of the form y = ax2 + bx + c. 1000
The equation of the path

It can be shown that the path of the projectile is a parabola. Transposing x = Vt cos(𝛼) for t gives
x 1
t= . Substituting this into y(t) = Vt sin(𝛼) − gt2 gives
V cos(𝛼) 2
( ) ( )2
x g x
y = V sin(𝛼) − .
V cos(𝛼) 2 V cos(𝛼)
Simplifying this gives
gx2 gx2 sec2 (𝛼)

y = x tan(𝛼) − or y = x tan(𝛼) − .
2V2 cos2 (𝛼) 2V2
This is of the form y = ax + bx2 , so the path of the projectile is a parabola.
Finding the angle of projection to the horizontal

Utilising the trigonometric identity sec2 (𝛼) = 1 + tan2 (𝛼), the Cartesian equation of a projectile can be
gx2
written in the form y = x tan(𝛼) − 2 (1 + tan2 𝛼). Alternatively, this can be rearranged into a quadratic in
2V
( )
gx2 2 gx2
tan(𝛼) as 2 tan (𝛼) − x tan(𝛼) + y + 2 = 0.
2V 2V
This equation is useful for finding the angle of projection, 𝛼, if we are given the coordinates of a point
(x, y) through which the particle passes and the initial speed of projection, V. Because this equation is a
quadratic in tan(𝛼), it is probable that we can obtain two values for 𝛼.
Angle of projection
To determine the angle of projection to the horizontal:
( )
gx2 2 gx2
tan (𝛼) − x tan(𝛼) + y + 2 = 0
2V2 2V

WORKED EXAMPLE 22
A basketballer shoots for goal from the three-point line. He throws
the ball with an initial speed of 15 m/s and the ball leaves his hands at
a height of 2.1 metres above the ground. Calculate the possible
angles of projection if he is to score a goal.
Data: Distance from goal to three-point line: 6.25 m
Height of ring: 3.05 m
THINK WRITE
1. State the value of the parameters. V = 15 but 𝛼 is unknown and required to be found.
Drawing a diagram will help.
3.05 m
2.1 m
6.25 m
2. State where the projectile will pass The basketball must pass through the point where
through. x = 6.25 and y = 3.05 − 2.1 = 0.95.
3. Substitute in the appropriate values Substitute V = 15, x = 6.25 and y = 0.95: ( )
to obtain a quadratic in tan(𝛼). gx2 gx2
tan(𝛼) − x tan(𝛼) + y + 2 = 0
2V2 2V
( )
9.8 × 6.252 2 9.8 × 6.25 2
tan (𝛼) − 6.25 tan(𝛼) + 0.95 + =0
2 × 152 2 × 152
4. Simplify the quadratic to be solved. 0.8507 tan2 (𝛼) − 6.25 tan(𝛼) + 1.8007 = 0
5. Apply the quadratic formula to a = 0.8507, b = −6.25, c = 1.8007
solve. First find the discriminant of Δ = b2 − 4ac
the quadratic equation. = (−6.25)2 − 4 × 0.8507 × 1.8007
= 32.935
√
Δ = 5.739
√
−b ± Δ
6. Use the quadratic formula to solve tan(𝛼) =
for tan(𝛼). 2a
6.25 ± 5.739
=
2 × 0.8507
= 7.0465, 0.3004
7. Find the values of 𝛼. 𝛼 = tan−1 (7.0465), tan−1 (0.3004)
8. State the final result. There are two possible angles of projection:
𝛼 = 81.92° or 16.92°.
4.6.2 Proofs involving projectile motion

Often projectile motion problems involve parameters rather than specific given values. In these types of
problems, we are required to prove or show that a certain equation is valid. To do this, we can use the
general equations and mathematically manipulate these to show the desired result. Note that we can only
give results in terms of the given parameters.
WORKED EXAMPLE 23
A ball is projected at an angle of 𝛼 from a point on a horizontal plane. If the ball reaches a
maximum height of H, show that the time interval between the instants when the ball is at heights
√
2H
of H sin 2 (𝛼) is 2cos (𝛼) .
g
THINK WRITE
1. Draw a diagram. y
V
H H sin2(α)
α
0 t = t1 t = t2 x
V2 sin(𝛼)
2. Recall the formula for the maximum height, H=
2g
V2 sin(𝛼)
H=
2g
2gH
3. Since the initial speed of projection is V2 =
unknown, express V in terms of the given sin2 (𝛼)
values.
1
4. Use the given equation for y. y = Vt sin(𝛼) − gt2
2
5. We need to find the values of t at the given Let y = H sin2 (𝛼).
heights of H sin2 (𝛼). 1
H sin2 (𝛼) = Vt sin(𝛼) − gt2
2
1 2
gt − Vt sin(𝛼) + H sin2 (𝛼) = 0
2
1
6. Find the discriminant of the quadratic. a = g, b = −V sin(𝛼), c = H sin2 (𝛼)
2
Δ = b2 − 4ac
1
= V2 sin2 (𝛼) − 4 × g × H sin2 (𝛼)
2
= V2 sin2 (𝛼) − 2gH sin2 (𝛼)

7. Use previous results to eliminate the Substitute V2 sin2 (𝛼) = 2gH into the
unknown, V. discriminant:
Δ = 2gH − 2gH sin2 (𝛼)
= 2gH(1 − sin2 (𝛼))
= 2gH cos2 (𝛼)
√
V sin(𝛼) ± Δ
8. Use the quadratic formula to determine the t= , so
two times. g √
V sin(𝛼) − Δ
t1 = and
g √
V sin(𝛼) + Δ
t2 = , where t2 > t1 .
g
√
2 Δ
9. Determine the time interval and simplify. t2 − t1 =
g
√
2 2gH cos2 (𝛼)
=
g
2 cos(𝛼) √
= 2gH
g
√
2H
10. State the required result. t2 − t1 = 2 cos(𝛼)
g
4.6.3 Incorporating air resistance and three-dimensional motion

In reality, projectiles will move in a three-dimensional framework rather than a two-dimensional plane.
Also, with the effects of air resistance being included, the path is not necessarily a parabola.
WORKED EXAMPLE 24
A shot is thrown by a shot-put competitor on level ground.
At a time t in seconds measured from the point of release
of the shot, the position vector ~r(t) of the shot is given by
( ( t ))
−
~r (t) = 7tî + 5t + 6 e − 1
2 ĵ + (2 + 12t − 5t2 )k̂
where î is a unit vector in the east direction, ĵ is a unit

vector in the north direction and k̂ is a unit vector
vertically up. The origin, O, of the coordinate system
is at ground level and displacements are measured in
metres. Let P be the point where the shot hits the ground.
a. Calculate the time taken for the shot to hit the ground.
b. Determine how far from O the shot hits the ground.
c. Calculate the initial speed of projection.
d. Calculate the speed and angle at which the shot hits the ground.
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Determine when the shot hits the a. The shot hits the ground when the k̂ component is
ground. zero, that is, when 2 + 12t − 5t2 = 0.
2. Solve for the values of t using the Δ = b2 − 4ac
quadratic formula. = (12)2 − 4 × −5 × 2
= 184
√ √
Δ = 2 46
√
−b ± Δ
t=
2a
√
−12 ± 2 46
=
2 × −5
= −0.1565, 2.5565
t = −0.1565 or t = 2.5565.
Since t ≥ 0, the shot hits
( the ground at(2.56 seconds.
))
− 2.56
Find the position vector where the ~r(2.56) = 7 × 2.56î + 5 × 2.56 + 6 e −1 ĵ
b. 1. b. 2
shot hits the ground at t = 2.56
seconds. + (2 + 12 × 2.56 − 5 × 2.562 )k̂
~r(2.56) = 17.896î
√
+ 8.453ĵ
2. Determine the distance where the shot |~r(2.56)| = 17.8952 + 8.4532
hits the ground by calculating the = 19.79 metres
magnitude of the position vector at
t = 2.56 seconds. ( )
t
−
c. 1. Determine the velocity vector. c. ̇
r(t)
~ = 7î + 5 − 3e 2 ĵ + (12 − 10t)k̂
2. Determine the initial velocity vector, ̇ = 7î + (5 − 3e0 )ĵ + 12k̂

~r(0)
at t = 0. = 7î + 2ĵ + 12k̂
√
3. Find the initial speed of projection by |~r(0)|
̇ = 72 + 22 + 122
√
calculating the magnitude of the = 197
velocity vector. The initial speed
( of projection
) is 14.04 m/s.
− 2.56
d. 1. Determine the velocity vector when d. ̇
~r(2.56) = 7î + 5 − 3e 2 ĵ + (12 − 10 × 2.56)k̂
the shot hits the ground, that is at
t = 2.56 seconds. = 7î + 4.16ĵ − 13.56k̂
√
2. Find the magnitude of the velocity |~r(2.56)|
̇ = 72 + 4.162 + (−13.56)
√
vector. = 250.34
≈ 15.82
3. Determine the angle at which the shot The required angle, 𝜓, is the angle between the
hits the ground. downwards component and the combined east and
north components.
ż
tan(𝜓) = √
x2̇ + y2̇

x∙
ψ
z∙
y∙
x∙ 2 + y∙ 2
13.56
4. Find the angle. tan(𝜓) = √
72 + 4.162
𝜓 = tan−1 (1.665)
5. State the final result. The shot hits the ground with a speed of 15.82 m/s
at an angle of 59.015°.

Projectile motion Summary screen and practice questions
Exercise 4.6 Projectile motion

Technology active
For the following questions give your answer to 2 decimal places, where a decimal answer is required.
1. WE20 A soccer ball is kicked off the ground at an angle of 67°23′ with an initial speed of 13 m/s.
Calculate:
a. the time of flight
b. the range
c. the maximum height reached. √
10 3
2. A ball is thrown so that its time of flight is and the ratio of the range to the maximum height
g
√
4 3
reached is . Calculate the initial speed and angle of projection.
3
3. WE21 A cricketer smashes a cricket ball at an angle of 35°
to the horizontal from a point 0.5 m above the ground with
an initial speed of 30 m/s.
a. Calculate the time of flight and the horizontal
distance travelled.
4. A cricket outfielder attempts to throw the cricket ball back towards the stumps. He throws the ball from
a height of 1.8 m above the ground with an initial speed of 20 m/s at an angle of 20° to the horizontal.
a. Calculate the time of flight and the horizontal distance travelled.
5. WE22 A tennis player hits the ball 4 feet above the baseline of a
tennis court with a speed of 100 feet per second. If the ball travels
in a vertical plane towards the centre of the net and just grazes the
top of the net, calculate the angles at which it could have been hit.
Data: Tennis court dimensions 78 × 27 feet
Net height at the centre 3 feet
Use g = 32 ft/s2 .
6. A gun is mounted on top of a cliff face 122.5 metres high and fires
a shell at a speed of 49 m/s in order to hit a target which is located
at a horizontal distance of 346.482 metres from the base of the cliff.
Determine:
a. the angle of projection
b. the time of flight
c. the speed and angle at which the shell hits the target.
7. WE23 A particle is projected at a given angle 𝛼 from a point on a horizontal plane. If the particle
reaches a maximum height of H, show that the time interval between the instants when the particle is
√
H H
at heights of is 2 .
2 g
8. A particle is projected with an initial speed of 3g m/s. The
particle reaches heights of g metres at times t1 and t2 . Given
that t2 − t1 = 1, show that the range of the particle is given
√
9g 3
by .
2
9. WE24 A football is kicked by a footballer. At a time t in
seconds measured from the point of impact, the

position vector ~r(t) of the tip of the football is given by
t
−
~r(t) = 60(1 − e
2 )î + 2tĵ + (1 + 12t − 4.9t2 )k̂
where î is a unit vector horizontally forward, ĵ is a unit vector to the right and k̂ is a unit vector
vertically up.
The origin, O, of the coordinate system is at ground level and all displacements are measured in metres.
a. Calculate how far from the origin the football hits the ground.
b. Calculate the speed and angle at which the football hits the ground.
10. A javelin is thrown by an athlete on level ground. The time t is in seconds, measured from the release of
the javelin. The position vector ~r(t) of the tip of the javelin is given by
( ( ))
𝜋t
~r(t) = 20tî + 2𝜋t − 3 sin 6 ĵ + (1.8 + 14.4t − 5t2 )k̂ where î is a unit vector in the east direction,
ĵ is a unit vector in the north direction and k̂ is a unit vector vertically up. The origin, O, of the
coordinate system is at ground level, and all displacements are measured in metres.
a. Calculate how long will it take for the javelin to strike the ground.
b. Determine how far from O the tip of the javelin hits the ground.
c. Calculate the speed and angle at which the javelin’s tip strikes the ground.
11. a. A cricket ball is hit by a batsman off his toes with an initial speed of 20 m/s at an angle of 30° with
the horizontal. Determine:
i. the time of flight
ii. the range on the horizontal plane
iii. the greatest height reached.

b. A golf ball is hit at an angle of 20° and its range is 150 metres. Determine:
i. the initial speed of projection
ii. the greatest height reached
iii. the time of flight.
12. a. A rock is thrown horizontally from the top of a cliff
face and strikes the ground 30 metres from the base of
the cliff after 1 second.
i. Determine the height of the cliff.
ii. Determine the initial speed of projection.
iii. Determine the speed and angle at which the
rock strikes the ground.
iv. Show that the rock travels in a parabolic path.
b. A motorcycle is driven at 150 km/h horizontally off the
top of a cliff face and strikes the ground after 2 seconds.
Determine:
i. the height of the cliff
ii. how far from the base of the cliff the motorcycle strikes the ground
iii. the speed and angle at which it strikes the ground.
13. a. An object is projected from the top of a building 100 metres high at an angle of 45° with a speed of
10 m/s. Determine:
i. the time of flight to reach ground level
ii. how far from the edge of the building the object strikes the ground
iii. the greatest height the object reaches above the building
iv. the speed and angle at which the object strikes the ground.
b. A stone is thrown with a speed of 15 m/s at an angle of 20° from a cliff face and strikes the ground
after 3.053 seconds. Determine:
i. the height of the cliff
ii. how far from the edge of the cliff the stone strikes the ground
iii. the greatest height the stone reaches above the ground
iv. the speed and angle at which the stone strikes the ground.
14. a. A rugby player uses a place kick to kick the ball off the ground.
To score a goal, the ball must pass through a point 40 metres
out and 8 metres vertically above the point of release. If he
kicks the ball at a speed of 30 m/s, calculate the possible angles
of projection.
b. A catapult throws a stone with a speed of 7 m/s from a point at
the top of a cliff face 40 metres high to hit a ship which is at
a horizontal distance of 20 metres from the base of
the cliff. Calculate the possible angles of projection.
15. a. A shell is fired with an initial speed of 147 m/s for maximum
range. There is a target 2 km away on the same horizontal level.
i. How far above the target does the shell pass?
ii. How far beyond the target does the shell strike the ground?
iii. What is the minimum speed of projection required to just reach the target?
b. A projectile falls a metres short of its target when fired at an angle of 𝛼, and a metres beyond the
target when fired at the same muzzle velocity but at an angle of 𝛽. If 𝜃 is the angle required for a
1
direct hit on the target, show that sin(2𝜃) = (sin(2𝛼) + sin(2𝛽)).
2
16. a. A gun is mounted on top of a cliff face 122.5 metres
high and fires a shell at a speed of 49 m/s in order to
hit a target that is located at a horizontal distance of
346.482 metres from the base of the cliff. Calculate:
i. the angle of projection
ii. the time of flight
iii. the speed and angle at which the shell hits
the target.
b. A baseball is initially hit from a distance of 1.5 metres
above the ground at an angle of 35°. The ball reaches
a maximum height of 8 metres above the ground.
Calculate:
i. the initial speed of projection
ii. the distance of the outfielder from the hitter if the outfielder just catches the ball at ground level
iii. the speed and angle at which the baseball √strikes the fielder’s hands.
17. a. A projectile is fired with an initial speed of 2ga to hit a target at a horizontal distance of a from the
a
point of projection and a vertical distance of above it. Show that there are two possible angles of
2 √
projection, that the ratio of the two times to hit the target is 5, and that the ratio of the maximum
9
heights reached in each case is .
5 √
b. A projectile is fired with an initial speed of 2ga at an angle of 𝛼 to hit a target at a horizontal
distance of a from the point of projection and a vertical distance of b.
i. Show that a tan2 (𝛼) − 4a tan(𝛼) + (4b + a) = 0.
ii. Show that it is impossible to hit the target if 4b > 3a.
iii. Show that if 4b = 3a, then 𝛼 = tan−1 (2).
18. a. A particle is projected to just clear two walls. The walls are both of height 6 metres and are at
distances of 5 metres and 10 metres from the point of projection. Show that if 𝛼 is the angle of
9
projection, then tan(𝛼) = .
5
b. A particle is projected to just clear two walls. The walls are both h metres high and are at distances of
a metres and b metres from the point of projection.
( )
−1 h(a + b)
Show that the angle of projection is tan .
ab
c. A particle is projected to just clear two walls. The first wall is h1 metres high and at a distance of a
metres from the point of projection; the second wall is h2 metres high and b metres from the point of
( 2 )
−1 b h1 − a2 h2
projection, where b > a > 0. Show that the angle of projection is tan .
ab(b − a)
19. A soccer ball is kicked off the ground.
Its position vector is given by
√ ( )
12 2 𝜋t
~r(t) = 6tî + 28tĵ+ 5 sin 2 k̂, where î and ĵ
are unit vectors in the horizontal plane at right angles to

each other, and k̂ is a unit vector in the vertical direction.
Displacements are measured in metres, and t is the time in
seconds after the ball is kicked.
a. Calculate the initial speed at which the soccer ball is kicked.
b. At what angle from the ground was the soccer ball kicked?
c. Determine the maximum height reached by soccer ball.

After the soccer ball has reached its maximum height and is on its downwards trajectory, a player
d.
jumps and heads the soccer ball when it is 2.4 metres above the ground.
i. What time has elapsed from the instant that the soccer ball is kicked until the player heads the
ball?
ii. How far, measured along the ground, was the player from where the ball was kicked?
iii. If the soccer ball has a mass of 430 grams, calculate the magnitude of the momentum in kg m/s of
the ball at the instant when it strikes the player’s head. Give your answer correct to 2 decimal
places.
20. a. An object is thrown horizontally with a speed of V m/s from the top of a cliff face h metres high and
strikes the ground at a distance of R metres from the base of the cliff after a time of T seconds. Show
that: √
2h
i. T =
g
ii. R = VT √
iii. the speed at which the object hits the ground is V2 + 2gh
( )
2h
iv. the angle at which the object strikes the ground is tan−1
R
( )
x2
v. the object travels in a parabolic path, y = h 1 − .
R2
b. A stone is projected horizontally from the top of a cliff of height H metres with a speed of U m/s. At
the same instant another object is fired from the base of the cliff with a speed of V m/s at an angle
of 𝛼. Given that the two objects collide after a time of T seconds, show that
( )
−1 U H2
𝛼 = cos and V2 = U2 + 2 .
V T
21. A projectile is fired at an angle of 𝛼 with an initial speed of V. It reaches a maximum height of H and
has a horizontal range of R. Show that:
1 4H
a. R tan(𝛼) = gT2 b. tan(𝛼) =
2 R
√ ( )
8H R2
c. T2 = d. V = 2g H +
g 16H
4Hx
e. the equation of the path is y = (R − x) for 0 ≤ x ≤ R.
R2
4.7 Circular motion

y
4.7.1 Uniform circular motion
Parametric equations in the form x = (r cos(t)) î and y = (r sin(t)) ĵ were
studied in the first section of this chapter when describing the position P
r
x2 y2 θ
of particle. The Cartesian form of this equation is given by 2 + 2 = 1,
r r –r O r x
which is the general form of a circle.
A particle P travelling at a constant speed along a circular path of
radius r is defined as being in uniform circular motion. Consider the
diagram on the right, which exhibits the Cartesian equation of the path
defined as x2 + y2 = r2 , where r > 0.
Position of a particle on a circle
The position vector of particle, P, on a circle of radius, r, can be defined as
⃗
~r = OP
= ( + yĵ )
xî ( )
= r cos 𝜃 î + r sin 𝜃 ĵ
Where 𝜃 is the angle r makes with the positive x-axis. The position of the particle varies
according to time, t, hence 𝜃 = f (t). Note that when 𝜃 = 0, t = 0.
WORKED EXAMPLE 25
Given the vector equation, ~r (t) = cos 6t î + sin 6t ĵ, for t ≥ 0, determine:
a. the velocity vector, v (t) b. the acceleration vector, a (t).
~ ~
THINK WRITE
a. 1. To obtain the velocity vector, differentiate the a.
~v (t) = ~r ̇ (t)
position vector ~r (t). d d
= (cos(6t)) î + (sin(6t)) ĵ
dt dt
= −6 sin(6t) î + 6 cos(6t) ĵ
2. State velocity vector. ∴ ~r ̇ (t) = −6 sin(6t) î + 6 cos(6t) ĵ
b. 1. Differentiate the velocity vector to obtain the b. a (t) = r ̈ (t)
~
acceleration vector. d d
= (−6 sin(6t)) î + (6 cos(6t)) ĵ
dt dt
= −36 cos(6t) î − 36 sin(6t) ĵ
2 State acceleration vector. ∴ ~r ̈ (t) = −36 (cos(6t) î + sin(6t) ĵ)
4.7.2 Angular velocity

The rate at which the position vector ⃗ OP of a rotating particle changes with respect to time is given by the
d𝜃
derivative . This is referred to as the angular velocity of the particle and is often denoted by the
dt
d𝜃
lowercase Greek letter omega, 𝜔, so that = 𝜔. Assuming the particle moves at a constant speed around
dt
d𝜃
the circle, then the angular velocity will be constant. By integrating the equation, = 𝜔, with respect to
∫ dt
t, we obtain 𝜃 = 𝜔t (as 𝜔 is constant and 𝜃 = 0 when t = 0).
Angular velocity
The position of a particle, P, moving with angular velocity 𝜔 can be described by the vector,
~r (t) = r cos(𝜔t) î + r sin(𝜔t) ĵ

Where the unit of angular velocity is radians per second.

4.7.3 Velocity
In the Worked example 25, the three equations of motion were,
• Position: ~r (t) = (cos(6t)) î + (sin(6t)) ĵ, for t ≥ 0
• Velocity: ~r ̇ (t) = −6 sin(6t) î + 6 cos(6t) ĵ, for t ≥ 0
• Acceleration: ~r ̈ (t) = −36 (cos(6t) î + sin(6t) ĵ), for t ≥ 0
Can any generalisations be made about these equations?
Velocity vector
If particle P is travelling in a circular path of radius r at a constant speed, the following
statements can be made:
1. The velocity vector, ~v (t), can be defined as: ~v (t) = −r𝜔 sin(𝜔t) î + r𝜔 cos(𝜔t) ĵ
2. ~v (t) is perpendicular to ~r (t)
3. The magnitude of velocity (speed) of the particle is defined as |~v(t)| = v = r𝜔
The proofs to these three statements exist below.

1. The velocity vector
d~r
v
~ (t) =
dt
d
= ((r cos(𝜔t)) î + (r sin(𝜔t)) ĵ)
dt
= (−r𝜔
( ( )) î + (r𝜔
sin(𝜔t)) ( ))ĵ
( cos(𝜔t))
= −r𝜔 sin 𝜃 î + r𝜔 cos 𝜃 ĵ where 𝜃 = 𝜔t
2. ~v (t) is perpendicular to ~r (t)

If the velocity and position vectors are perpendicular, the dot product will equal zero.
~r · ~v = ((r cos(𝜔t)) î + (r sin(𝜔t)) ĵ) · ((−r𝜔 sin(𝜔t)) î + (r𝜔 cos(𝜔t)) ĵ)

= (r cos(𝜔t)) (−r𝜔 sin(𝜔t)) + (r sin(𝜔t)) (r𝜔 cos(𝜔t))
= −r2 𝜔 cos(𝜔t) sin(𝜔t) + r2 𝜔 cos(𝜔t) sin(𝜔t)
=0
∴~r (t) ⊥ ~v (t)
3. The magnitude of velocity (speed) of the particle is defined as |~v(t)| = v = r𝜔

v = |~v(t)|
√
= (−r𝜔 sin(𝜔t))2 + (r𝜔 cos(𝜔t))2
√ ( )
= r2 𝜔2 sin2 (𝜔t) + cos2 (𝜔t)
√
= r2 𝜔2 × 1
= r𝜔
WORKED EXAMPLE 26
A particle of mass 6 kg rotates with a constant speed of 10 m/s in a circular path of radius
5 metres. Determine:
a. the angular velocity of the particle
b. the position vector of the particle after 7 seconds if 𝜃 = 0 when t = 0
c. the velocity and acceleration vectors after 7 seconds.
THINK WRITE
a. Recall the formula for speed. Rearrange the a. v = r𝜔
equation to make 𝜔 the subject. Substitute in v
𝜔=
values for the speed (v) and radius (r) to r
calculate the angular velocity. 10
=
5
= 2 rad/s
b. 1. Substitute in values for 𝜔 and r to develop the b. At t = 0, 𝜃 = 0.
position vector ~r (t) = (r cos(𝜔t)) î + (r sin(𝜔t)) ĵ ~r (t) = (r cos(𝜔t)) î + (r sin(𝜔t)) ĵ
= (5 cos(2t)) î + (5 sin(2t)) ĵ
2. Determine the position of the particle at 7 ~r (7) = (5 cos(2 × 7)) î + (5 sin(2 × 7)) ĵ
seconds by letting t = 7. ≈ 0.684î + 4.953ĵ
d
c. 1. Calculate the velocity vector by differentiating c. r ̇ (t) = ((5 cos(2t)) î + (5 sin(2t)) ĵ)
~ dt
the position vector.
= (−10 sin(2t)) î + (10 cos(2t)) ĵ
2. Determine the velocity vector of the particle at ~r ̇ (7) = (−10 sin(2 × 7)) î + (10 cos(2 × 7)) ĵ
7 seconds by letting t = 7. ≈ −9.906î + 1.367ĵ
d
3. Calculate the acceleration vector by ~r ̈ (t) = dt ((−10 sin(2t)) î + (10 cos(2t)) ĵ)
differentiating the velocity vector.
= (−20 sin(2t)) î + (−20 cos(2t)) ĵ
4. Determine the acceleration vector of the ~r ̈ (7) = (−20 sin(2 × 7)) î + (−20 cos(2 × 7)) ĵ
particle at 7 seconds by letting t = 7. ≈ −2.735î − 19.812ĵ
WORKED EXAMPLE 27
A particle moves in a circular path of radius 6 metres, completing 120 revolutions per minute.
Calculate:
a. the angular velocity in radians per second
b. the speed of the particle in metres per second.
THINK WRITE
a. Convert one minute to seconds. Calculate the angular a. 𝜔 = 120 revolutions per minute (rpm)
velocity given one revolution is 2𝜋 radians. 120 × 2𝜋
=
60
= 4𝜋 rad/s
b. Recall the formula for speed (v) and substitute values b. v = r𝜔
for r and 𝜔. = 6 × 4𝜋
= 24𝜋 m/s (v ≈ 75.398 m/s)
Period of circular motion

The period of the motion is the time taken, T, to complete one revolution and is given by
2𝜋
T= . Where 𝜔 is the angular velocity.
𝜔

4.7.4 Acceleration
Acceleration of circular motion

If P is travelling in a circular path of radius r at a constant speed, then the following statements
can be made about the acceleration vector, ~a (t):
1. The acceleration vector, ~a (t), can be defined as: ~a (t) = −𝜔2~r (t)
v2
2. The magnitude of acceleration is given by, |~a(t)| =
r
The proofs to these statements exist below.

1. ~a (t) = −𝜔2~r(t)
d~v
a
~ (t) =
dt
d
= ((−r𝜔 sin(𝜔t)) î + (r𝜔 cos(𝜔t)) ĵ)
dt
= −r𝜔2 cos(𝜔t) î − r𝜔2 sin(𝜔t) ĵ
= −𝜔2 (r cos(𝜔t) î + r sin(𝜔t) ĵ)
= −𝜔2~r (t)
Consider the diagram. The acceleration vector is heading to the y

centre of its circular path (referred to as centripetal acceleration). v
~
v2 P
2. The magnitude of acceleration is given by, |~a(t)| =
r a
~
θ
–r O r x
a = |~a(t)|
√
= (−𝜔2 r cos(𝜔t))2 + (−𝜔2 r sin(𝜔t))2
√
= 𝜔4 r2 cos2 (𝜔t) + 𝜔4 r2 sin2 (𝜔t)
√
= 𝜔4 r2 (cos2 (𝜔t) + sin2 (𝜔t))
√
= 𝜔4 r2
= 𝜔2 r
( )
v2 v
= 2r given 𝜔 =
r r
v2
=
r
WORKED EXAMPLE 28
A particle is travelling in a circular path with a radius of 2 metres at a constant speed. The period
of the motion is 4 seconds. Calculate:
a. the angular velocity
b. the speed of the particle
c. the magnitude of the acceleration after 6 seconds.
THINK WRITE
2𝜋
a. The period of motion is given as 4 seconds. a. T =
Determine the angular velocity, 𝜔, by 𝜔
2𝜋
recalling the formula for the time T for a 𝜔=
revolution. T
2𝜋
𝜔=
4
𝜋
𝜔 = rad/s
2
b. Recall the equation for the magnitude of b. v = r𝜔
velocity (speed). Substitute in values for r 𝜋
=2×
and 𝜔 to calculate v. 2
= 𝜋 m/s ( )
2 v2
c. Recall either formula for the magnitude of c. a=𝜔 r a= is also applicable
v2 r
acceleration |a| = 𝜔2 r or a = . ( )2
r 𝜋
a= ×2
Calculate the magnitude by substituting in 2
values for 𝜔 and r. 𝜋2
a= m/s2
2

Circular motion Summary screen and practice questions
Exercise 4.7 Circular motion

Technology free
1. WE25 Given the vector equation, ~r (t) = (cos(7t)) î + (sin(7t)) ĵ for t ≥ 0, determine:
a. the velocity vector, v (t)
~
b. the acceleration vector, a (t).
~
2. Given the vector equation, r (t) = (2 cos(3t)) î + (2 sin(3t)) ĵ for t ≥ 0, determine:
~
a. the velocity vector, v (t)
~
b. the acceleration vector, a (t).
~
3. A particle rotates with constant speed in a circular path according to the position vector,
~r (t) = (5 cos(2t)) î + (5 sin(2t)) ĵ, for t ≥ 0.

a. Determine the radius of the circular path.
b. Calculate the speed, v, at which the particle moves.
4. WE26 A particle of mass 8 kg rotates with a constant speed of 12 m/s in a circular path of radius 8
metres. Determine the following:

Technology active
5. An object travels in a circle of radius 2 metres at a constant speed of 4 m/s. Calculate the following:
6. A car travels around a circular track at a constant speed of
24 m/s. The radius of the circle is 80 metres. Determine the
following:
b. the position vector of the particle after 1 second if 𝜃 = 0
when t = 0
c. the velocity and acceleration vectors after 1 second
d. the magnitude of the acceleration after 1 second
e. the period of revolution.
7. A toy train travels in a circular of radius 3 metres at a
constant speed. The train completes 2 revolutions each
second. Calculate:
a. the speed of the object
b. the magnitude of the acceleration of the train.
8. WE27 A particle moves in a circular path of radius 24 metres,
completing 360 revolutions per minute. Calculate:

a. the angular velocity in radians per second
b. the speed of the particle in metres per second.
9. A particle connected to a string 4 metres long is moving in a circular path at a speed of 35 metres per
second. Calculate the angular velocity of the particle.
10. A satellite travels in a circular orbit with a period of
13 hours. The radius of orbit is 29 000 km. Determine:
b. the satellite’s speed.
11. WE28 A particle is travelling in a circular path with a radius
of 7 metres at a constant speed. The period of the motion

is 124 seconds. Calculate:
12. A particle is travelling in a circular path with a radius of 8 metres at a constant speed. The period of the
motion is 5 seconds. Calculate:
13. The diameter of the wheel of a unicycle is 1.2 metres and is rotating at 60 rpm. A small stone is lodged
in the tread on the outer edge of the wheel. Calculate:
a. the period
b. the angular velocity
c. the speed of the stone on the outer edge
d. the magnitude of the acceleration of the stone on the outside edge of the wheel.
14. Kristen is spinning her 1.2 metre diameter umbrella horizontally at a rate of 2 revolutions in
4 seconds. If she holds the rim 1.1 m above the ground, calculate the diameter of the horizontal circle
where the droplets meet the ground. (The drops leave the horizontal rim of the umbrella tangentially).
4.8 Review: exam practice
A summary of this chapter is available in the Resources section of your eBookPLUS at www.jacplus.com.au.
Simple familiar
1. MC A stone is attached to string and is swung around in a circle at a constant speed of 4𝜋 m/s. The
radius of the circular path is 16𝜋 metres. The magnitude of the acceleration of the stone is:
𝜋
A. m/s2
3
𝜋
B. m/s2
12
2
C. 𝜋 m/s
2
D. 16 m/s
2. MC Consider the vector equation, r (t) = (1 + 6 cos(t)) î + (6 sin(t) − 5) ĵ, for t ≥ 0. The Cartesian
~
equation is defined by:
(x − 1)2 (y + 5)2 (x + 1)2 (y + 5)2
A. + =1 B. + =1
36 36 6 6
(x − 1)2 (y − 5)2 (x + 1)2 (y + 5)2
C. + =1 D. + =1
36 36 36 36 ( )
t t
3. MC A particle moves in such a way that its velocity vector at a time t is given by 4 e î − 2 sin
2 ĵ.
2
Initially the position vector of the particle is 3î − 3ĵ. The position vector of the particle at a time t is
given by:
( ) ( ( ) ) ( ) ( ( ))
t t t t
A. 8e − 5 î − 4 cos
2 +3 ĵ B. 8e − 5 î − 2 + cos
2 ĵ
2 2
( ) ( ( ) ) ( ) ( ( ) )
t t t t
C. 8e 2 − 5 î + 4 cos −7 ĵ D. 1 + 2e 2 î − cos −4 ĵ
2 2
√
4. MC A particle moves so that its position vector at a time t, is given by r (t) = 2t î + 2 t ĵ for t ≥ 0. The
~
distance of the particle from the origin after 4 seconds is equal to:
√ 3 5
A. 4 5 B. C. D. 8
2 2
5. MC A golf ball is hit off the ground, its position vector, at a time t seconds after being hit, is given by
√ ( √ )
1 2
~r (t) = 15 2 t î + 15 2 t − gt k̂ for t ≥ 0, where î is a unit vector in metres horizontally forward,
2
and k̂ is a unit vector in metres vertically upwards. Students, when analysing the motion of the golf ball,
stated some propositions:
• Alicia stated that the golf ball is hit with an initial velocity of 30 m/s for maximum range.
• Betty stated that the golf ball hits the ground again after a time of 4.33 seconds.
• Colin stated that the golf ball reaches a maximum height of 22.96 metres.
• David stated that the golf ball first hits the ground at a distance of 91.84 metres from where it
was hit.
• Edward stated that the golf ball travels in a parabolic path.
Then:
A. only Alicia, Betty and Edward are correct
B. only Alicia, Betty and Colin are correct
C. only Alicia, Betty, Colin and David are correct
D. all of Alicia, Betty, Colin, David and Edward are correct.

6. Two particles, P and Q, have position vectors p = 3 cos(2t) î + 4 sin(2t) ĵ and
~
q = 4 sin(nt) î + 3 cos(nt) ĵ respectively at a time, t seconds, t ≥ 0.
~
a. Determine the Cartesian equation of the paths for both P and Q.
b. Determine the coordinates where the paths of P and Q cross.
7. A particle moves so that at time t its position vector is given by ~r (t) = 8 cos(t) î + 6 sin(t) ĵ, for
0 ≤ t ≤ 2𝜋. The particle moves along a curve C. Determine:
𝜋
a. the coordinates of the point A when t =
4
5𝜋
b. the coordinates of the point B when t =
6
c. the Cartesian equation of the curve C.
( )
8. Two particles move so that their position vectors are given by ~rA (t) = (2t + 5) î + t2 − 6t + 48 ĵ and
~rB (t) = (t + 11) î + (7t + 6) ĵ for t ≥ 0 . Calculate:
b. the distance between the particles when t = 9.
9. A particle moves along a curve defined by ~r (t) = (2 + 3 sec(t)) î + (4 tan(t) − 1) ĵ for t ≥ 0. Determine
the Cartesian equation of the path, and sketch the graph, stating its domain and range.
10. The acceleration of a body moving in a straight line is given by:
a (t) = 8 − 14t m/s2 . Initially, the body is at rest at x = 5. Calculate:
a. the velocity at any time
b. the position at any time
c. the time and position when the velocity is 0 m/s.
11. A particle moves so that its position vector is given by ~r (t) = 3t4 î + 2t2 ĵ + e2t k̂. Determine:
a. the velocity vector
b. the acceleration vector.
12. The acceleration of a particle is given by ~r ̈ (t) = (6t − 4) î, where t ≥ 0 is the time. If initially the
velocity vector is ~r ̇ (t) = 5ĵ and the initial position is ~r (0) = 4î − 2ĵ + k̂, calculate the position vector at
time t.
Complex familiar
13. A particle of mass 13 kg rotates with a constant speed of 36 m/s in a circular path of radius 12 metres.
Determine the following:
c. the acceleration vector after 4 seconds.
14. A ball is dropped from a tower that is 60 metres above the ground level.
a. Calculate how long it takes the stone to reach the ground.
b. Determine the speed of the stone on impact.
15. A girl throws a ball from the top of a hill 3 metres above ground level with an initial speed of 12 m/s at
an angle of 42° to the horizontal.
a. Calculate the time of flight and the horizontal distance.
16. A particle rotates with constant speed in a circular path according to the position vector,
~r (t) = (10 cos(5t)) î + (10 sin(5t)) ĵ, for t ≥ 0.

a. Determine the radius of the circular path.
b. Calculate the speed, v, at which the particle moves.
Complex unfamiliar
17. a. When a projectile is fired at an angle of√𝛼 with an initial speed of V from a cliff of height h for
maximum range R, provided that V < gR, show that:
V2 gR2 − V4
i. tan(𝛼) = ii. h =
gR 2V2 g
√
V√ 2 2(V2 + gh)
iii. R = V + 2gH iv. T = .
g g
b. A shot-putter can throw the shot with a release speed of 20 m/s. The shot leaves her hand 2 metres
above the ground. Calculate the maximum range, the angle of projection and the time of flight.
ab x
18. A curve given by the Cartesian equation y = , where a and b are positive constants, is called the
x + a2
2
serpentine curve.
dy ab (a − x) (a + x)
a. Show that = ( 2 )2 and that the graph of the serpentine curve has turning points at
dx x + a2
( ) ( )
b b
a, and −a, − .
2 2
( 2 )
d2 y 2abx x − 3a2
b. Show that = ( )3 and hence show that the points of inflection on the serpentine
dx2 x2 + a 2
( √ )
√ 3b
curve are given by ± 3a, ± .
4
b
c. Show that the vector equation of the serpentine curve is given by ~r (t) = a cot(t) î + sin(2t) ĵ for
2
t ≥ 0.
d. Sketch the graph of the serpentine curve.
19. a. The position vector of a moving particle is given by r(t) = 2 sin(t)î + (2 sin(t) tan(t))ĵ, for t > 0.
~
x2
Show that the particle moves along the curve y = √ .
4 − x2
a
b. A curve called the Witch of Agnesi is defined by the parametric equations x = at and y = .
1 + t2
a3
Show that Cartesian equation is given by y = .
a2 + x2
20. a. A particle moves so that its vector equation is given by r(t) = (5t − 2)î + (12t − 2)ĵ for t ≥ 0. Find
~
the closest distance of the particle from the origin.
b. A particle moves so that its vector equation is given by r(t) = (at + b)î + (ct + d)ĵ for t ≥ 0. Find the
~
Units 3 & 4 Sit exam

x2 y2
Answers 14. Hyperbola
25 9
− = 1, asymptotes y = ±
3x
5
; domain
(−∞, −5] ∪ [5, ∞), range R
4 Vector calculus y
Exercise 4.2 Position vectors as functions of
time: circles, ellipses and hyperbolas
√ √
1. a. 205 b. 10t2 − 10t + 5
√ (–5, 0) (5, 0)
10 0 x
c.
√2
2. a. 5 2 b. 9
3. a. t = 5, (16, 40)
b. (36, 180)
√
c. 5 5 y2 x2 3x
4. a. t = 4, (10, 7) b. (−2, 13) 15. Hyperbola −
= 1, asymptotes y = ± ; domain R,
√ 9 16 4
c. 41 range (−∞, −3] ∪ [3, ∞)
√ √ y
5. a. i. 5 2 ii. 5t2 − 10t + 10
√
iii. 5
√ √
b. i. 5 5 ii. 5 t2 + 1 (0, 3)
iii. √
5 √
6. a. i. 41 ii. 5 iii. 0, 2
√ 0 x
9 2
b. i. ii. 8
2 (0, –3)
7. a. a = 4, b = −3, c = 1, d = 3
b. a = 2, b = 5, c = 1, d = −3
8. a. t = 15, (2, 5) b. (8, −7) c. 15
16. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in
9. a. t = 2, (−2, 6); t = 5, (19, 12)
√ the online resources.
b. 8 26 17. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in
10. a. t = 12, (53, 74) b. (89, 56) the online resources.
√ 2
c. 80 5 18. a. Part of a parabola, y = x ; domain [0, ∞), range [0, ∞)
√ √ y
11. a. 2 b. 2
x2 y2 (2, 4)
12. Ellipse + = 1; domain [−3, 3], range [−4, 4]
9 16
y
(0, 0)
(0, 4) x
0
(–3, 0) (3, 0) b. Part of a straight line, y = 3x + 3; domain [−1, ∞),

0 x range [0, ∞)
y
(0, –4) (0, 3)
(–1, 0)
(x − 5)2 (y + 4)2 x
13. Ellipse + = 1; domain [3, 7], range 0
4 9
[−7, −1]
y
(5, –1)
0 x
(3, –4) (7, –4)
(5, –7)
2 1
19. a. y = ; domain [0, ∞), range [0, ∞) b. Part of a truncus, y = 2 + ; domain (0, 1],
x x2
y range [3, ∞)
y
x=0
(1, 3)
0 y=0 x
0 x
1
b. Part of a parabola, y = (x2 − 8x); domain [0, ∞), range x=0
4
[−4, ∞)
2
y c. Part of a parabola, y = 2 + x ; domain [1, ∞),
range [3, ∞)
y
(2, 6)
(0, 0) (8, 0)
0 x
(1, 3)
(4, –4)
0 x
√
c. Part of a hyperbola, y = x2 − 4; domain [2, ∞), 2 2
range R 21. a. Circle with centre at the origin, radius 3, x + y = 9;
domain [−3, 3], range [−3, 3]
y
y
(0, 3)
(2, 0)
0 x (–3, 0) (3, 0)
0 x
(0, –3)
1
20. a. Part of a hyperbola, y = ; domain (0, 1], range [1, ∞) x2 y2
x b. Ellipse with centre at the origin, + = 1; domain
y 16 9
[−4, 4], range [−3, 3]
y
(0, 3)
(1, 1)
0 x
(–4, 0) (4, 0)
0 x
x=0
(0, –3)
x2 y2
c. Hyperbola with centre at the origin, − = 1,
16 9
3x
asymptotes y = ± ; domain (−∞, −4] ∪ [4, ∞),
4
range R

[ ]
y 23. a. Part of a straight line, y = 1 − x; domain 0, 1 ,
[ ]
range 0, 1
y
(–4, 0) (4, 0)
0 x
(0, 1)
0 (1, 0) x
22. a. Circle with centre at (1, −2), radius

[ 3, ] [ ]
(x − 1)2 + (y + 2)2 = 9; domain −2, 4 , range −5, 1 2 2 [ ] [ ]
b. x 3 + y 3 = 1; domain −1, 1 , range −1, 1
y y
(1, 1)
(0, 1)
0 x
(–1, 0) 0 (1, 0) x
(–2, –2) (4, –2)
(1, –2) (0, –1)
(1, –5)
√ √ [ ] [ ]
2 2
c. y + x = 1; domain 0, 1 , range 0, 1
(x − 4) (y + 3)
b. Ellipse with centre at (4, −3), + = 1; y
[ ] [ ] 9 4
domain 1, 7 , range −5, −1
(0, 1)
y
0 (1, 0) x
0 (4, –1) x
(1, –3) (7, –3)

(4, –3)
(4, –5) the online resources.
25. a. y
1
c. Hyperbola with centre at (2, −4),
(x − 2)2 (y + 4)2 5x 22
− = 1, asymptotes y = − , (–1, 0) (1, 0)
9 25 3 3
0 x
5x 2
y=− − ; domain (−∞, −1] ∪ [5, ∞), range R
3 3
y
–1
b. y
1
0 x
(–1, –4) (5, –4)
–1 –0.5 0 0.5 1x
–1
26. a. y 9. a. 2.45 s b. 12.25 m
4
c. 13 m/s, 67.38° d. 7.35 m
x
3 e. y = − (49x − 600)
250
2 10. a. 1.67 s b. 40.14 m
c. 25 m/s, 16.26° d. 4.5 m
1 7x 49x2
e. y = 2 + −
24 5760
0 12 24 36
x 1
y
11. a. √ (î + 4ĵ)
b. 17
3
2 1
1
b. √ (î + 12ĵ)
145
–1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x 1
–1 c. √ (9î + ĵ)
–2 82
–3
1
d. √ (3î + 5ĵ)
34
Exercise 4.3 Differentiation of vectors 1
1. ĵ
12. a. √ (−î + ĵ)
2
1( √ )
2. − 3î + ĵ 1
2 b. √ (3î + ĵ)
3.
−2t 2t
a. e (1 − 2t)î + e (1 + 2t)ĵ 10
b. 2e 1
−2t 2t
c. − √ (î + 2ĵ)
c. 4(t − 1)e î + 4(t + 1)e ĵ 5
4. 4 kg m/s 1
5.
3 −2t
a. 8t î − 8 sin(2t)ĵ − 12e k̂ d. √ (î − 2ĵ)
2
b. 24t î − 16 cos(2t)ĵ + 24e k̂
−2t 5
1√ 1 2
6. 𝜋 4 + 1024e−4 13. a.
~r ̇ (t) = 2tî − (1 + t)2 ĵ, ~r(t)
̈ = 2î +
(1 + t)3
ĵ
2
7. a. (4, 1), (4, 5)
1 −1
̇ = î + (10t + 4)ĵ, r(t)
(x − 4)2 (y − 3)2
b.
~r(t) t ~̈ = t2 î + 10ĵ
t t
b. + = 1; domain [1, 7], range [1, 5] −
̇ = −4e 2 î + 8e2t ĵ, r(t)
c. r(t)
−
̈ = 2e 2 î + 16e2t ĵ
9 4 ~ ~
y 3
̇ =
d. r(t) î − 12 sin(3t)ĵ,
(4, 5) ~ 3t + 4
−9
̈ = î − 36 cos(3t)ĵ
(1, 3) (7, 3) ~r(t) (3t + 4)2
(4, 3) −2t 3
̇ = −2e î + (4t − 4t)ĵ + 10tk̂,
14. a.
~r(t)
(4, 1) ̈ = 4e−2t î + (12t2 − 4)ĵ + 10k̂
0 x ~r(t)
̇ = −6 sin(2t)î − 8 cos(2t)ĵ + (12 − 10t)k̂,
b.
~r(t)
~̈ = −12 cos(2t)î + 16 sin(2t)ĵ − 10k̂
r(t)
c. |r(t)|
̇ max = 4, |r(t)|
̇ min = 3 ̇ = (2t sin(2t) + 2t2 cos(2t))î
~ ~ c.
~r(t)
x2 y2 +e−2t (1 − 2t)ĵ + 10k,
8. a. − = 1; domain |x| ≥ 3, range R, asymptotes
9 4 ̈ = (8t cos(2t) + (2 − 4t2 ) sin(2t))î
2x ~r(t)
y=± + 4e−2t (t − 1)ĵ
3
y 2
~̇ = −3 sin(6t)î + 3t (cos(3t)
d. r(t)
−t sin(3t))ĵ + 2tk̂,
̈ = −18 cos(6t)î + ((6t − 9t3 ) cos(3t)
~r(t)
(–3, 0) (3, 0) −18t2 sin(3t))ĵ + 2k̂
0 x
15. a. Circle, x2 + y2 = 9
i.
The speed is 6.
ii.
~̈ = −4~r(t)
r(t)
iii.
Sample responses can be found in the worked
iv.
( √ ) ( √ )
√ 2 3 √ 2 3 solutions in the online resources.
b. 2 3, , −2 3, − b. i. The speed is 12.
3 3
ii. Sample responses can be found in the worked
solutions in the online resources.

16. a. i. Circle, (x − 2) + (y + 3) = 16
2 2 y
y
(6, 6)
(2, 1)
0 x
0 (2, 0) x
(–2, –3) (2, –3) (6, –3)
3
(2, –7) ii.
2
ii. Sample responses can be found in the worked iii. 3
solutions in the online resources. x2 y2
iii. 24 kg m/s 19. a. i. Hyperbola, − = 1; domain |x| ≥ 3, range R;
9
16
iv. 48 N 4x
v. −1 asymptotes y = ±
3
(x − 5)2 (y − 3)2 y
b. i. Ellipse, + =1
4 16
y
(5, 7) (–3, 0) (3, 0)
0 x
(5, 3)
(3, 3) (7, 3)
8
ii.
3
iii. 4
0 x
(x − 1)2 (y − 4)2
(5, –1) b. i. Hyperbola, −
= 1; domain
4 9
√ (−∞, −1] ∪ [3, ∞), range R, asymptotes
ii. 4 13 kg m/s 3x 11 3x 5
√ y=− + ,y= +
iii. 8 7 N 2 2 2 2
iv. |r(t)|
̇ max = 8, |r(t)|
̇ min = 4 y
~ ~
𝜋 7𝜋 13𝜋 19𝜋
v. , , ,
12 12 12 12 (–1, 4) (3, 4)
2 2 2
17. a. Circle, x + y = a
b – d. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions 0 x
in the online resources.
e. The motion is circular.
x2 y2 2𝜋 4𝜋
18. a. i. Hyperbola, − = 1; domain |x| ≥ 2, range R, ii. ,
4 9 3 3
3x 20. a. 2.04 s
asymptotes y = ± b. 20.4 m
2
y c. 14.14 m/s, 45°
d. 5.1 m
x
e. y=− (49x − 1000)
1000
Exercise 4.4 Integration of vectors

(–2, 0) (2, 0)
0 x 1. (2t2 − 4t + 5)î + (4 − 3t)ĵ
2. (5 − 2 cos(3t))î + (3 − 2e−2t )ĵ
3. (5 − 2t)î + (16t − t4 − 10)ĵ
4. (3t2 − 5)î + (t2 + 8t − 2)ĵ
5. (x + 2)2 + (y − 4)2 = 25; circle with centre (−2, 4),
radius 5
√ (x − 5)2 (y + 2)2
6. + = 1; ellipse with centre (5, −2),
3 2 9 25
ii.
2 semi-major and minor axes 3, 5
x y
b. i. Straight line, − = 1; domain [2, ∞),
2 3
range [0, ∞)
t
− 4 y
7. a. 3(1 − e 3 )î + t ĵ
2 5
b. t î + 3(1 − cos(2t))ĵ
( ( )) √
4
t 3
c. 3 + sin−1 î + (5 − t2 + 9 )ĵ 2
4
( ) 1
12
d. (5 + ln(2t + 1))î + 4 − ĵ
(3t + 2)2 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
–1
8. a. (3t2 + 2)î + (4t − 3)ĵ –2
b. (2t + 4)î + (2t2 + 1)ĵ –3
–4
c. (4t2 + 3)î + (3t2 − 2)ĵ
–5
d. (2t2 + 3)î + (t2 + 8t + 4)ĵ
9. a. (t3 − 4t2 + 5)î + (4t − 3)ĵ c. r(t) = 2 cos(2t)î + 3 sin(6t)ĵ
~
b. (8t + 7)î + (2t3 − 3t2 − 4)ĵ y
4
c. (t2 + 4t + 4)î + (t2 − 4t − 12)ĵ
3
d. (5 + 4t − t2 )î + (3t2 − 16t + 5)ĵ
( ) ( ) 2
1 1 1
10. a. t+ î+2 t− ĵ
t t
√ –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 x
b. 4 t î + (t2 − 10t + 25)ĵ –1
( ) –2
4 –3
c. (ln(3t + 1) + 4)î + −1 ĵ
2t + 1 –4
( )
1
d. (ln(3t + 1) + 3t + 2)î + 4t − ĵ
(2t + 1)2 Exercise 4.5 Straight line motion with constant
x2 4x and variable acceleration
11. a. y=− + + 2, x ≥ 0 2
45 3 1. a. i. 3t + 4t − 5 ii. 6t + 4
2
49x 1 1
b. y=− + 2x + 1, x ≥ 0 b. i. 4 − √ ii.
3
250 2 t+2 4 (t + 2) 2
1 t −t t −t
12. a. y= +3 c. i. e − 2e ii. e + 2e
x−4 1 1
32 d. i. 2t − ii. 2 +
b. y= −5 t+3 (t + 3)2
2−x 1 t
13. a. (x − 3) + (y − 5)2 = 4
2
e. i. √ ii.
3
b. (x + 7)2 + (y − 5)2 = 81 9 − t2 (9 − t 2 ) 2
(y − 5)2 f. i. 10 + 6t − 3t
2
ii. 6 − 6t
14. a. (x − 4)2 + =1 2. a. t = 1, 2 and 3
4 2
(x + 7) 2
(y − 3) 2 b. v = 3t − 12t + 11
√ √
b. + =1 6− 3 6+ 3
144 16 c. t = and
15. a. y = x2 − 4, [−2, 2], [−4, 0] 3 3
b. y = −3x(x − 2), [−1, 3], [−9, 3] d. −1 cm/s
16. a. t = 3, (4, 16) e. 6 cm
b. t = 5, (−7, 10) 1
3. a. Min, x = 1, max, x = 5 b. t =
17. a. (x − a)2 + (y − b)2 = r2 3
𝜋
(x − h)2 (y − k)2 c. t = d. a = −9x + 27
b. + =1 3
a2 b2 3 2
18. a. r(t) = (2 cos(t) − cos(2t))î + (2 sin(t) − sin(2t))ĵ 4. a. x = 2t − t − 8t + 2 b. x = 12t − 2
~ y 4
c. t = s d. 7 m
3 3
2 e. 14 m/s
2
1 2 3 9 2
5. a. x = t − t + 4t − 1 b. ẍ = 4t − 9
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 x 3 2
–1 1
–2
c. t = , t = 4 d. 7 cm
–3 2
2
b. r(t) = (4 cos(t) + cos(4t))î + (4 sin(t) − sin(4t))ĵ e. 3.5 cm/s f. cm/s
~ 3
6. a. v = 6t − 6t2
b. x = 3t2 − 2t3 + 4
c. t = 0, x = 4 and t = 1, x = 5
d. 29 m

2t 2
7. a. v = 2e − t + 3t 11. a. i. 2.04 s
2t
1 3
3 2 ii. 35.35 m
b. x = e − t + t −1
3 2 iii. 5.10 m
c. 406.93 cm b. i. 47.82 m/s
8. a. D b. B ii. 13.65 m
9. C iii. 3.34 s
10. a. 0 m/s 12. a. i. 4.9 m
1 (2 ) ii. 30 m/s
b. x = ln t + 1
2 iii. 31.56 m/s, 18.1°
1 − t2 iv. Sample responses can be found in the worked
c. a = solutions in the online resources.
(t2 + 1)2
b. i. 19.6 m
d. 0.5 m/s
1
1 ii. 8 m
e. − m/s2 3
8 iii. 46.05 m/s, 25.19°
−t
11. a. x = 10e − 10
13. a. i. 5.30 s ii. 37.45 m
b. v(m/s)
iii. 2.55 m iv. 45.39 m/s, 81°
v= 10e–t–10
b. i. 30 m ii. 43.03 m
0 t(s) iii. 1.34 m iv. 28.51 m/s, 60.4°
v = –10 14. a. 76.38°, 24.94° b. 0°, 26.57°
15. a. i. 186.03 m ii. 2205 m iii. 140 m/s
c. 11 s
−1
b. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions
12. a. x = 4 tan (t) + 1 b. v = 4 m/s, t = 0
in the online resources.
−8t 16. a. i. 35.26°
c. a = d. −2 m/s2
(1 + t 2 )2 ii. 8.66 s
13. a. v = −2 cos 2t iii. 69.31 m/s, 54.75°
b. x = −sin 2t b. i. 19.68 m/s
c. a = −4x√ ii. 39.17 m
d. a = 2 4 − v2 iii. 20.41 m/s, 37.85°
14. a. B b. D c. A 17. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in
15. a. 4 m/s b. 50 m the online resources.
16. a. −1.6 m/s2 b. 32 m/s 18. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in
17. a. 8.16 s b. 97.98 m/s the online resources.
18. a. ±53.67 m/s b. 12.6 s or 0.7s 19. a. 29.13 m/s
19. a. 78.4 m b. 8s b. 10.54°
20. a. 3.2 s b. 31.3 m/s c. 3.4 metres
21. a. 78.4 m b. 39.2 m/s d. i. 1.5 seconds
ii. 42.95 metres
Exercise 4.6 Projectile motion iii. 12.42 kg m/s
1. a. 2.45 s b. 12.24 m c. 7.35 m 20. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in
2. 10 m/s, 60° the online resources.
3. a. 3.54 s, 87 metres 21. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in
b. 15.61 metres the online resources.
c. 30.16 m/s, 35.43°
d. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions Exercise 4.7 Circular motion
in the online resources. 1. a. v (t) = (−7 sin(7t)) î + (7 cos(7t)) ĵ
4. a. 1.92 s, 34.7 metres
~ ( )
b. a (t) = −49 cos(7t) î + sin(7t) ĵ = −49r(t)
b. 5.45 metres ~ ~
c. 20.86 m/s, 29.68° 2. a. v (t) = (−6 sin(3t)) î + (6 cos(3t)) ĵ
~ ( )
d. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions b. a (t) = −18 cos(3t) î + sin(3t) ĵ = −18r(t)
in the online resources. ~ ~
3. a. r = 5
5. 86.42°, 2.11° A particle rotates with constant speed in a circular path
6. a. 35.26°
according to the position vector,
b. 8.66 seconds
c. 69.31 m/s, 54.75° ~r (t) = (5 cos(2t)) î + (5 sin(2t)) ĵ, for t ≥ 0
b. v = 10 m/s
7. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in 3
the online resources. 4. a. 𝜔 = rad/s
2
b. r (4) ≈ 7.681î − 2.235ĵ
~
the online resources.
9. a. 2.53 s, 43.36 metres b. 15.47 m/s, 55.77° c. r ̇ (4) ≈ 3.353î + 11.522ĵ
~
10. a. 3 s
~r ̈ (4) ≈ −17.283î + 5.029ĵ
b. 62.06 metres 5. a. 𝜔 = 2 rad/s
c. 26.13 m/s, 36.65°
√
r (3) ≈ 1.920î − 0.559ĵ
b. ~ b. |rB (9) − rA (9) | = 333 m
~ ~ ]
c. r ̇ (3) ≈ 1.920î − 0.559ĵ 9. hyperbola, centre (2, −1) dom (−∞, −1 ∪ [5, ∞) ran R
~
y
~r ̈ (3) ≈ −7.681î + 2.235ĵ 8
3 6
6. a. 𝜔 = rad/s
10 4
r (1) ≈ 76.427î + 23.642ĵ
b. ~ 2
c. r ̇ (1) ≈ −7.092î + 22.928ĵ –8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8 10 x

~ –2
r ̈ (1) ≈ −6.878î − 2.128ĵ –4
~ –6
2
d. |~
r ̈ (1) | ≈ 7.200 m /s –8
20𝜋 –10
e. T = s
3 10. a. v (t) = 8t − 7t
2
7. a. v = 12𝜋 m/s
b. |r ̈ (t) | = |a (t) | = 48𝜋 2 m /s
2 7 3 2
~ ~ b. x(t) = − t + 4t + 5
8. a. 𝜔 = 12𝜋 rad/s 3 ( )
b. v = 288𝜋 m/s 991 8
c. x(0) = 5 m, x = m
35 7 147
9. 𝜔= rad/s 3 2t
4 11. a. v(t) = 12t î + 4tĵ + 2e k̂
2𝜋 ~
2 2t
10. a. 𝜔 = radians/hour b. a(t) = 36t î + 4ĵ + 4e k̂
13 ~ ( )
3 2
b. v ≈ 14 016.336 km/hour
𝜋
12.
~r(t) = t − 2t + 4 î + (5t − 2) ĵ + k̂
13. a. 𝜔 = 3 rad/s
11. a. 𝜔 = rad/s
62 b. r (4) = 10.126î − 6.439ĵ
7𝜋
~
c. r ̈ (4) = −91.136î + 57.950ĵ
b. v = m/s ≈ 0.355 m/s ~
62 14. a. t = 3.50 s b. 34.30 m/s
7𝜋 2 2
( 2
) 15. a. The ball travels a horizontal distance of 17.251 metres.
c. |a| =
~ 3844 m /s a ≈ 0.018 m /s The total time of flight is 2.033 seconds.
2𝜋 b. The maximum height reached is 6.673 metres.
12. a. 𝜔 = rad/s c. The ball makes a 53.340° angle with the ground and
5
16𝜋 lands with a speed of 14.242 m/s.
b. v = m/s (v ≈ 10.053 m/s) 16. a. r = 10 b. v = 50 m/s
5
17. V
32𝜋 2 ( )
c. |a| = m /s2 a ≈ 12.633 m /s2
~ 25 α
13. a. ∴ T = 1 s
0
b. 𝜔 = 2𝜋 rad/s
c. v = 1.2𝜋 m/s h
2
d. |a| = 2.4𝜋 2 m /s
~
14. The diameter of the circle: D = 2.986 m R
a. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions
4.8 Review: exam practice in the online resources.
b. R = 42.77 m
1. C
𝛼 = 43.7°
2. A
T = 2.96 s
3. C
18. a - c. Sample responses can be found in the worked
4. A
solutions in the online resources.
5. D y
d. b
x2 y2 –
2
6. a. p: + = 1, t ≥ 0
9 16 y=— abx
2 2 x2 + a2
x y
q: +
= 1, t ≥ 0
169 –a 0 a x
( )( )( )( )
12 12 −12 12 −12 −12 12 −12
b. , , , , , ,
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
( ) b
––
𝜋 √ √ 2
~ 4 = 4 2ĵ + 3 2ĵ
7. a. r 19. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in
( ) the online resources.
5𝜋 √
14
~ 6 = −4 3ĵ + 3ĵ
b. r
20. a. |r (t) |min =
~ 13
x2 y2 ( )
c. + =1 − (ab + cd) ad − bc
64 36 b. ~ r 2 2
= √
8. a. The particles collide at 17î + 48ĵ after 6 seconds of flight. a +c a2 + c2

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4 Vector calculus

CHAPTER 4 Vector calculus 189

CHAPTER 4 Vector calculus 191

~rB (10) = (20 − 10)î + (20 − 4)ĵ

4.2.2 Parametric and Cartesian equations of circles, ellipses

CHAPTER 4 Vector calculus 193

TI | THINK WRITE CASIO | THINK WRITE

2. Parametric equations can 2. Parametric equations can

3. Complete the entry 3. Complete the entry

4. Press the ENTER button. 4. Press the EXE button.

CHAPTER 4 Vector calculus 195

appropriate trigonometric identity to x2 y2

Units 3 & 4 Area 2 Sequence 3 Concepts 1&2

Exercise 4.2 Position vectors as functions of time: circles,

CHAPTER 4 Vector calculus 197

~r(t) = (2t − 7)î + (2t + 2)ĵ for t ≥ 0. Determine:

CHAPTER 4 Vector calculus 199

The derivative of a vector function

𝛿r r(t + 𝛿t) − ~r(t) 𝛿r

d~r x(t + 𝛿t)î + y(t + 𝛿t)ĵ − (x(t)î + y(t)ĵ)

4.3.2 Rules for differentiating vectors

Derivative of a constant vector

4.3.3 Vectors describing motion

CHAPTER 4 Vector calculus 201

Vectors describing motion

4.3.4 Extension to three dimensions

CHAPTER 4 Vector calculus 203

4.3.5 The gradient of the curve

CHAPTER 4 Vector calculus 205

4.3.6 Applications of vector calculus

Units 3 & 4 Area 2 Sequence 3 Concept 3

CHAPTER 4 Vector calculus 207

CHAPTER 4 Vector calculus 209

Acceleration vector to position vector

CHAPTER 4 Vector calculus 211

Acceleration, velocity and position vectors

~c2 = 5î(− 3ĵ) ( )

CHAPTER 4 Vector calculus 213

Units 3 & 4 Area 2 Sequence 3 Concept 4

Exercise 4.4 Integration of vectors

~r(0) = 5î + ĵ, determine the position vector at time t.

CHAPTER 4 Vector calculus 215

CHAPTER 4 Vector calculus 217

4.5.2 Motion with variable acceleration

x(t) = 2t3 + t ln(t) − 4, t > 0

where c1 is a constant due to integration; generally it is the initial velocity, v (0).

CHAPTER 4 Vector calculus 219

4.5.3 Motion under constant acceleration

Motion under constant acceleration

CHAPTER 4 Vector calculus 221

2. At its maximum height, the velocity vt = 0 at the ball’s maximum height.

CHAPTER 4 Vector calculus 223

Units 3 & 4 Area 2 Sequence 3 Concept 5

Exercise 4.5 Straight line motion with constant and variable

CHAPTER 4 Vector calculus 225

v (t) = 6t2 − 2t − 8 m/s

a (t) = 6 − 12t m/s2

Initially, the body is at rest at x = 4. Determine:

a. MC The particle is stationary when t is equal to:

If the body starts at the origin, determine:

Determine the velocity at any time t.

where the initial displacement is 1 m. Determine:

CHAPTER 4 Vector calculus 227

4.6 Projectile motion