“This portable MP3-CD player contains éccits that are deat least in part The audio signal is ac) The citeuit diagram Telos shows a possible amplifier éreuit for euch st Although the large triangle is an Amplifier chip containing, tansistors (discwssed in Chapter 29), the other éreuit elements are ones we have mel, resistors and capacitors and ve charinel discuss them in citcuits in this | Chapter, We ako discuss voltmeters ‘and ammeter and how they are built land used to make measurements CHAPTER 1 9 DC Circuits TABLE 19-1 Symbols for Circuit Elements Symbol Deview + attery df oF Ie Capacitor we Resistor — Wire with nostigibve Switch Ground emf defined Ss Px sets to computers and automobiles Scientific measurements, rom physics to biology and medicine, make use of elect eirents. In Chapter 18, we dliseussed the hase principles of electric current. Now we will apply these princi- ples to analyze de cireuits involving combinations of batteries, resistor, and capacitors, We aso study the operation of some useful instruments ‘When we draw a diagram for a circuit, we represent batteries, capacitors, tnd resistors by the symbols shown in Table 19-1. Wires whose resistance negligible compared with other resistance in the circuit are drawn simply as straight lines. Some eitcuit dingrams show a ground symbol (Lor 4+) which ‘may mean a real eonnection to the ground, perhaps via a metal pipe, or it may simply mean a common connection, such as the frame ofa car. For the most part inthis Chapter. except in Section 19-6 on RC ctcuits, we will be interested in cicuits operating in their steady state. That is, we Won't be looking ata eitcuit at the moment a change is made in it, such as when a battery or resistor is connected or disconnected, but rather a short time later when the currents have reached their steady values El EMF and Terminal Voltage To have current in an electric circuit, we need a device such as a battery or an electric generator that transforms one type of energy (chemical, mechanical, or light, for example) into electric energy. Such a device is called a source of electromotive force or of emf, (The term “electromotive force” is a misnomer since it does not refer to a “force” that is measured in newtons, Hence, to avoid confusion, we prefer to use the abbreviation, emt) The potential aifference between the terminals of such a source, when no current flows to an external circuit, is ealled the emf of the source. The symbol @ is usually used for emt (Gon't confuse it with E for electric field), and its unit is volts. E lectric circuits are basic parts of all electronic deviegs trom radio and TV ‘AC sires that conan only a oltage souree and esstors ean be amulet the de eri in us Chapter. However, ae cleus that contain expacitors snd ier cele elements ate move ‘omplcated and we discuss them in Chapter 2A battery i not a source of constant current—the current out of a battery q CAUTION varies according (0 the resistance in the circuit. A battery i, however, a nearly iy faery nelage HOT constant vollage source, but not perfectly constant as we now diseuss You may «stant have noticed in your own experience that when a current is drawn from a battery the potential difference (voltage) acros its terminals drops below its rated em For example if you start a car with the headlights on, you may notice the headlights dim. This happens because the starter draws a large Current, and the battery vollage drops as a result. The voltage drop occurs because the Chemical reactions in a battery cannot supply charge fast enough 10 maintain the full emf. For one thing, charge must move (within the electrolyte) between the electrodes of the batiery, and there is always some hindrance to completely free flow. Thus, a battery itself has some resistance, which is called its fmternal resistance i is usually designated r. ‘Areal battery modeled ast were a perfect emf # in series witha esitOr 7, AGURE 19-1. Diagram for an asshown in Fg, 19-1, Sine this resistance ris inside the battery, we ean never separ electric cell ot batters rate it from the battery. The two points a and b in the diagram represent the io terminals of the battery What we measure ithe terminal voltage Vig = V,— Vy. vminal voltage When no curtent is drawn from the battery, the terminal voltage equals the em ‘hich is determined by the chemical reactions inthe battery: Viy = &. However, when a current 7 flows naturally from the battery there is an internal drop in Voltage equal (oT: Thus the terminal voltage (ihe actual voltage) is Vy = 8 Ie (9-1) For example if 12-V battery has an internal resistance of 0.1 then when 10.4 flows from the batters the terminal voltage is 12V — (10 A}(0.1 2) = HV The internal resistance of a battery is usually small. For example, an ordinary flashlight battery when fresh may have an internal resistance of perhaps 0.05 0. (However, as it ages and the electrolyte dries ou, the internal resistance increases to many ohms) Car batteries have lower internal resistance. Battery with internal resistance. A 65.0.0 resistor is ‘connected to the terminals ofa battery whose emf is 12.0 V and whose internal resistance is 0.50, Fig. 19-2. Caleulate (a) the current in the eiscuit, (b) the FIGURE 19-2 Example 19-1 terminal voltage of the batters, Vy, and (c) the power dissipated in the resistor R R= 6500 and in the battery's internal resistance 7, APPROACH We first consider the battery as a whole, which is shown in { Fig. 19-2 as an emt & and internal resistance r between points a and b. Then wwe apply V = IR to the circuit itselt. ‘he b SOLUTION (a) From Eq. 19-1, we have Vay = 6 Ir ‘We apply Ohm’s law (Eq. 18-2) to this battery and the resistance R of the cireuity Vig = TR. ence TR = €~ Trot €=1(R +r), and so z ov 0V Ror 65004050 asso Ol A (0) The terminal voltage is Vay = € — I= 120V ~ (0.189.A)(059) = 1.9V (6) The power dissipated (Eq. 18-6) in Ris Py = PR = (0183 A)(65.0.0) = 2.18W, and in ris P, = Pr = (0.183 A)"(05 2) = 0.02W. EXERCISE A Repeot Example 19-1 assuming now that the resistance whereas @ and r remain as before 09, ‘when a batty boing charge. current i forced topos through we them have to Write Vig = 8+ Tr See Example 19-9 o¢ Problem 24 and Fig. 19-3 SECTION 19-1 EMF and Terminal Voltage 521In much of what follows, unless stated otherwise, we assume that the battery's internal resistance is negligible, and that the battery voltage given is is terminal voltage, which we will usually write simply as V rather than Vay. And don’t confuse V (italic) for voltage and V (not italic) for the volt unit Ha Resistors in Series and in Parallel When two or more resistors are connected end to end along a single path as shown in Fig, 19-3n, they are said to be connected in series. The resistors could be simple resistors as were pictured in Fig. 18-11, or they could be lightbulbs (Fig, 19-3b), o heating elements, or other resistive devices. Any charge that passes through R, in Fig, 19-3a will also pass through R, and then Ry. Hence the same current F passes through each resistor. (If it did not, this would imply that either charge was not conserved, oF that charge was accumulating at some point in the cireuit, which does not happen in the steady state.) FIGURE 19-3, (a) Resistances connected in seties.(b) Resistances could be lightbulbs, or any other type of resistance, (¢) Equivalent single resistance Re, that draws the same currents Ry = Ri + Rp + Ry C 1 v, v; ¥ 1 Sees ciate noluager add: ‘eurrent the samen acs R Resitancesin series 522 CHAPTER 19 DC Circuits @ +4 © v a ==) We let V represent the potential difference (voltage) across all three vesis- tors in Fig. 19—3a, We assume all other resistance in the cireuit can be ignored, so V equals the terminal voltage supplied by the battery. We let ¥;, V3, and Vy be the potential differences across each of the resistors, Ry. Rs, and Rs, respectively. From Ohm’s law, V = JR, we can write Vj = JR), V; — IR. and V; = TR. Because the resistors are connected end to end, energy conservation, Cells us that the total voltage V is equal to the sum of the voltages! across each resistor: Vat a IR + IR +R, [series] (19-2) Now let us determine the equivalent single resistance Rig that would draw the same current [as our combination of three resistors in series: sce Fig, 19-3 Such a single resistance R., would be related to V by V = Ray We equate this expression with By, 19-2, V = 1(Ry + Ry + Ry), and find Reg = Rt Rt Ry. [series] 9-3) ‘This is, in fact, what we expect. When we put several resistances in series, the {otal or equivalent resistance is the sum of the separate resistances, (Sometimes. we may also call it the “net resistance.") This sum applies to any number of resistances in series, Note that when you add more resistanee to the circuit, the current through the circuit will decrease. For example, if a 12-V battery is, connected to a 42 resistor, the current will be 3A. But if the 12-V battery is Tse in more dt why this stn, ote that an lve change psig high nes an anno tent ene eau to ¥-Tn psig throu Rs Rs, he potential exergy MF decreases hy gad UU; foratoral Are ql + ght aX: shssum mustexual he ence sien tog bythe bt gV90 that energy consarsd Hepes gV’ ~ q(¥;+ Ve Vi) andaa V~ V; Vs + V5, which Eg 19-2connected to three 4409 resistors in series, the total resistanee is 12.0 and the ‘current through the entire cireuit will be only 1 A. Another simple way (© connect resistors is in parallel, so that the current from the source splits into separate branches or paths, as shown in Fig, 19-4a, ‘The wiring in houses and buildings is arranged so all electric devices are in parallel, as we already saw in Chapter 18, Fig. 18-20, With parallel wiring, if you disconnect one device (say, Ry in Fig, 19-4a), the current to the other devices is not interrupted. Compare to a serics circuit, where if one device (say, Ry in Fig, 19-3n) is disconnected, the current is stopped to all the others. FIGURE 19. (a) Resistanees connected in parallel (b) The resistances could be lightbulbs, (6) The equivalent circuit with Reg obtained from Eq, 19-4 In a parallel circuit, Fig, 19-4a, the total current 7 that leaves the battery splits into three separate paths. We let J,, fs, and J, be the currents through each of the resistors, Ry, Rs, and Ry, respectively. Because electric charge i conserved, the current 1 flowing into junction A (where the different wires or conductors meet, Fig 19-4a) must equal the current flowing out ofthe junction. Thus Tehth+ Parallel circuit: [paraitel] cewrrems a Soltage the samme across each R When resistors are connected in parallel, each has the same voltage across it (Indeed, any wo points in a circuit connected by a wire of negligible resis- lance are ai the same potential.) Hence the full voltage of the battery is applied to each resistor in Fig. 19-4a, Applying Ohm’s law (0 each resistor, we have v v v nage bag md ba Let us now determine what single resistor R., (Fig. 19-4e) will draw the same current 7 as these three resistances in parallel. This equivalent resistance Rag must satisfy Ohm's law too: me ‘We now combine the equations above: Ta hthth. voviviy ¥ov vv Ra RRR When we divide out the V from each term, we have Llivaia patty arallel] (19-4) Kesisances in parallel Ra Ip: ] 9-4) a ROR For example, suppose you connect two 4-02 loudspeakers to a single set of ‘output terminals ot your stereo amplifier or receiver. (Ignore the other channel for a moment—our two speakers are both connected to the left channel, say.) SECTION 19-2 Resistors in Series and in Parallel 523‘The equivalent resistance ofthe two 4-0 “resistors” in parallel is Playa 2 Ra 40 304020 and s0 Rey = 20. Thus the net (or equivalent) resistance i esr than each Single resisthnee. This may at fst sem surprising But remember that when you Connect resistors in parallel, you are giving the current ational paths to fellox Hence the net resistance wil be les, "An analogy ty hep Heres Consider two identical pipes taking in water near the top ofa dam and releasing it below ay shown in Pi. 19-5. The Braviational potental difference, proportional tothe height hs the same for both pipes jst ts the voltage i the some for parallel restore TF bath pipes ne open, rather than only oe, twice as much water will ow through That i, with Two equal FIGURE 19-5. Wiser pipes in pipes open, the net resistance to the flow of water will be reduced, by half, just as paallel_—analogy w cleric for electrical resistors in parallel. Note that if both pipes are closed, the dam (arent in parallel offers infinite resistance to the flow of water. This corresponds in the electrical case to an open circuit—when the path is not continuous and no current flows— so the electrical resistance is infinite, [CONCEPTUAL EXAMPLE 19-2] Series or parallel? (a) The lightbulbs in Tig. 19-6 are identical and have identical resistance R, Which conliguration produces more light? (b) Which way do you think the headlights of a car aro wired? RESPONSE (2) The equivalent resistance of the parallel cireut is found from Pq. 19-4, 1/Req = 1/R + 1/R = 2/R. Thus Reg ~ R/2, The parallel combi- nation then has lower resistance (= R/2) than the series combination (Ra, = RF R= 2K), There will be more total current in the parallel config uration (2), since T= V/Ry, and V is the same for both circuits. The total power transformed, whieh is related to the light produced, is P= IV, so the greater current in (2) means more light produced. (b) Headlights are wired in parallel (2), because if one bulb goes out, the other bulb can stay lit. f they were in series (1), when one bulb burned out (the filament broke), the cieuit would be open and no current Would flow, so even the good bulb would not ight, FIGURE 19-6 Example 19-2. a) sSeries (2) Parallel Series and parallel resistors. ‘Two 100-0 resistors are ‘connected (a) in parallel, and (b) in series toa 24.0-V buttery. Sve Fig, 19-7. What isthe current through each resistor and what is the equivalent resistance ‘of each circuit? APPROACH We use Ohm's law and the ideas just discussed for series and parallel connections to get the current in each case. We can also use Eqs. 19-3 and 19-4, 524 CHAPTER 19 DC CircuitsSOLUTION (a) Any given charge (or electron) can flow through only one or v=20v the other of the (v0 resisiors in Fig 19-Ta, Just as a river may break into two ( streams when going around an island, here too the total current / from the battery (Fig, 19~7a) splits to flow through each resistor, so Fequals the sum of Tow the separate currents thraugh the two resistors Tahth. aa The potential difference across each resistor is the hattery voltage V = 240V. “Applying Ohm's law to each resistor gives a) vv _2s0Vv | 240V ve2sov a oe LS (- = 024A + 0.24.4 = 048 A, f ‘The equivalent resistance is ow ¥ _240V a =F bapa = 50 FIGURE 1 7 Example 19-3 ‘We could also have obtained this result from Eq. 19-4 1 l 1 2 1 Ra” Toon * Too ~ Toa = Ha wo Ry =s00 {@y Al the current that os oa of he batery passes fist treugh Ry and thon since they he sng’ single pth ge So the cent [the sire 1a bot sent he penance Vacros te ery equals he to ehange in penta ae the fesse vevtw ‘Ohm's law gives V = IR, + IR; = R, + Re) Hence v 20 TR eR” 100.0 + 1000 ~ 9170 ‘The equivalent resistance, using Eq. 19-3, is Ry = Ri + Ry = 2000. We could also get Ray by thinking from the point of view of the battery: the total resistance Ri, must equal the hattery voltage divided by the current it delivers: voy Re 7 p08 = 2000. NOTE The voltage across Ry is Vj = IR, = (0.120)(100.9) = 12.0V, and that across R, is Vj = [Ry = 120, each being half of the battery voltage, A simple cireuit like Fig, 19-7 is thus often called a simple voltage divider. Vliage divider EXERCISE B Design a voltage divider that would provide enesith (0.20) of the Dawery voltage across Rs. What isthe ratio Ry/R:? Note that whenever a group of resistors is replaced by the equivalent resis lance, current and voltage and power in the rest of the circuit are unalfected. SECTION 19-2 Resistors in Series and in Parallel 525FIGURE 19-8 (2) 19-4 and 19-5. (b) Equivalent ci Showing the equivalent resistance forthe two parallel resistors in (a) GAUTION Remensher to take the reciprocal 526 CHAPTER 19 DC Circuits cuit for Examples Circuit with series and ps drawn from the battery shown in Fig. 18a? APPROACH The current / that flows out ofthe battery all passes through the 4400-0 resistor, but then it splits into Z; and J: passing through the SO0-f2 and 700-01 resistors. The latter two tesistors ate in parallel with each other. We Joi for simpliciy, something that we already know how to reat. So let's start by finding the equivalent resistance, Ry, of the parallel resistors, 500 Q and 700. Then we can consider this Ry to be in series with the 400-0 resistor. SOLUTION The equivalent resistance, Rp, of the 500-01 and TOD-1 resistors in parallel is given by 14 L R, 5009” Foe lel. How much current is = 0.00200" + 0,014.0" = 0.0034 0" ‘This is 1/Rp, so we lake the reciprocal to find Rp. Its a common mistake to forget to take this reciprocal, Notice that the units of reciprocal ohms, are a rominder. Thos Rp= amount 90.0, ‘This 290.0 is the equivalent resistance of the two parallel resistors, and is in series with the 400-01 resistor as shown in the equivalent circuit of Fig. 19-8b, To find the total equivalent resistance R,,,, we add the 400-0 and 290-10 resis- tances together, sinee they are in series, and find Rey = 4000 + 2900 = 6900. ‘The total current flowing from the battery is then Vv _0v Y= BAY Loita» 17ma. Ra, 600 NOTE This Zi also the current flowing through the 400-01 resistor, but not through the S00-0 and 700-8 resistors (both currents are less—see the next Example). NOTE Complex resistor circuits ean often be analyzed in this way. considering the circuit as a combination of series and parallel resistances.SEXUETSEEEGY Current in one branch. What is the current through the ‘500-0 resistor in Fig. 19-4 the voltage between points b and ¢ in Fig. 19-Sa, and we call it Vig. Once Vic is known, we can apply Ohm's law, V = 7R, to get the current. First we find the voltage across the 400-9 resistor, Vay, sinee we know that IT mA. passes through it. SOLUTION Vs, can be found using V = IR: Yay = (0.0174 4)(4009) = 70. Since the total yoltage across the network of resistors is Ve = 12.0, then Vic must be 12.0V ~ 7.0V = 5.0V. Then Ohm's law applied to the 500-0 resistor fells us that the eurtent J, through that resistor is 50V ~ 3000 4 = 10% 107A = 10mA. This is the answer we wanted. We can also caleulace the current fy through the 700-0 resistor since the voltage across itis also 5.0 V: 50V b= apg 77 NOTE When J, combines with /, to form the total current J (at point e in Fig, 19-8a), their sum is 19mA + TmA = 1T7mA. This is, of course, the total current Zs calculated in Example 19-4, [CONCEPTUAL EXAMPLE 19-6] Bulb brightness in a circuit. The cireuit shown in Fig. 19-9 has three identical lightbulbs, each of resistance R. (a) When switch S is closed, how will the brightness of bulbs A and B compare with that of bulb C? (6) What happens when switch S is opened? Use a ‘minimum of mathematics in your answers, RESPONSE (2) With suitch § closed, the current that passes through bulb C "must split into «Wo equal parts when it reaches the junetion leading to bulbs A and B. It splits into equal parts because the resistance of bulb A equals that of B. Thus bulbs A and B each receive half of C’s current; A and B will be equaly bright, but they wile less bright than bul C: (@) When the switch 8 is open no current can flow through bulb A, soit will bbe dark. We now have a simple one-loop series circuit, and we expect bulbs B and C to be equally bright. However, the equivalent resistance of this cireuit (© R + R) is greater than that of the eicuit withthe switeh closed. When we ‘open the switch, we inerease the resistance and reduce the current leaving the battery. Thus, bulb C will dim when we open the switch, Bulb B gets more eurrent ‘when the switch is open (you may have to use some mathematics here), and 0 it willbe brighter than with the switch closed, and B will be as bright as C. SECTION 19-2 Resistors in Series and in Parallel : c i i 52719a + soo LL URL oa b 300 P0500 © 8-90 loon Additional Example Ex Analyzing a cireuit. A 90-V battery whose internal resistanee rs 050.02 is connected in the etcut showin in Fig. 19-1. a) How much current is dravin from the battery? (b) What is the terminal voltage of the battery? (c) What isthe current in the 6.00 resistor? APPROACH To find the current out of the battery, we first need to determine the equivalent resistance Re, of the entire circuit, including r, which we do by identifying and isolating simple series or parallel combinations of resistors, Once we tind 1 from Ohm’s law, = €/Ra, we get the terminal voltage using Vj, = € ~ Zn. For (c) we apply Ohm's law to the 60-0 resistor. SOLUTION (a) We want to determine the equivalent resistance of the circuit. But where da we start? We note that the 40-0 and 80:0 resistors are in parallel, and so have an equivalent resistance Rag given by Loo 1 3 reas @ 6 FIGURE 19-10 Circuit for Example 19-7, where ris the internal resistanee of the battery 90 FIGURE 19-11. Currents can be calculated using Kirehhofs rules, woh 528 CHAPTER 19 DC Circuits Ra 800 400 ~ 800° al 40 Rogy = 2.7, This 2.7 0s in series with the 6.0-0 resistor, as shown in the equivalent circuit of Fig. 19-10b. The net resistance of the lower arm of the citeuit is then R 609 + 270-879, yt 1s shown in Fig. 19-10e. The equivalent resistance Regs of the resistances in parallel is given by L 1 1 Ra 1000 * 870 50 Regs = (1/0.210"!) = 480. This 48.0 is in series and tie 0.50-0 internal resistance of the battery (Fig. 19-10d), so the total ‘equivalent resistance Ruy of the circuit is Ry = 480 +500 +0500 = 10.3.0, Hence the eurrent drawn is @ _ 90Vv Fay costa. 210", T= (0) The terminal voltage of the battery is Vy = € — Ir = 90V ~ (087 A)(0.500) = 86V. (c) Now we ean work back and get the current in the 6.0.0 resistor. must be the same as the current through the 8.70 shown in Fig. 19-10c (why?) The voltage across that 8.7.0 will be the emf of the battery minus the voltage drops across rand the 5.0-0 resistor: Viz = 9.0V = (087 A)(0.500 + 5.00). Applying Ohm’s law, we get the eurrent (call i¢ 1°) 9.0-V — (O87 ASN.0 + $0.0) ~ B70 ‘This is the current through the 6.0.0 resistor. j19-3| Kirchhoff's Rules Tn the last few Examples we have been able to find the currents in cireuits by combining resistances in series and parallel, and using Ohm's law. This tech: nique can be used for many circuits. However, some circuits are too complicated for that analysis. For example, we eannot find the currents in each patt of the circuit shown in Fig, 19-11 simply by combining resistances as we did before. ‘To deal with such complicated circuits, we use Kirchhoff’s rules, devised by G.R Kirchhoif (124—1887) in the mid-nineteenth century There are two rules, and they are simply convenient applications of the laws of conservation of eharge and = 048 A.energy. Kirchhoffs first rule or junetion rule is based on the conservation of electric charge, and we already used it in deriving the rule for parallel resistors. It states that at any junction point, the sum of all currents entering the jum ‘must equal the sum of all currents leaving the junctio ‘That is, whatever charge goes in must come out. For example, at the junction point a in Fig, 19-11, fis entering whereas J, and , are leaving, Thus Kirch: hols junction rule states that 1, = J, + J. We already saw an instance of this in the NOTE at the end of Example 19- irchhoff's second rule or loop rule is based on the conservation of energy, Testates that the sum of the changes in potential around any closed path of a circuit must be zero. To see why this nile should hold, consider a rough analogy with the potential energy of a roller couster on its track. When the roller coaster starts from the station it has a particular potential energy. As it climbs the first hill its potential energy inereases and reaches a maximum at the top. As it descends the other side, its potential energy decreases and reaches a local minimum at the bottom of the hill, As the roller coasicr continues on its path. its potential energy goes through more changes. But when it arrives back at the starting point, it has exactly as much potential energy as it had when it started at this point. Another ‘way of saying this is that there was as much uphill as there was downhi Similar reasoning can be applied to an electri circuit. We will do the circuit of Fig 19-11 shortly but first we consider the simpler cieuit in Fig, 19-12. We have chosen it to be the same as the equivalent circuit of Fig. 19-8b already discussed, "The current inthis citcuit is J = (12.0 V)/ (690 @2) = 0.0174 A, as we calculated in Example 19-4. (We keep an extra digit in to reduce rounding errors) The positive side of the battery, point ¢ in Fig. 1912a, is at a high potential compared to point dat the negative side of the battery. That is, point c is like the top of a hill fora roller coaster. We follow the current around the eiteuit starting at any point. ‘We choose to start at point e and follow a positive test charge completely around this circuit. A$ We go, we note all changes in potential. When the test charge returns fo pointe, the potential will be the same as when we started (total change in potential around the cireuit is zero), We plot the changes in potential around the eitcuit in Fig. 19-12b: point d is arbitrarily taken as zero As our positive test charge goes from point e to point a, there is no change in potential since there is no source of emf and we assume negligible resistance in the connecting wires. Next, as the charge passes through the 400-0 resistor to get to point b,there a deerease in potential of V = R = (0.0174 A)(400 ©) 7AV. The positive test charge is Mossing “downhill” since its heading toward the negative terminal ofthe battery. as indicated in the graph of Fig, 19-12b, Because this is a decrease in potential, we use a negative sign: Ta = Hy Y= -70V ‘As the charge proceeds from b to ¢ there is another potential decrease (a “voltage rop") of (00174 A) x (290.9) = SOV, and this too is « decrease in potential Vag = “SOV. There is no change in potential as our test charge moves from © 10 das We assume negligible resistance in the wires: But when it moves from d, which is the negative or low potential side of the battery, to point e, which is the positive terminal (high potential side) of the battery, the potential inereases by 12.0V. That is Veg = +120. ‘The sum of all the changes in potential around the circuit of Fig, 19-12 is, -70V ~ SOV + 120V=0 ‘This is exactly what Kirchhofl’s loop rule said it would be. Junction rate {consereaion of charge) Loop rile Gonsereation of energy) , wo 4 20e = {oa 200 oy 6) FIGURE 19-12 Changes in poten: tial around the eseuit in (a) are plottod in (b). \ PROBLEM SOLVING Bo consistent with sigs when ‘applying te loop rile SECTION 19-3 Kirchhoff’s Rules 529EGE Kirchhoff’s Rules L. Label the current in cach separate branch of the given circuit with a different subscript, such as J, fe fy (oe Pig. 9-11 or 19-13), Each corent refers to a segment between two junctions Choose the direction of cach eurremt, wsing an arrow, The direetion ean be chosen arbitrarily: if the current is actually in the opposite direction, it will come out with a minus sign in the solution. 2, Identify the unknowns, You will need as many independent equations as there are unknowns. You may write down mote equations than this, but you will find that some of the equations will be redun- dant (that is, not be independent im the sense of providing new information). You may use V = 7R for each resistor, which sometimes will reduce the umber of unknowns. 3. Apply Kirehhoff’s junction rule at one or more junctions. 4. Apply Kirchhoff’s loop rule for onc or more loops: follow each loop in one yn only: Pay carcful attention to subscripts, and to signs: (@) For a resistor, apply Ohm's law; the potential difference is negative (a decrease) if your chosen loop direction is the same as the chosen current direction dhrough that resistor; the potential differ- cence is positive (an increase) if your chosen loop direction is opposite to the chosen current direction. () For a battery the potential difference is positive if ‘your loop direction is from the negative terminal toward the positive terminal; the potential Alifference is negative if the loop direction is from the positive terminal toward the negative termina 5. Solve the equations algebraically for the unknowns. Re careful when manipulating equations not to err with signs. At the end, check your answers by plug: ging them into the original equations, or even by using any additional loop or junction rule equations ‘not used previously. Using Kirchhof's rules. Calculate the currents 1, 1 and J, in the three branches of the cireuit in Fig. 19-13. APPROACH and SOLUTION 1, Label the eurrents and their directions, Figure 19-13 uses the labels f,, I, and /, for the current in the three separate branches. Since (positive) we PROBLEM SOLVING Choose enrrem directions arbitrary J, is not obvious current tends to move away from the positive terminal of a battery, we choose f; and f, to have the directions shown in Fig, 19-13. The dircetion of advance, so we arbitrarily chose the direction indicated, I the current actually flows in the opposite direction, our answer will have a negative sign 2, Identify the unknowns, We have theee unknowns and therefore we need three rules ‘equations, which we get by applying Kirehhoff’s junction and loop 3. Junction rule: We apply Kirchhotf's junction rule fo the currents at point a, where J, enters and /; and J, leave: 4 hth @ ‘This same equation holds at point d, so we get no new information by writing an equation for point d. FIGURE 19-13 Currenis can be Caleulated sing Kirchhol's rules. See Example 15-8. 530 CHAPTER 19 DC Circuits4. Loop rule: We apply Kirchhof?s loop rule to wo different closed loops First we apply it to the upper loop ahdeba. We start (and end) at point a From a to h we have a potential decrease Vy = —(1,)(3012). From h tod there is no change, but from d to e the potential inercases by 45 V tha i, Vj H45V. From 10 a the potential decreases through the (xo resis taness by an amount Ves = ~(h) 40 + 10) = =(41 0h, ‘Thus we have Vig + Vou + Vag = Oh oF 30h +45 - 41 = 0, ” Where we have omitted the units For our second loop, we take the outer loop ahdeiga. (We could have chosen the lower loop abedetga instead.) Again we start at point a and have Viy = —(J)(30), and Vy, = 0. But When we take our positive test charge from d t eit actually is going uphill, against the current—or at least against the assumed direction of the current, which is what counts in this caleulation. Thus Vqj = (2042) has a postive sign. Similarly, Vic = 112). From fo g there i a decrease in poten- tial of 80 V since we go from the high potential terminal of the battery to the low. Thus Vy = —80V. Finally, Va, = 0, and the sum of the potential changes around this loop is then 30h + 20 + 1) ~ 80 = 0. o 5. Solve the equations. We have three equations—labeled (a), (8), and (6)— tnd three unknowns. From Eq. () we have S053 as tian G Won rh @ From Eg. (b) we have = Sy ars or Ih © We substitute Eqs. (d) and (e) into Eq. (a) N= Kb 1 073 ~ 38-14, We solve for /, eolleeting terms: Bh 27 = -O8TA, ‘The negative sign indicates that the direction of fy is actually opposite to that initially assumed and shown in Fig, 19-13. Note that the answer auto- matically comes out in amperes because all values were in volts and ohms From Eq, (d) we have I= 38 + Lah, = 38 + 1L4(—087) = 26, and from Eq. (e) 1. Ld = 0934, = La ~ 0.73(-087) = 1.7. “This completes the solution NOTE The unknowns in different situations are not necessarily currents. It ‘might be that the currents are given and we have to solve for unknown resis- tance or voltage. EXERCISE € Write the equation for the lower loop abedetga of Example 19-8 and shor, assuming the currents ealeuated in this Example, thatthe potentials add to zero for this lower loop, SECTION 19-3 Kirchhoff’s Rules 531FIGURE 19-14 Batteries in series (a) and (b), and in par FIGURE 19-15 Example 19-9. jump start Staner switch [5 ceosed) Staner 532 CHAPTER 19 DC Circuits EMFs in Series and in Parallel; Charging a Battery When two or more sourees of emi, such as batteries, are arranged in series as in Fig. 19-14a, the total voltage is the algebraic sum of their respective voltages, (On the other hand, when a 20-V and a 12-V battery are connected oppositely, as shown in Fig. 19-I4b, the net voltage V., is 8 (ignoring voltage drop across internal resistances). That is, positive test charge moved from a to b gains in potential by 20V, but when it passes from b to c it drops by 12. So the net change is 20V — 12V = SV, You might think that connecting batteries in reverse like this Would be wasteful, For most purposes that would be true, But such a reverse arrangement is precisely how a battery charger works. Tn Fig, 19-14b, the 20-V source is charging up the 12-V battery. Because of its greater Voltage, the 20-V source is foreing charge back into the 12-V battery electrons are being forced into its negative terminal and removed from its positive wrminal. e > a isvv1sy 0 La (0. A > — a av 1 nv, Vv a oo Lp dt nv ‘An automobile alternator keeps the car battery charged in the same way. A voltmeter placed across the terminals of a (12-V) car battery with the engine running fairly fast can tell you whether or not the alternator is charging the battery. If it is, the voltmeter reads 13 or 4Y. IF the batery is not being charged, the voltage will be 12, or less if the battery is discharging. Car batteries ean be recharged, but other hatteries may not be rechargeable, since the chemical reactions in many cannot be reversed. In such cases, the arrange- ment of Fig, 19-14b would simply waste energy. Sources of emf can also be arranged in parallel, Fig. 19-I4c, which is useful normally only if the emfs are the same, A parallel arrangement is not used to increase voltage, but rather to provide more energy when large currents are needed, Each of the cells in parallel has to produce only a fraction of the total current, so the energy loss due to internal resistance is less than for a single cell; and the batteries will go dead less quickly. Jump starting a ear. A good car batiery is being used 10 jump start a car with a weak battery. The good battery has an emf of 125 V land internal resistance 0,020 12. Suppose the weak battery has an emf of 10.1 V fand internal resistance 0.100. Each capper jumper eable is 3.0m long and 0,50 em in diameter, and can be attached as shown in Fig, 19-15. Assume the starter motor can be represented as a resistor R, = 0.150, Determine the ‘current through the starter motor (a) if only the Weak battery is connected to it, and (b) if the good battery is also connected, as shown in Fig. 19-15. APPROACH We apply Kirchhoif’s rules, but in (b) we will first need to determine the resistance of the jumper eables using their dimensions and the resistivity (p = 1.68 x 10° Q-m for copper) as discussed in Section 18-4.SOLUTION (2) The circuit with only the weak battery and no jumper cables is simple: an emf of 10.1 V connected to two resistances in series, 0.100 + 0.15.0 = 0.2500. Hence the currentis f= V/R = (10.1V)/(0250) = 40 A. (6) We need to find the resistance of the jumper cables that connect the good battery. From Eq. 18-3, each has resistance Ry = pl./A (1.68% 10 -m)(3.0 m)/()(0.25 * 10° m) = 0.00260, Kirehhott's loop rule for the {ull outside loop gives 12S V = 12K, +n) ~ hRe=0 12S V ~ 1(0.025M) ~ 1(0.159) = 0 @ since (2R, + r) = (0.0052 + 0,020.2) = 00250. ‘The loop rule for the lower loop. including the weak battery and the starter, gives OLY ~ Z(0.150) ~ 70.10.) = 0. ) ‘The junetion rule at point B gives hth=h. © ah We have three equations in three unknowns From Bg. (e), fk = A, ~ fy and we psy substitute this into Eq, (a) boNT 12SV ~ (hy ~ h)(0.0250) ~ 140.150) = 0, I2SV ~ 1(0.1750) + 2,(0.025.) = 0 ‘Combining this Ist equation with (6) gives = 71, quite a bit hetter than in(a).The other currents are k= =SA and f= 76A. Note that = SA is in the opposite direction from that assumed in Fig, 19-15. The terminal voltage D of the weak 10.1-V battery is thus Vay = 10.1V ~ (-$A)(0.100) = 10.6. 0.102 101v NOTE The circuit shown in Fig, 19-15, without the starter motor, is how aS k battery can be charged. The stronger battery pushes charge back into the weaker battery, ® EXERCISE D If the jumper cables of Example 19-9 were mistakenly eonmected in revere the positive terminal of each hattery would be connected to the negative terminal ofthe other battery (Fig, 1-16). What would be the current J even before the starter moto is ‘engaged (the switch Sin Fig 19-16is open)? Why could this enuse tho hatteres to explode? FIGURE 18-16 Fxer ‘uits Containing Capacitors in Series and in Parallel FIGURE 19-17 Capacitors in Just as resistors can he placed in series oF in parallel in a crcuitso can capaci: pura Cay = Che can Ce tors (Chapter 17). We first consider a parallel connection as shown in - Fig. 19-17. Ia battery supplies « potential difference V to points a and b, this same potential difference V — Viy exists across each of the capacitors That is since the left-hand plates of all the capacitors are connected by conductors, they all reach the same potential V, when connected to the battery: and the right hand plates cach reach potential Wj. Each capacitor plate acquires a charge siven by Q, = CV, Or = GV. and Q,= CV. The total charge Q that must leave the hattery fs then & = 01+ 01+ ,= GV + GV 4 GW. Tet us uy wo find tor that will hold the same charge Q atthe same voltage V = Vig. It will have a capacitance Ca, given by Stance = Ca¥. ‘Combining the two previous equations, we have CagV = GV +GV + GV =(G +64 EV Cag OHO+6, [parallel] 9-8) Capacitors paratet ‘The net effect of connecting capacitors in parallel is thus to inerease the capaci tance, This makes sense because we are essentially increasing the atea of the plates where charge ean accumulate (see, for example, Eq. 17-8), SECTION 19-5 Circuits Containing Capacitors in Series and in Parallel 533Capacitors can also be connected in series: that is, end to end as shown in Fig, 19-18. A charge +Q flows from the battery to one plate of C,, and -Q flows to one plate of Cy. The regions A and B between the capacitors were orig inally neutral, so the net charge there must still be zero. The ++ on the left Charge on each capacitor plate of C, attracts a charge of —Q on the opposite plate, Because region A ‘icseries the some must have a zero net charge, there is +Q on the left plate of C,. The same CL Gy Og Semsdetations apply to the other capattors so we see the charge on eat a capacitor plate has the same magnitude Q. A single capacitor that could replace 40"=0 +0" +0'=O"] these three in series without affeeting the eircuit (Uhat is, Q and V the same) would have a capacitance Cyg where Q= Ca¥, The total voltage V across the three capacitors in series must equal the sum of the voltages across each capacitor: VaVy, VeWtheyy FIGURE 19-18 Capacitorsin series; We also have for each capacitor @ = C,Vj, Q = CV, and Q = CV; so we Potytyt substitute for V, Vj, Vs, and V, into the last equation and get aededet +k+4) aa a OGG Capacivrs in series Add as reciprocals) Fseris]_ 9-6) @ caution Notice that the equivalent eapacitance C,y is smaller than the smallest contributing Formula orcapacTomi capacitance. Notice alo that the forms of the equations for capacitors in series or series rsemtbles formula ig parallel are the reverse of their counterparts for resistance. That is, the formula Jor ressiors paral fog capacitors in series resembles the formula for resistors in parallel. Equivalent capacitance. Determine the capacitance of ‘a single capacitor that will have the same effect as the combination shown in Fig, 19-198. Take C= G; = C= € APPROACH First we find the equivalent capacitance of C, and C, in parallel, fand then consider that eapacitanee in series with C SOLUTION Capacitors C; and C, are connected in parallel, so they are equiv alent to a single capacitor having capacitance Cy = C+ O20. ‘This Cais in series with C,, Fig. 19-19b,s0 the equivalent capacitance ofthe entire circuit, Cys is given by toby tli yh Gq GG, C26 2e ence the equivalent capacitance of the entire combination is Cy itis smaller than any of the contributing capacitors, C, = Cy ~ Cy ‘> pRootem sotving ‘Remember io take the reciprocal and o a Gp Gy FIGURE 19-19 4 -K§— Examples 19-10 and 19-11, vo v @ © 534 CHAPTER 19 DC CircuitsCharge and voltage on capacitors. Determine the charge on each capacitor in Fig, 19-19a of Example 19-10, and the voltage feross each, assuming C = 30)F and the battery voltage ie V = 4.0V. APPROACH We have to work “backward” through Example 19-10, That wwe find the charge Q that leaves the battery, using the equivalent capacitance, ‘Then we find the charge on each separate capacitor and the voltage across cach. Each step uses Eq. 17-7, O = CV. SOLUTION ‘The 40-V battery“thinks" itis connected to a capacitance Cx 4G.0uF) OF. Therefore the charge Q that leaves the battery, by Eq. 17-7, @ = CV = (2.0nF)(40V) = 80 pC. From Fig 19-19a,ths charge arvesat the nogaive pate of Cy 30 Q, = 8.0 nC. The charge Q that leaves the positive plate is split evenly between C, and Cs symmetry = Candis O = Oy = 10 = 4.0 4C. Also, the voltages aeros C; and Cy have to be the same. The voltage seros cach capacitors obtained using = O/C. So VY, = QVC, = (80 uC)/(3.0 nF) = 27V Vs = Q1/C; = (40 pC)/(3.0 KF) = 13V Y= QVC, = (40uC)/(3.0 uF) = 13V. Wairc Circul ‘esistor and Capacitor in Series Capacitors and resistors are often found togetlier in a cireuil, Such RC eireui are used to control a car’s windshield wipers and the timing of traific lights: they fare used in camera flashes, in heart pacemakers, and many other electronic devices In RC circuits, We are not so interested in the final “steady state voltage and charge on the capacitor, but rather in how these variables change in time. A simple example is shown in Fig, 19-208, We now analyze this RC circuit closed. 1 1 BRC SRE @ oy Time When the switch § is closed, current immediately begins to flow through the circuit. Fleetrons will flow out from the negative terminal of the battery, through the resistor R.and accumulate on the upper plate of the capacitor. And electrons will flow into the positive terminal of the battery, leaving a positive charge oa the other plate of the eapacitor. As charge accumulates on the capacitor, the potential ference across t inereases (V = Q/C), and the current is reduced until eventually the voltage across the capacitor equals the emf of the battery There is then no potential difference across the resistor, and no further current flow. “The potential difference aross the eapacitor. which is proportional to the charge on the capacitor (Ve = Q/C, Eq, 17-7), thus increases in time, as shown in Fig, 19-20, ‘The actual shape ofthis Curve is a type of exponential. Is given by the formula’ Ve = {1 = e), Where we use the subscript € to remind us that Vo is the voltage across the capacitor and i given here as a function of time ¢ [The constant e, known as the base for natural logarithms, has the value ¢ = 2718: Do not vonfuse this € with for the charge on the electron] ‘The derivation ses cleus RC circuits FIGURE 19-20 For the RC circuit shown in (a). the voltage across the ‘epacito inereases with time, as shown in (b), aftr the switch is (Charging he capacitor caution Dont confise« for exponential seu efor electron charge SECTION 19-6 AC Circuits—Resistor and Capacitor in Series 535Time constant + Capacitor slischarges We can write a si ilar formula for the charge Q (= CY) on the capacitor: a = et*6), Where Qp represents the maximum charge. ‘The product of the resistance R times the capacitance C, which appears in the exponent, is called the time constant 7 of the cireuit T= RC an The time constant is a measure of how quickly the capacitor becomes charged, [The units of RC are QF = (W/A\(C/V) = C/(C/s) = 5] Specifically, it can be shown that the product RC gives the time required for the capacitor’s voltage (and charge) 10 reach 63% of the maximum This can be checked! using any calculator with an e* key: e! = 037 so for ¢= RC, then (I~) = (1 6") = (1 ~ 037) = 063, In a cireuit, for example, where R= 200kC2 and C= 30 uP, the time constant is (2.0 x'10°0)(3.0 x 10°F) = 0.60s, Tf the resistance is much smaller, the time constant is much smaller and the capacitor becomes charged almost instantly. This makes sense. since a lower resistance will retard the flow of charge less. All cireuits eontain some resistance (if only in the connecting wires), so A eapacitor can never be charged instantaneously when connected to a battery. ‘The circuit just discussed involved the charging of a capacitor by a battery through a resistance. Now let us look at another situation: a eapacitor is already charged (say, to a voltage V, and charge Q,), and itis then allowed to discharge through a resistance R as shown in Fig, 19-21, (In this ease there is no battery.) When the switch S is closed, charge begins to flow through resistor R from one side ofthe capacitor toward the otic side, until itis fully discharged. The voltage cross the capacitor decreases, as showin in Fig, 19-21b. This “exponential decay curve is given by Vo= Yyerv, where Vj is the initial voltage across the capacitor. The voltage falls 63% of the way to zero (to 0.37¥,) ina time 7 = RC. Because the charge Q on the capacitor is @ = CV, we can write = Qe for a discharging capacitor, where Qy is the initial charge. FIGURE 19-21 For the RC cinouit Y% shown in (a). the voltage Ven the capacitor deereases with time, as shown in (b), after the switeh S is closed. The charge on the capacitor follows the same eurve since Oxy. 596 CHAPTER 19 DC Circuits CaM R 1 RO ORC RE Tine @ cy) A discharging RC circuit. If a charged capacitor, C= 35 Py is connected to a resistance R = 1200 as in Fig. 19-21a, how much time will elapse until the voltage falls to 10% of its original (maximum) valuc? APPROACH The voliage across the capacitor decreases according to Vo = Wye". We set Ve = O.10Y, (10% of %), but first we need to calculate T= RC, More simply, snes @ = 2.7185 then e"! = Ife = 1/2718 ~ 197, Note that eH the inverse operation tothe marual garth In: Ine) = 1, and le!) =SOLUTION The time constant for this etcut is given by = RE = (120.2635 % 10F) = 42 x 10s Afier a time # the voliage across the eapacitor will be Vo = Vile". We want to know the time ¢ for which Vo above equation O10¥4 = Voer"** O.10¥,. We substitute into the er = 0.10, ‘The inverse operation to the exponential e isthe natural log, In. Thus Infew"#) = ~ Fe = no.10 = ~23. Solving for f, we find the elapsed time is 1 = 23(RC) = (2.3)(42 x 10s) = 9.7 x 10s or 97 ms, NOTE We ean find the time for any specified voltage across a cupacitor by using ¢ = RC (V/V). EXERCISE E For tho samo 35-,F capacitor as in Example 19-12, what w tance R would produce a voltage reduction to 10% of Vj in exactly 1.8? (CONCEPTUAL EXAMPLE 19-13] Bulb in RC circuit. In the circuit of — Fig. 19-22, the capacitor is originally uncharged. Describe the behavior of the lightbulb from the instant switeh S i8 elosed until a long time later. RESPONSE When the switch is frst closed, the current in the circuit is high YO ® c And the lightull urns brightly. As the eapacitor changes, the Voltage across the capacitor nereases andthe currents reduced, casing the light to dim. As the ak Potential diference across the capacitor approaches the same voltage a the battery the current decreases toward zero andthe lightbulb goes out. FIGURE 19-22 Example 19-13. Medical and Other Applications of RC Circuits ‘The charging and discharging in an RC circuit can be used to produce valiage pulses at a regular frequency. The charge on the capacitor increases to a particular voltage, and then discharges. simple way of initiating the discharge of the capac- itor is by the use of a gas-filled tube which has an electrical breakdown when the voltage across it reaches a certain value V). ter the discharge is finished, the tube no longer conducts current and the recharging process repeats itself, starting at a ue of resis lower olage Vj, Figure 19-23 showsa possible cre and the"sawiooth" voltage GPNYSICS A itpreduen Smet lage ‘A simple blinker light can be an application of a sawtooth oseilator —hlncng fu circuit, Here the emf is supplied by a battery; the neon bull flashes on at a rate ‘of perhaps I eyele per second. The main component of such a “flasher unit” is 8 moderately large capacitor. ® Re c FIGURE 19-23 (a) An RC circuit, coupled with u gas-filled tube as a switch, con produce a repeating Gasetiled “sawtooth” voltage. as shown in (b). tube Time @ w SECTION 19-6 AC Circuits—Resistor and Capacitor in Series 537Penvsics apevieo Winaihield wiper envsics apevieo Hea pacemate = FIGURE 19-24 Electronic batery- powered pacemaker can be seen on the rib eage in this X-ray @ewvsics aperieo Danaers of eer 538 CHAPTER 19 DC Circuits ‘The intermittent windshield wipers of a car can also use an RC circuit ‘The RC time constant, which can be changed using a multi-positioned switch for different values of R with fixed C, determines the rate at which the wipers An interesting medical use of an RC circuit is the electronic heart pace- maker, which can make a stopped heart start beating again by applying an electric stimulus through electrodes attached to the chest. The stimulus can be repeated at the normal heartbeat rate if necessary. The heart itself contains pacemaker cells, which send out tiny electric pulses at a rate of 60 t0 80 per ‘minute, These signals induce the start of each heartbeat, In some forms of heart disease, the natural pacemaker fails to function properly, and the heart loses its beat, Such patients use electronic pacemakers which produce a regular voltage pulse that starts and controls the frequency of the heartbeat. The electrodes are implanted in or near the heart (Fig. 19-24), and the cireuit contains a capacitor and a resistor, The charge on the capacitor increases to a certain point and then discharges. Then it starts charging, again The pulsing rate depends on the values of R and C. Ez Electric Hazards Excess electric current can heat wires in buildings and cause fires, as discussed in Section 18-6, Electric current can also damage the human body or even be fatal, Electric current through the human body can cause damage in two wa} (1) Blectric current heats tissue and can cause burns; (2) electric current stimu- lates nerves and muscles (whose operation, as we saw in Sections 17-11 and 18-10, is electrical), and we feel a “shock” The severity of a shock depends on the magnitude of the current, how long i€ acts, and through what part of the body it passes, A current passing through vital organs such as the heart or brain is especially scrious for it can interfere with their operation. Most people can “feel” a current of about I mA. Currents of a few mA cause pain but rarely cause much damage in a healthy person. Currents above 1 mA cause severe contraction of the muscles, and a person may not be able to release the source of the current (say, a faulty appliance or wire). Death from paralysis of the respiratory system can occur, Artificial respi however, can sometimes revive a vietim. If a current above about 80 to 100 mA passes across the torso, so that n portion passes through the heart for more than a second or two, the heart muscles will hegin to contract irregulariy and blood will not be properly pumped. This condition is ealled veniricular ‘fibrillation. 1 it lasts for long, death results Strangely enough, ifthe current is ‘much larger, on the order of i A, death by heart failure may be less likely,” but such currents can cause serious burns, especially if concentrated through a small area of the body. ‘The seriousness of a shock depends on the applied voltage and on the effec tive resistance of the body. Living tissue has low resistance since the fluid of cells contains ions that can conduct quite well. However, the outer layer of skin, when dry. offers high resistance and is thus protective, The effective resistance between two points on opposite sides of the body when the skin is dry isin the range of 10" to 10° 0. But when the skin is wet the resistance may be 10! or less Larger cues apparently bring the entire bert to stands. Upon reste ofthe current, the hea retains fo ite normal shyhin Thi may mot happen when fibration ours because, ence stated, it cam be hard to stop Filion may also nocueas 4 rsult of 3 heat attack or ding, hour surgery. A dove known ass dpa (dossriboa im Scion 17-9) em apply rit high Curent to the hot, easing complet heart stoppage Which § oan followed By resumption of oma Destin.{A person who is barefoot or wearing thin-soled shoes will he in good contact with the ground, and touching a 120-V line with a wet hand can result in a current 120 10008 ‘As we sav tis could he lethal ‘A person who hnas received a shock has become part of a complete ciret Figure 19-25 shows two ways the circuit might be completed when a person accidentally touches a “hot” clectrie wire—"hot” meaning a high potential such 28 120 (normal houschold voltage) relative to ground. The other side of building wiring is connected to ground-either by a wire connected to a buried conductor, or via a water pipe into the ground, In Fig. 19-25a, the eurtent passes fom the high-voltage wire, through the person, to the ground through his hare feet, and back along the ground (a fair eonductor) o the ground terminal of the source, Ifthe person stands on a good insulator—thiek rubber-soled shoes or a dry wood floor—there will be much more resistance in the circuit and conse- quently much less current through the person. If the person stands with bare feet on the ground, oF isin a bathtub, there is lethal danger because the resis tance is much less and the eurrent greater. In bathtub (or swimming poo!) not only ae you wet, but the water isin contact with the drain pipe that leads ta the ground, Itis strongly recommended that you not touch anything electrical when ‘wet or in bare feet. In Fig, 19-25b, a person touches a faulty “hot” wire with one hand, and the other hand touches sink fauect (connected to ground vin the pipe). The current is particularly dangerous because it passes aeross the chest, through the heart and lungs. A rule of thumbs if one hand is touching something electrical keep your other hand in your pocket (don't use it!), and wear thick rubber soled shoes 11s also a good idea to remove metal jewelry. especially rings (your finger is usually moist under a ring). You can come into contact with « hot wite by touching a bare wite whose insulation has worn off, or from a bare wire inside an appliance when you're tinkering with it, (Always unplug an electrieal device before investigating” its insides!) Another possibilty is that a wire inside a device may break or lose its insulation and come in contact with the case. Ifthe case is metal, it will conduet electricity: A person could then suffer a severe shock merely by touching the case, shown in Fig. 19-26b. To prevent an accident, metal cases are supposed to be connected directly to ground by a separate ground wire Then if a “hot” wire touches the grounded case, a short cireuit to ground immediately occurs internally, as shown in Fig. 19-26e, and most of the current passes through the low-resistance ground wire rather than through the petson, Furthermore, the high current should open the fuse of cireuit breaker. 120mA. ‘Exon thon You ean got od shock from a caaeior that hasnt boon dlscharged until you toch FIGURE 19-26 (a) An clectric oven operating normally with a 2-prong plus (b) Short to the case with ungrounded ease: shock. (6) Short to the case with the case grounded by a 3-prong plug @ ) cy FIGURE 19-25 A person roses an electric shock when the cet is completed @ caution Keep one hand in your pocket ‘wher other touches electrics YSiCs APPLIED Grounding and shocks © SECTION 19-7. Electric Hazards 539FIGURE 19-27 (0) A 3.prong. plug, and (b) an adapter (gray) fer old fashioned 2-prong outlets be sure to screw down the ground tabs (JA polarized 2-prong plug. @ caution Black wire maybe cher ‘ound or hoe “tewaret 540 CHAPTER 19 DC Circuits Grounding a metal ease is done by a separate ground wire connected to the third (round) prong of a 3-prong plug (Fig, 19-27a), Never cut off the third prong of a plug—it eould be deadly Why isa third wire needed” The 120'V is caried by the other two wires— ‘one hot (120V ac), the other neutral, which is itself grounded.’ The third “dedicated” ground wire with the round prong may seem redundant. But its protection for two reasons; (1) it protects against internal wiring that may have. been done incorrectly; (2) the neutral wire carries normal current (“rcturn” current from the 120V) and it does have resistance: so there can be a voltage drop along it—normally small, bt if connections are poor or corroded, or the plug is loose, the resistance could be large enough that you might feel that Woltage if yon touched the neutral wire some distance from its grounding point. Some electrical devices como with ony two wires and the ply’ two prongs ae of different widths: the plug ean be inserted only one way into the outlet so that the intended neutral (wider prong) in the device is connected to neutral in the wiring. For eximple, the screw threads of a lightbulb are meant to be connected to neutral (and the base contact to hot) t0 avoid shocks when changing a bulb in a possibly protruding socket. Devices with 2-prong plugs do hot have their coses grounded: they are supposed to have double electric insala- tion. Take extra eare anyway. “The insulation on a wire may be color coded, Hand-held meters may have red (hot) and back (ground) lead wites, But in a house, lack is usually hot (ori may he red), whereas white is neutral and green is the dedicated ground. But beware: these color codes cannot always be rusted. ‘Normal cireuit breakers Sections 18-6 and 20-7) protect equipment and buildings from overload and fies. They protect humans only in some circum- stances. such as the very high currents that result from a short, if they respond quickly enough. Ground fault circuit interrupters, described in. Section 21-8, are designed to protect people from the much lower currents (10mA to 100mA) that arc lethal but would not throw a 15-A circuit breaker or blow n 20-4 fuse. "am the US, three wires normally eter a house: wo hot wires at 120 each (hich ad togcter to 2M for appliances oF etises that ron on 240¥) pls the eronded neal (carrying, retary urea! fr the vo hos), See Fig. 19-28 Below Te “dedicates” ground wie (non-cUrsmt earn) isa fourth wire tht does nor come fom ie eietrie company but enters te howe from a nearby heavy ake in the pround ors buced metal pipe The cwo bot wires ean fed separate 120-¥ eres Inthe bowe, so each 120-V cult insise she house as oly 3 wires as discussed ia tbe text. FIGURE 19-28 Four wires entering a typical house. The color codes for wires aro not always as showin here—be careful! Back (erred) Hot 1 Green? Gro at na steeple howeTis current that harms, but itis voltage that drives the current, 30-volts is sometimes said to be the threshhold for danger. But even a 12-V car battery (which can supply large currents) can cause nasty burns and shock. Another danger is leakage current, by which we mean a current along an unin Ceakage cwrent tended path, Leakage currents are often “capacitively coupled.” For example, a wire in a lamp forms a capacitor with the metal ease; charges moving in one conductor attract or repel charge in the other, so there is a current. Typical elec- trical codes limit leakage currents to I mA for any device. A I-mA leakage current lly harmless. Tt ean be very dangerous, however, to a hospital patient with implanted electrodes connected to ground through the apparatus. This is due to the absence of the protective skin layer and because the current can pass directly through the heart as compared to the usual situation Where the current enters at the hands and spreads out through the body. Although 100m may be needed to cause heart fibrillation when entering through the hands (very litle of it actually passes through the heart) as litte as 0,02. mA has been known to cause fibrillation when passing direetly to the heart. Thus, a “wired” patient is in considerable danger from leakage current even from as simple an act as touching a lamp. Finally, don’t touch a downed power line (lethal!) or even get near it. A hot power line is at thousands of volts. A huge current can flaw along the ground oF pavement, irom where the high-voltage wire Couches it over to the grounding point of the neutral line, enough that the voltage between your two legs could be large, Tip: stand on one foot or run (only one foot touches the ground at a time’. Ez ] Ammeters and Voltmeters An ammeter s used io measure curen anda volmeter measures poteniatdifer, QD PHYSiCs & toe or wolage. Measurements of cutentand vllge are made with meer that DC mcr Ste of two types (1) analog meters which display numerical values by the position oa pointer that can move acros a setle (Fig. 19-29) and (2) dtl meters thick dpy the numerical vale in mumbers (Fg 19-296), We now discuss the meters themselves and how they wor then Row they are connesed Torus 0 mnake measurements Finally we wl discus how wing meters affedts the seu Deing meestred, pesbly otldng eonecusretttand wht io do abot FIGURE 19-29 (2) An analog multimeter being used as a volt meter. (b) An electronic di ) * Analog Ammeters and Voltmeters ‘The erucinl part of an analog ammeter or voltmeter, in which the reading is by a pointer on a scale (Fig. 19-29a), is a galvanometer. The galvanometcr works on the principle of the force between a magnetie field and a current-carrying coil of wire, and will be discussed in Chapter 20, For now, we merely need to know that the defleetion of the needle of a galanometer is proportional to the current “SECTION 19-8 Ammeters end Voltmeters Pureo sat