BioMax SAT 2 TO THE POINT Dr.

Amr Alaa 0567573420

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BioMax SAT 2 TO THE POINT Dr. Amr Alaa 0567573420
Chapter 3: Cell Cycle and Division
Homologous chromosomes
 Same size, shape, and genes but different alleles
Chromosomal number in human somatic (body) cells
 46 (diploid - 2 copies of each chromosome - 2n)
 In female 44 autosomes (somatic chromosomes) + XX (sex chromosomes)
 In male 44 autosomes (somatic chromosomes) + XY (sex chromosomes)
Chromosomal number in human sex cells (gametes)
 23 (haploid - 1 copy of each chromosome - n)
 Male gametes (sperms) contain 22 autosomes + X or Y
 Female gametes (ova) contain 22 autosomes + X
Cell Cycle
Human cells divide, except muscle, Nervous tissues (brain and spinal cord
(CNS)), and gametes.
Interphase: (non-dividing) (DNA=Chromatin)
 Gl: duplication of organelles (longest phase)
 S: duplication of DNA (Chromatin)
 G2: preparation for cell division (Double check)
 Error (mutation) in cell division causes cancer
Mitotic/ Meiotic phase: (Division) (DNA+Histon=Chromosomes)
• Karyokinesis: nuclear division (Chromosomes)
• Cytokinesis: cytoplasmic division

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Mitosis Meiosis I Meiosis II

Function As. reproduction Growth Sexual reproduction (gametes) Spermatogenesis -
oogenesis
Chromosomes Identical Homologous Sister chromatids
Produced cells 2 (2n) 2 (2n) 4 (n)
Interphase   x
Crossing over x  x
Variation x  


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 Diploid cells: Somatic cell (body cell) and Gametophyte (Gonads cells) = 2n (contain pairs of homologous
chromosomes that are structurally similar but differ in genetic content.
 Haploid cells: Gametes and spores in plant = n
 Offspring receives the half of chromosomes number vi gametes. Ex: Diploid cell contains 24 chromosomes so the
gametes contain 12 chromosomes or the offspring will receive 12 chromosomes from each parent.
 Duplicated Chromosomes = 2 chromatids. Ex: Chromosomes = 8 so chromatids = 16
 I: Meiosis II: Fertilization (sperm+egg) III & IV: Mitosis
Adult(2n)----gametes(n)----zygote(2n)---Embryo(2n)---adult (2n)
 Chromosomes move toward the poles of the spindle in animal cell
right after the centromeres in chromatid pair separate.
 Forms of Growth and tissue repairs:
a. Growth of embryonic tissues. b. Repair of damaged tissues. c. regeneration of
limbs.
 Anaphase I and Anaphase II:
Anaphase I: Homologous chromosomes are segregated (separate) to chromosomes. While in anaphase II chromosomes
are segregated to chromatids.
 Spindle fibers are attached to the centromeres so chromosomes move (transmit). No centromeres, no spindle
fiber attachment, no Chromosomes are transmitted.
 Spindle fiber can move in two directions (back and forth).
 Gametophyte –cells of gonads(testis and ovary) are diploid cells (2n) that divide by 2 steps meiosis to form
gametes.
 Undifferentiated cells (stem cells): cells with no specific type Ex: Zygote-morula. Differentiated cells are cells with
specific type. Ex: Skin, muscle, blood cells.
 Meiosis in higher plant form haploid spores.
 Sperm small motile cell by flagella. While egg (ovum) is large non-motile cell.
 After the completion of one cell cycle the number of cell is doubled. (1 → 2 → 4 → 8 → 16 → …ect)
 The cell plate is originated from the middle of the cell up to the cell wall.

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BioMax SAT 2 TO THE POINT Dr. Amr Alaa 0567573420

Chapter 4: Cellular Respiration

Aerobic cellular respiration
Exergonic reaction; releases energy from glucose C6H12O6 + 602 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + 36 ATP (energy)
Location Release
Glycolysis Cytoplasm 2 pyruvates, 2NADH+, 2ATP
Pyruvate oxidation Mitochondrial matrix 2NADH+ , 2Acetyl CoA, 2CO2
Krebs cycle Mitochondrial matrix 4CO2,6NADH+ 2FADH2,2ATP
Electron transport Inner mitochondrial Water (1/202+H2→H2O)
chain (oxidative membrane by NADH+→ 3ATP
phosphorylation) cytochrome C enzyme FADH2 → 2ATP
Chemiosmosis Inner mitochondria' H+ gradient is setup to form
membrane ATP by ATP synthase

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BioMax SAT 2 TO THE POINT Dr. Amr Alaa 0567573420
Respiration is measured by:
1. CO2 released by seedlings in that makes lime water turbid
2. Respirometer by measuring volume of 02 consumed by seedlings

Anaerobic respiration - fermentation

1. Alcoholic fermentation (yeast): glucose(2 Pyruvate) → Ethanol + CO2 + 2ATP
2. Acid fermentation (bacteria): glucose (2 Pyruvate)→ lactic acid + 2ATP

Cramp: accumulation of lactic acid in muscles during exercises

Cellular Respiration and Burning

Cellular Respiration Burning
Heat Production Both Both
O2 /requirement Both Both
Amount of energy Low High
released
Hydrocarbon formation NO Yes
Temperature required Low High
 Krebs’ Cycle includes the following:
1. Carbon dioxide production (major step of CO2 production)
2. Energy released from this cycle in the form of NADH and FADH2 is used in ATP formation by chemiosmosis.
3. Specific enzyme is required of the reaction is found in mitochondrial matrix.
4. Hydrogen ion and NAD+ with high energy electron are required to form NADH>

 Lactic acid is produced in the muscle when oxygen is insufficient.

 Glucose is the initial reactant (substrate) of glycolysis.
 Indication of cellular respiration occurrence:
1. Decrease of oxygen level in the system (increase O2 consumption)
2. Increase CO2 production.
3. Increase Glucose consumption.

 Pyruvate is the intermediate chief product of cellular respiration.

 Oxidation of Glucose = cellular respiration = formation of ATP
 Respiration, anaerobic respiration and photosynthesis form ATP.
 Process of ATP production by ATP synthase is called chemiosmosis.
 Fermentation produces no ATP
 Sliding of actin and myosin myofibrils (microfilaments) requires the usage of ATP.
 Krebs’ cycle produces the majority of CO2, While ETC (oxidative phosphorylation) produces the majority of
ATP (32 ATP).
 Number of moles = number of molecules = coefficient.

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BioMax SAT 2 TO THE POINT Dr. Amr Alaa 0567573420
Chapter 5: Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis
Endergonic reaction (absorb light energy by chlorophyll) Light energy + 6CO2 + 6H2O + C6H12O6 (glucose) + 6O2

1- Light reaction (Light Dependent) in grana

 Chlorophyll converts light energy into chemical energy (ATP)
 Light energy breaks down H2O into Electrons, hydrogen and released oxygen (Photolysis)
 Electrons lost by P.S I is compensated by electrons of P.S II
 Electrons lost by P.SII is compensated by electrons of water splitting
 H2+ NADP+ (hydrogen carrier) → NADPH.H+
2- Dark reaction - Calvin cycle – (Light independent) (Carbon Fixation) in stroma
 6CO2 + RUBP (Chief intermediated of Dark reaction)→ PGA (carbon fixation)
 PGA + (ATP, NADPH) from light reaction → PGAL + glucose
Important points for experiments
 Chlorophyll absorbs all colors except green
 Chlorophyll is removed by boiling alcohol
 Glucose is stored as starch which is detected by iodine (blue color)
 Rate of photosynthesis is measured by CO2 consumed or 02 released
 Oxygen is released from water
 The most photosynthetic tissue is palisade mesophyll in leaves

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 Testing the presence of Starch:
Starch Test: Add Iodine-KI reagent to a solution
or directly on a potato or other materials such as
bread, crackers, or flour. A blue color results
if starch is present. If starch amylose is not
present, then the color will stay orange or
yellow. The degree of blue color is determine
according to the amount of starch. Dark blue
indicates the presence of high amount of starch
(long period of photosynthesis). While light blue
indicates the presence of few amount of starch
(short period of photosynthesis)
 Indications of photosynthesis occurrence:  Facts about Photosynthesis:
1. Increase CO2 consumption. 1. Happen in all Plants
2. Increase O2 production. 2. ATP consumed IS NOT more than ATP produced. 3. Requires
3. Increase Glucose (starch) production. CO2 and produce O2
4. Initiated by the absorption of energy.
5. RUBP is the chief intermediate of dark reaction (Calvin Cycle)
Feeding Pattern
A. Autotroph: self- feeder: make their own food (organic compound) using the energy of
 Light (Photoautotroph) Ex: Plant-Algae- Some bacteria as cyanobacteria
 Inorganic chemicals (Chemoautotroph) Ex: iron oxidizing bacteria – nitrifying bacteria
B. Heterotroph: non-self feeder: depends on other living organism for obtaining organic compounds.
 Consumer
 Decomposers
 Scavengers

 Chlorophyll plays important role in light dependent reaction of photosynthesis.

 Oxygen produced by photosynthesis is formed by the splitting of water molecules by a process is called Photolysis
during light reaction of photosynthesis.

 The sources of the oxygen in glucose that is formed by photosynthesis is CO2

 # of moles = # of molecules = coefficient

Light Dependent reaction Light independent reaction
Requirements/reactants Products Requirements/reactants Products
H2O NADPH CO2 C6H12O6
Chemicals
Light ATP NADPH
+
NADP O2 ATP
Site Thylakoid membrane Stroma of chloroplast
 ↑ Temperature → ↑ metabolic rate → ↑ water loss by cellular respiration.
In plants: plants become more flexible.
In animals: sweating and panting
 Photosynthetic bacteria contain chlorophyll but no chloroplast.