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    S272 - OU - The Physics of Matter - 1

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    of 52
    Se chalet ‘S272 Units “Tne Dpen Unversity ‘See piyscs ot mater The physics of matter Unit 1 Temperature, energy and the ‘structure of matter f i i i 3 i ‘5272 The ple of mater The physics of matter Unit 1 Temperature, energy and the structure of matter Prepared for the Course Team by Steve Swithenby 1 etrueton 12 Introduction o Unit 2. What stomperatre?—macrosople considerations 21 Tempratre and eat 22 Temperature sake (AV sequens) 3 wnat le tomperature?—microzopleconlderatons A-Class theoey—idal gases 32 Quintam mechani anf temperature 213 Summary ofthe tbl of te eit 4 Characters onorpes versus tomperature—te stay of 42, Activation enesy 51 The breakdown of tome srotre 52, Plumas 53. The cooing of mater to very low temperatures (TV sien) 54 Summary ofthe second half ofthe unit 11a answers and comments 2 8 a “ Subsection $3 is closely elated 10 TY programme 1, How Law Can You Go ich forme prt ofthis ni Ie should be fend sory er wstcng the TV {WE OPEN UNVERSITY PRESS Sef2_The physics of mater $272 Course team Course Team Charman Jon Bolton ‘got Etor "Hob Lambourne Tony Bates (IE, ded) Graham Fareo (aon) Slag Ross (aur okin Boon (ator, videordie) Stout Freake (thr sdeo-tie) Elen Scanlon (TET) Nak Brenton (B8C:0UP) David Glover (acon) Dist Sharp (ous eon fim Burge (HBC-OUP) nda Har couse manajer) Ted Smit (BBC-OUP) Gerald Copp etter) Bob Lamboure othr) SoteSuthenby (thor Det Cros deste ay Manners (thor idee) Nat Tayo (BBC-OUP) ‘Tony Duggan (BBCOUP) Seam Mectoughry (deodse) ohn Tasloe graphic ats) Tan Every Ceademic Comping Series, Laue Melion (iar) Sohn Watters author ‘sdendix) (Gheg Newport (ose manager List of Units Block 1 General Preparation Unit Temperature, energy and the structure of Unit? Macrescopie descriptions of mater Unit 3 Microncopic modes of mater {Unit 4 The Boltmann fst shargg out the energy Uni) Block I revison and consoldation Unit 6 Egulbsium properties of eases Unit Tansport proper of ese Unit Quanfom gue photoms and electrons Block. Salts Unie The structure and bonding of solids Unit 10. Meshanial properties of ois Unit 1 Thema properties of os Unite 2 find 13 Et propertie of solids Uni 12 Blok owsion and consolation Block 4 Liquide Uni 18 Clase iguids Unit 16. Supertow “he Ope Unnety Prem, Walon Hal Mtn Keyes. Far poat 198 Cont © 196 Te Ope Unie tne pis tetany em trian Dose y the Grape Den Groupe th Ope Unter ee by Lous Dap i. emg stexraipat tn Opn Lnbesy re Tecoma Coane Freel viii of epontng atria ference lee we ps eer Elune Ele, 1S Cabende lose Stony Sad Mion Fue fran on Open Univesity our yb bn fom th Adon ‘Bap Tate POBox Wat Wa Mito Keyes MRT AB. 1 Introduction 4.1 Introduction to the General Preparation block ‘You are about to rain udying The Phys of Mater Atte outset, must smith de courses not ques comprehensive ashe til might suggest. You ‘ton te esting every coneiableform of mater rm luon galas bat [nly welldetne ope of materthe ror you encounter most mete a ‘eryda fe Ths matters hough ofa consisting of stable atoms but to Out ‘jet takeheformgases sols andliguis The ogunsauonat be meteral ‘Fike course refers the macrneoic cnsifaton Phere ae four locks ‘lock 1, Units 110 $ General Preparation Block 2 Unite 610 8. Gass Block 3 Unis 9 10 4 Solas Block & Units 18 nd 16° Lands ‘This units par of the Genera Preparation block. The prpose ofthese is five ise be expand by a analogy Imagine tht you are tend o goon 8 ‘mping hoa, ourng hrooph France Youintendo spend some meta thre ‘Se: Britany, Provence andthe Camarguecach wih 48 own aactons and stress Bloreseting ol on your hada. you preparer yu arn to speak rene jou pla the route you check your ld carping eatipment You boy ‘ame new pats that wil make ie eer Although nots pat ofthe Holds oper these geal preparations areesetaland oe, afejsasnjoyabeas {he tne spent teeing "hope the analogy with the General Preparation black is dea. Beloe studying mathematical sist segue for example sn Unit? you wil mex patal “ierenatio,a mathematica technique tha eset In dang with con peated ply astens There invviios tobe carted out-in Unt 3. you wil ‘Shock your understanding ofboth ssc nd quanti mechan. There are ‘rw concepts to be undestod in Unit for example You wil era something tf the satin! Bao the microscope mad yo wil use in ner ut So Imporantazetheve preparation hat one un Unt asbeenst aside imi ‘no new mate Is presented. stead, you ill be given the opportunity to onsldate what jou have send) earl mainly Cough peaem sling 2nd ‘he provision worked example. The lef Un lin hi lok of peeps) Study soutined in Subsection {2,butbeforeabandoning the holdy metaphor, {etme remo you oy eur comment the plansng ean best a enjoyable 1 the bay Eno the ep 4.2 introduction to Unit 1 ‘On hispanet te vacation in theumbien temperatures sity ited We ive ‘shiva bance ney budget whic he nomi solar Fadiaton supple Tnedby the rks ofstoredenegy. cowl matched tothe radiation cited ‘he Earth, Geographically fon temperate variations are micimsed by the {tunsort of cary. via wide and ocean crrents, fom the ote f the cooler ‘regions In Britain foexarple, the ambient temperature arly vente outside HNC cange rom SC to 135°C Notrtees were aatly amare often thse mest changes in temperature ‘Atapersonal evel ne inslt ores ith Rowses ad lthing whe whi that lier feral petetion cach furs sophited internal eback ‘ysem tat maintains he cone of our bode at a constant temperture Looking ‘ut rom our temperate reulted bod webs the profound ees of eves Sall emperature changes tbe iition of plant and animal growth each Spring and the formation of ce and rain Feom observations sch as thes. Appetit temper an the proper and tractares of male are clase) lke. So stony and 0 portant are tes inks tat this wnt devoted 0 ‘inorng temperature and onnsctions with both eroseopic nd mero ‘cop behavior ‘S272_The physics of mation sa startby establishing the sini meaning oftemperaurexplain how tis ‘ensied sn indicate the rationale fr choosing temperature seals A aud {Speseqiens forms part of his early icusion. The nol to refine further your ‘Snlerstanding of expert wil ke you nto miroscopi bones of mater {nd fo both quantum mechaneal and cls sla of snp peal ‘pees. From thee analyse, the los connection between teperaturand the | “enedintrmst | —> | vy (eg termodyronics) et rane alos Tey t Comite e 4 eroeepe Tenoerave ines dtnesnewoy Petiion. tegaatnial | coegyi erated feral ge Ll nectanes inasyeen L ; Prmary thermometers andfivad pints case ogive coriset hermodynamictemperure see Uns ofthe ale ceria) You probably need to draw a sight breath aftr the closing rears in the Audivisio sequence. They werea tery bre and somenbatabsuat pels a tle hidden stent sublty. nthe net set tbve oneal marks wll be ‘cenulated int sonrete example Then, you wil unerstind more clay the Tinks betwee the mistoscopc and macroscopic aspects of temperature ‘The main purpose ofthis section ha eno provide an introduction to temper- sie teri wat nt sure ste ea abo Beit ve sme atone for he adoption he Kein Epa lav ered Study comment efor cominving on to Section 3 you should tet your Sndettandng ofthe material in th setion by stemptng the allowing sl ‘sessment questions SAQS) You wil find SAQs ah end of mot scons a this cours and, fequeny, addtional SAQs athe nd ofthe nit Although you ould omit te SAQs without upsting the lope development ofthe unt You ‘route takingarat, atmos peop fn tht problem olvingwaneentl ep Towards understanding. The ansners tthe SAGs are priate atthe end ofthe ‘80.1 Provide sciemiealy accurate “translation ofthe following obseva- (a) Dire gas expand eqsly with the sme dese of eat, reported by Soseph Lous Gay-Lussc a 180 (ty “There's no et efi this bo water ote dy my dauphe, Catherine, {2 19th, who had stayed up ater than Tendo. 8A Tro kei merunn-ls thermometer ar calibrated ing > fae points the ming and boli temperatures of pure water at amesphens protre Oneis marked wing Fabra sae i 2 and 212 maedatthe {vo fed pots) andthe other using a Ces seale (vith and 100" marked at ‘hese pois) a) What willbe the ati ofthe length of he mercury columns when both are ‘mere inthe Se pun of ae Wate (6) The Fahrenheit thermometer reads 68 ‘F ona warm summer's day. What ‘si be the reading on the Cass thermometer onthe sme dy? (0) Atwhatemperatur on the Celsius thermometer wlth brent thermo ser ead OF 3 What is temperature?—microscopic considerations Tenneraur is concept thai i Yo macroscope measurement, us demon statin Seton 2 bot when he microscopic behaviour fates examine Isfound thatihereisaconsstetralefor temperature iaesrbs the wa nwhih the energy ofthe sat shared among the pre ofthe stem This same fncrl concason emerge rm bh lassi and qua mecha a igen both of which nl be covered thon. al begin by considering 0 archetypal lass model te kietic theory of Weal ates nd then Tall ‘sca the oe of empeatre i ple quantum shania tems 3.4, Classical theory—ideal gases In this course an del ga is dfn o be estat obey the Mel gas Pv = wir “Te origins tis equition are dics the pretest sence coun {5272_The physics of mater o¢ Pe, ee tnt tae aon Ce eats ane ngnin nat bees eee la eect rey nereaat wa lane ignored Th “rtm taken rm Donk) A cle of ‘Bagg sact pace the ues» tit oto fore, ner teal Socteee nae recuent a ean hover men genes Sas aphorism Probably, you teady hive «metal picture fa gas consiting of ge ‘umber oma lardbalike molealer moving andor. Occasional the ‘molt cold wth one anther othe wal of whatever conti then, Dut ‘there they move ely Although thismode! was only develope in hemi ‘tthe nineteenth century, the pons hat the colisions ema partis wih ‘he ouside wall could cco forthe outward premare onthe conaier Was ‘counted te early 46178, by Daniel Berngul, a Swit mathematican ‘Fine 6) Thseaplanationotwbat Rober Bosledesaibed othe spingot st tratmade quantitative by the ineithery of dea gases Tas tery invest huge f the microscope motion of pte whowe molecules have sdelsed ‘haracerticy, in Unit tks subject wl be discased more ily sng Both "los nd quantam mechanics For the presen, abl copesirate on the ‘Sasa anlis) Inthe smplet lana model fa del as the molecules ar assumed 0 be pesca impencible sphere of nei vlume They donot atratt. ‘Xs crigcallatons wtih net for aninsiicnt ime, nd thir moveent Sdscribed by Newtons ins of motion From a ans of stem of sch ideaited molecules, reaonsip can be {sablcedbetneen the bu properties ofthe gar andthe microscope behaviour ff the gas molecules, name Pv = {Nmce> 6 hse isthe pressure ofthe gas (Figure 6b, Visits vole, [Nhe mune of gas molec, ‘mia the mass of ech molecule, naie ecry of teal gases NT 1 Temperature, anergy and the structure of mater o> ie the average squaredspeot ofthe molecules. * Inthiscourse angled brackets il alvaysinictetheaverageofthe quantity they clos For ourpurposestis useful rewrite Equation 6in terms ofthe average kinetic ray’ ofthe oleate Ths ent odo. Noting that the olecar as onset the ator? san be intodced ae foe before ec te in the Squaetpeed wage PY = ANCime> or [P= ING) o here = the rasan Kinetic energy ingle mole fhe Curse the emery of 2 singe atom or malice denoted by the symbol ¢ {pronounced spon), The corey of sn entire system is denoted by E Ths Foam Seal 28 Fis = Ne) Equations 6 and 7 are er important On he hand se of ach squaton ae measurable mactoscpic properties ofthe eal gas onthe pea ides ae parameters describing micencopi behaviour. The ink betworn he acrocopi Ex snopes te ned for wich wa cused in Seton 2 has bon mde Where does temperature enter into the analysis To isade temperature, Teed ‘uly lok basso macroscopicps where hee isanotherequatoninvahng pv = wer Eqeation St Te this equation, «constant known as Bolzmans’s constant. and bas the ‘aoe 138 10°) K "The temperature Ti the ideal eustion fy of ‘cours ented fo Kelvin, [An inspection of Equations Sand 7 shows tat the microscopic kite hey ‘model fan dea gas and te mroscopial ined Ken trpeatre inthe ‘Seal as eqution ae only conten PV = 3N (Grund = NAT Le om) = TP @ "Equation indicates thatthe mean translational energy ofa molecule depends only on the tempeatue ands independet of rest ole malt mas, {Tra ofl a diac pedetion tht ca be tee: experments can be Petformed vo find the speeds of rcs in gases The experimental eta are import ois eiscuson but Figure Teshows soe sul which oul be ‘chord. In th igure he eae numberof molecules with dierent sped oe aguas! seat for oxygen an hem at tee temperatures Ol eure, ‘vypen and eum are not eal gases, bu ts Knowo tha hey behave appro ‘mately Selly tow presurand tthe emperstarea sed By ths mea hat they obey the tution PP = NRT. Tecan easonable ose tee eal ustsinstigtheconssenyoftheequstions PY = NET ad ing) = AT 2 The a thing that is ea fom the rap is that she molecule in a ga hae eration pects which depends on the par anon emperor fo aes, ‘helgherbelum molecules movemore quik tha he oxygen eles when both sce areal he same temperature Alo tiie thal fora sven pte “lowes my hans met Equation fret he regi cence course i SOARATarae flare neh qe Tae ‘itequanty Forcumpls heateragcofGeaguceotiaami Slr 3913-2 143 Sei Sane gue oh verge thse ums {he phrase "Egon 5 ints ha his ation es aeady br toad Ihe ent iu aoe a on you wl ata Eqn wae nodule, Aranlavens inate energy 272_The physics of mator ‘ee 0 The sbi ore i gn Os 0K ad iorenh dation mark yw era ine aa cnet etd oe I ly pad Dy const ion, 12 ean (Fr ae wath TL isibution shits to higher spss asthe temperature neeses. Boh tise ‘huervations ae quabtainey consent withthe equation rn) = Chm) ‘30772. pss. it s worth nung another ature of thse saps for {ven gas they become broader the tempers inceser. Ths supe & Somewhat wins, but valid iew of tempers; iis aa adesion of Jgnorance-"the preter theteapesatte, theless preiely neko themoleelat seat Using data fiom Figure 7a i is posible to text Eauaton 8 quantities Marked on each graph by verti burs the rome spot ‘whichis content but clumsy sorta forthe equate ot ofthe average of {he squareespeed That = ee) o ‘uty Comment 14m goingtodsk you carey ot anenercieina shor Inert, ‘Question (FT). ITs wl be aot In all ited area itera pot ofthe tesching state. The are sed o consaliat nem ats a wel eo develop {he discussion sti eset that you alter them a yo reach ber You Ignore them or turn tothe answer without ny thovght ou ate ey kel oe ‘he thread ofthe argument, TQ Using the ae of ru eom tbe graphein Figure 7a pon igure ‘Tha eraph hat ets the ab of Cyn) 3AT2. The masses ef onygen 206 liam moles are 53% 10-5 hp 665 10" ke respecte "have focus this discussion on the mean runsatinal Kaci energy and its ‘elaonship to temperature but the dubution of molecular spec a a5 Impls the existence ofa darbuon of lealr onan i ener. UNIT 1 Temperature, nergy and ne suture of mater "gue 3. The distin f was iwc een fer min the fur ‘Bee of see papa cis of Mo st Using the dataforaped that are pltedin Figure Tt posible de graphs (Figure 8) ofthe anslational kneticeneay dsubatons for he four gassytems bxyeen at 200K and 300K and baum a 0K and 400K. These te known ‘Masel! Boma energy dscns fea acanylnpcion hare poate imma gotion Why ae theregaly reserves? A closer inspection septs amore precseqesion, Why se titvnete encgy cba oxygen 200K antes a 200 the ‘ame? Te ony answer I ball ie i hut that te ket eneay iste butions ace the ste becuse the temperatures of he gases ae the sae “his a remarkable feature of casi systems there i unique eneray stitution foreach emperatreanafsted by the mas ofthe pres Turn the statement Sound the txiportur te dchoed, te dtton of tans latina Kinetic ener the system defined. In Unit the reson or ts tehuvour, which simpli tke omsderation f'many problems, wil be Although intel test such a TQ 1 canot prove poe elatonship tis found that the microscope relationship eg) = 7/2 alas obj fo eal gases. Ta ac the eltonship hat a wider ality. ing latins ols oe eo sare gui or solid is being somsderd te ollow- 9) 11s important to recognise that Equation 10 i clase rest: there ae Pcnomens and stems here quantum mechanical ects canot be Sgored {nd or these, the csi deserison and hence Equation IO mus nt Be ve Teis alo worth noting the word ‘wanlaonl’ io Equation 10. Tis an important restiion, but dso of the Complications doc to other energy terms such a rotational Kinetic ener) or potential enegy associated wth {ntermoecla interactions, wil be postponed unt Unie and & They dont ‘vaiate Equation 10, but they do ead to itriuiag phenomena, ocladis Mase Boltzmann eneroy ae besoalabional ‘S272_The physics of maior some tht were important pointer to the inadequacy of claical pie. Dott be put off by thse caveats Equation 10 isa very potent equation It ‘roves am easlent pipes pure them phenomens and a means of ‘oaotatie anaes [Subsection 3.2therileof temperature inguantum mechanic description will, tedincssd Before toring oth dcanon, shall pre te mu rel ok the present sueeton, The amended statement although somewhat a {tsarmulation illensphase te lone corespendenee tween theca and ‘qototum mechanical understandings o temperate Box 5. A classical interpretation of tomperature “Temperature parameter that defies how theta energy is distributed tween the parts of a system In particle, tbe ea apstional nei meray ofthe partic i 3/2 8A02 Acariyehssaninfted volume ofr Ate begining ofa journey the presse inter i AD» 10" Paad he temperature s290K. At {head athe sare jourey the temperature feat inthe re has increased SISK: Assuming that the volume ofthe ye remains the same and that ee leskage ofan calculate the presare inthe treat thee he orn. Yous) ‘eat the rine reas an Wel Bs 'SAa4 Two enticl contiersarefiles othe same pressure one with eatbon ‘monoxide (CO) andthe eter with carbon dose (CO,) The ass ae at the ‘me tmiperature ad ean be tested a ea. What isthe vali of he total ‘Wanslational kinetic energies ofthe two gases? Tn which ass the mean molecular ocd pete AQ Itisposible to prodce ae of neutrons with tanlationlKaetie. ‘ergy dstbuton ofthe same form ae that ofan ies! gas by allowing te ‘eutoos to calle with be materia soc moderator Afr a are ‘umber of oisions a the nestons wih the moderator mater te neweon fu hat the sume temperature a the moderator Estimate «tpl spd for ‘eucominacheuron gas intheral contact ita moderaorsta00K (Vahesof [indamental contaats are given onthe back of ech uit) 3.2 Quantum mechanics and temperature {nln Nine theory, the anata toot aed are Newt's sof maton, Iecacortsponding quantum mechani pales Sev idingr equation used Inthe contet ofthe present dacusson de mos reevatifercne betwee he te approaches i that, wheres the clas heey slows the paras in he ‘Sstemto aveany energy the quantum apayispedits that on certain energy {alu whose ors wil be dscussed in gleater deal io Unt 3 ae allowed. “Thesneryvalesareknownasenrg eves foreach tem hey ae diferent. Figurer 9a and 9p show the enrey levels stocted with Iwo stems—an ‘Strom na hytogen atom sod the clerons n= piel metal, a this sution want o establish the connection Between the temperature ‘ta stm andthe ceeupaion of nergy fel, T shall flow te ame Dprosodue asin the Knee theory dessin (Choos a system consisting of large number of parce. 5 Examine the datibution of energy between the parties [5 Observe how this ditebution depends om leet In this cane, however because Im dain wth quantum systems and dsrte ergy aly tn’ be possible todraw energy dutbuuoncurvessuchas those in'Fature instead of © continuous cre, the energy ditrbution wil be atogram, For example teeta distbuton athe lectons inten hyarogen ste Saif pe UNIT 1 Temperature, enoray andthe structure of mater iene L aan Figre Tiesto an dio nando om nd) he {teem the recess e comp the energy ee rece toms might bea in Figure 10, with seven clstonsin the owt nergy eel or frond tte, wo i the next higher energy vl aad one in he et in Unt youvilldcoverbowinasptem comprising very age number ofas ‘oecls, the taslatoml ene) dstbutons peed by quan meh nics and by clit Kinetic theory are efleetvely Mental Speaking Person, ind the demonsiratin of hs correspondence to Be paral “Sistine it provides an pan vindkestion a wo quite separate ns imo the moroncopi beau f male, ‘gas squite a complicated syste, 5, for the moment, I shal be conten o investigate he role of temperature m another quantum mechani ost one ‘ith arguably dhe simple posi st of energy levels The sytem va aroup of Protons in 2 magnet Fld (igure II) Probably you are aleady amare, fom the prerequisite sense coors, that ‘letron haves property called pm which iver sich ston te magnetic ‘harater Protons to avespinandaeec, behave asthe) were tay ad ey ‘weak barmagnts Eachprotonturmpnetischaractersedyaveclorm Anon 1th mapntic moment, hone magne and directo indicate stent aed ‘tetation ofthe magne According the quantam mechanics, when a protons in magnet ld the ‘magnetic moment many oly nen isn dition sah has component ‘long the Bd takes one f wo ited vals that reo equal magnitude, Bat ewe 10 An snr dabei tap ote cto in hyenas magnet moment ‘S272_The physics of mater Saeco eons hap fe maple ai be con ‘ened a he # am the" gompenem ef the mati omen cn ave on Wo. icing SRE Bh nam elec Ree opposite sig. Ith fel ireton is dined asthe = dreton his condition can me = ied vale) Sab 1AM When a protons magnetic moment is orente such that mi postin itis sad, meh ooo bea par! romain. poets pees). athe Sirotionoftheteld. Conversely. eomnpenent along te fel iaegaie it ieisid to bein an amar venation, What you ma be hiking, about the ‘ster components? Fortunately, you need only consider Ihe + component, tcuse the tagnetc cacy whl ste main fem of slret depends ely 08 the componeat fm song the fell 2 cr one a “Therdorea proton whose moment as a parallel orientation with m > has lomer magnetic nergy than a peoton wih an atiaralllotentton, The > ovntaions have diferent enrg levels (Figure 16 separated in enersy by Ne epee = 2B ry ‘nba i the magnitade of man is the sme for both eretations 102. Catelte the enerydiflereacetetneen he etry levels comesponding tothe wosllowed orenationsoftherotonsnamagncte fe osuegth 10T. 2 Held achievable witha sopereonduting magnet Compare this enersydiereace ‘ith te separation of the lowest vee te hydrogen atom (Fase 1 Although protons are very weak magnets, x poosble to measure the toa ‘uaghaticmomen ofthe ery large numberof retons ins, aiee play Shine highly snive magnetometer Figue 12) “The total magne moment, denoted by the symbo M, i ju the yet sum ‘ofthe magnetic moments ofthe dial protons ne ope onerous sd with ile flltes foresthpic misesoorthemgneicmoment ofa prtonanestesybol ot Eetocciccnael bn usd ort eel agar oes fe ou of proto ‘nd orth ol magnate. Ine Idee yeas ago of Tenens more ofa snl pe ‘pte (TE) on magnet ed {Ig een the PTFE ‘Snips hoa mal ei “omc devi cae SQUID, Sh dete the magi an hou Ihe To alma of he cana SQUID Sp ope SCE ig ped ah LUNT 1 Temperature, energy andthe structure of mater ‘Because thee ar no constants onthe x andy components ofthe individual moments. a age enough ample they can be expected to add randomly to give (oul value oefletivey sro. Therefor the tot apneic moment ms point Song the = lot eld Ts Yale spy equal othe um ote individual = components As thee are ony two possible als of me 190 ‘iettions and hese corespond oe proton oecupying the two caer els, the vile of proportion to the dference between the populations ot ‘wo emery levels: Mensring the otal magnetic moment therlre provides a ‘pportuniy of nesiating the ens eve! populations am soingtomake we ‘har opportunity, Marne moment measurements can be made a fancion of temperature Figuc 1a shows the reve tat woul! be obaied fom meserements ofthe ‘oll = componet of magnetic moment M of 4 group of rotons held ina magne of 1 Tortomperatures up 1001 K. The very low empresa seed because the proton magnetic momenis ares very weak ad the core: ‘ponding energy diernoes so very small The quantity Mma) inthe fe is the matimum possible mentored agate moment, cortespondag to all N rotons occupying the lower energy level ad hereto, having the sare ini ‘uals components of magneue momen. From the variation ofthe measured moment wth temperatre it icles hatte fran ofthe proton popalation in ach level changes wih temperate. At temperatures above about 08K ihe smal vale of Ma/Ma ips ‘hat thote are av approximately equal umber of proton with two pose tentations oto putanoter way an approximately equal mb fprotons Sccupingeack af the cara) evel (Figure 13. As the temperate alls, the neared maeticmomentcresses pling increasing balance between theenerg lel populations Inthe init of ow temperature we cant fours ‘each absolute ao) the measured component o magnetic ements 0 themasimum ponablevelue—althepisave theme onenttion With spec tothe bed Fpure 13) Thee remarks indeate qualitatively how temperature alts the energy level populations nd therfore the ditnbaton a ener. ut itis possible to extract {fom the data the populations Nand Ny ofthe upper and lowe energy ves The sha uhich sgh me and not cetealto the present dscusion ie Felow. Dont spend toe mach me on “The total 2 component M, of he magnetic moment snp: (rectzmons i catoroding: omrne) ower level Ny * of mage morsent (+) o,f protons in corresponding = component opper evel Ns magnetic moment (Im) ) 04 Nail «9 Fee) Te component Mes ‘tol of pts nt magne a of ioe igs pt tee seperate ane ‘Si Cai Gama ma of 'S272_The physics of mtr ‘The comm can be eliminated trom the equation by noting a the maximum ‘alae of My oecrs whe ll 9 protons hae he ve onentton: that, Mesa) = Non oo Substtting the vl om fom Equation 14 ito Equation 13 ges Na, (89 ap gon) Rearranging gives Niblet NoMa = NiMamny)— Nadas) and Nd + Mdras)) = N¢MAmax)~ M,) “The ial elt flows rom further rearrangement Ne _ Mamas) My_1— MMémas) 1,7 Maa) + Me TF Mla) ‘The righthand sie of Baton 15 contains the quantity measured in dhe experiment and shown, ab futon of emperature in Figure 1a. Prom thes {als and wing Pgnton 15, | hive slelaed the rato ofthe number of rotons inthe two energy lees a a anction of temperature (Figure 1a). us 193 deni, rom Figure the approsimatetemperatureat which the ratio NaNiischangng mos qusky Compare this temperature withthe ae oe ‘where Asis the aepuration af the tw eeray lees ofthe proton (You called the vale of rin ITQ 2) Fan Payee Ua) The rao Naa he Rishtoo Gt dens LUNIT 1 Temperature, energy and he structure of mar 1 iclear from the experimen th the ratio ofthe populations depen strongly ‘ntempertune When hetemperatretsuch hat LT euch renterban tee {irda the population ratio almost constant and approaches 1 When AT is ‘much es than A.A the popuation ratios again lati constan, ‘utwith eval sero lbeintermedaterepion where ~ Ae thepopulton ‘changes apy with temperature, ‘The pest steistofnd quantitatively coret analytical elatinshiphetwen the population ratio and tempeatre. This can be made eater ease to spot by Dloting Nw asst a). eis donein Ppa lab Now nansengTQ 4, Sou sl be abet deny the relationship Between these quanties, 704 (a) Caluatethelactors by which Na ils when Ak increase fom ro toe and frm one foto (b) What typ of faction has the property of hanging by eal stor for ‘qual nerements of 2 (6) From Figue 1b, deduce he foe fhe equation aking N/M and UAT: ‘Your ansnerto TQ 4 should ave demonstrated tht there fa simple ration ship, ths experiment at hast, betvern the ao te populations of nee) tev and the tompeatre Although you have derived the elaonship trough experimental anlss of purtesluiy snp sf somewhat exotic quant ple, has more general Salty and ey similar equations wll our epestdy inthe couee. The ctor {ep AWT}s knowns the Boltamam acer Ils you bow the populations Stsny Iwo guantam states n'a quantum stem Jepend on temperature (Figure 5) Nose that Ihaveused thepbraseuantumsate atertha nea) level: When te Boltzmann factor isdscuse in reter deta Unit you wil ‘tothe ormulation have given ee ianoresa umber ofcompleations For ‘he purposes ofthis dicuson of temperature, sch iets canbe nord eapbte-nn47t Ee = epee] Figue 18 The Holman far an De wed to lee popuin of any two {qui states a lve! sem. The gue shows fe sera eso Siete ssn m woh are cn eon oe ae cck ot ‘rent ney an) he ate popalston fe our sae: Note ht he ‘save ops alo wth manger Botan tector a ‘The Boltzmann factor enapmlates our understanding ofthe roleaf temperature In'mrowopie analysts ing qusntom mechanic. Box A quontum mechanical interpretation of tomperatre According to qusotum mechani, temperature isa parameter that defines ‘nthe Baliznan fact, the reo a the populations of any wo quant fines of the tem that irercagkn 0 where A is the diferencia eneray betwee the two sts “Tiss anapproprntemomenttoremind you of hclsiatoleoftemperturein smlerowopicaals Takeanother ook a Box Sat heenofStbsection 3 and ‘Sompare that classe undentanding wih the present quantom mechani Understanding, Nobis the coe sorespondece lo each cae temperature ‘sen fo ref the dsribution of enereysmong the pots. ‘The oodst I ie spniiant It has the dimension ofeneray ad insome sense, deste th spread of energie in he system, lo the casa em the mean {tenltonal netic energy equal to 34T/2 and the width ofthe ebay Sinton of sma sagsitude (Figue 16. Inthe quant mechanical ‘suum, the population ratio NIN alls by etre = 272} fo each nese OUT inthe ene spacing A betwen the states wa Gnd = Fut 16 The aston ia energy duration fo the mol oa [De The pliant en “AT Dan he af edi foe ThevaluckT isch ausfl parameter thatithar acquired colloguilname.the ‘hormal ems [itema energy = #7) Ww “The thermal eperay ithe ipa amount of enegy that might transfered Terwen tro molsles in collsion i aso be tastered in a ranstion ‘etme cnr levels Much of the est of this eit wil be concerned wit the ompaig its of thermal nergy and"ehaaceste ener asoited with the cublahmcet of ondred sutures In Section shal Severe wo carte teristic energies binding nergy ae activation energy~Ihat ca be Usd 10 Alsen s lege aumber of systems 3.3 Summary of the first half of the unit Upto thi pot ofthe nit hive been mainly concerned wit elalching the Inecoweope and srousopi meanings a emperatre The mn pos ze UNIT 1 Temperature, energy and ho structure of mater | Practial emperatre sales ae defi in tems of the macrssope poe perts of physica stems 2 Theresa temperature scale known she thermodypamicsaethat doesnot, ‘pend onthe mactoscope properties ofa partiular substance: The anit of {emperatue on thi sal te Keli, The eal ae equation pv = NAT Equation 5 uses temperature in a way that is consent with the Kelvin sek 2 case mechani ape tothe microscopic motion of mokcuesin an ideal gas at eqution cn be eed which Hake that notion wth macroeope PY = ING Equation? 4. Forthemicoscopicmeanng of temperatureto be consistent wth the mao scopic view. the follwing equation must be true. a) KT uation 10 “This equation snot rected Logan icant app to any classe patil, including solids and gids 5 Experineats show that he molecules ings have 8 range of seats a, hen, range of tensor inte copes. The curve showing the ds bution of tanhtionl energies Known a te Maxell-Balzmann ents)

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