‘THE OPEN UNIVERSITY Scion second leva couee The physics of matter Unit 10 Mechanical properties of solids Prepare forthe Course Team by Shelagh Rose Introduction 3 ‘The mature of mates 5 ‘The response oa sold to afore 3 2. late behaviour 5 21 Quantipng casi: sues, sean and elastic moda 5 22. Tomandh a micrescopic erpannion of eatebebiour 5 23 Praticting the olatic modal of crystal a 24 The esc behaviour af pelyners Grading TV sevens) a 25 Summary of Sacon 2 2 3. Bette behaviour ™ SL Thesuength of ois ut 32 Pedic the tem strength of rite ental 2 33. The strength of real matele is 34 Summary of Section 3 Ey 4 Platte behaviour 2 441 Paste deormation sip and sear 2 42. Prodi the shear srength o erat 3 423° The muchas af bear in date nna 6 44 Didocations (AV sequence) 36 45° Sommary of Section 4 a Further reading “ 17a anewers and comments “ ‘AO anewers and comments s Revision Guide for Uni 10 « Index for Unit 10 a ‘The television programme assisted wih this unt, TV7 Blaster: Madels and Properties form prt of Subsction 24 Howevey, you may mate the programme at any stage during your toy a the un. ‘THE OPEN UNIVERSITY PRESSUNIT 10. Mechanica properties of slide 1 Introduction 1.4 The nature of materiale Everybody has fy good ides of how materi behave mechanically well Low that ebber als Bounce, bat hat fon ce al to rue do ot tT a valabl item of china ots broken the broke surfaces sual Bt toptier [efeclyand i ofen posite to ge together apn, Metals on the other and, Behave quite dierent The eset ay to fneturea thn pe fetal by repetay bending and tsghonng i Spends moment ying ths with & paprcp, How easy ittomatch yp the wo les again? You wil probaly find that ts not atl ebvious how the broken sures shoul it back tote tnd even yu save ts problem, you cannot simply ease the pperelp into ts original shape I'yu look ‘lose ou wll 8 gh, bot permanent, nk nea he pot of ature apd you wil alo notin ha the met ye and les shy closet the broken end ‘nthe tas ofthese sorts of simple observations, we can make «petininary lasicaon of slid by diving them into two typeset aa dtl 1 Brie material do nat show ay permanent deformation before actare nd ther rake sures ely smooth atleast othe ake Glas Sneha ae good example of rile wold 11 Duciemareriastracture ony after ty have been permanent deformed in ‘Sicha way hat thore substan ocl dstrton sone tote te off ‘The vas maoty of dace sls re metals o loys Ofcourse not ll deformations ia vl ae xtatrohic asthe ones we have ‘considered sofa Many mater can be comprened or extended bythe appli tion oa fore without bing permanently dered, When he forces removed, {he sli simply eturn ot orignal shape. Thie typeof even behaviour ‘termed slaty All lis re slat to some tien, bat tee hw Ue erence between ast wie, wich Behver elas only when testbed bytes than one po cet ats enth and» rubberband whic ca be iehed {0 seer ies orignal gt wibout beng pmnentydeormed For thousands of years, ‘mail sce” consisted of nothing toe thin an Accumulation of derive wadom I as teen Kann sac reisto ines that metal ier rom athe peso sustance in hat they may be eaten shape to make weapons and ploughstares or draw into wits sh fastened inc jewelery. ut the undetng reason or he mechan properties metals Ive been undersiod onl nthe past My Yeas. Matera shiwrights 0d ‘masons knew how wood and sone behaved when siete 10 Nai Pe. ‘fforee and that was suit for their puroxe. Nowadays, we want ad ‘ut why materials behave they do, Thi kind of knowledge ect oth in desgning sew materi an i wong thm to thir Bes avantage. May ‘eainal materia ae being replaced by pats and the synthetics and isobviusy important to babe oped how thew new mate wlepond to particular (pes of ect lad 4.2 The response of a solid to a force “The simpkstquantative method fo avestizaing the mechanics properties. ‘of soli ite tense tes shown in Figure In thi ype of expen od ‘of materi is subjeed Yo ele (Le setching free of nage Fr and thecorresponding clongton Ais measured The feuks fue eas conn te qualitative observations decried aovethere ae tne done way whic a sold can respond toa tess force: depending onthe nature ofthe Solid and the mate of the oe, the Behaviour mye tie ile OF ‘oat 1 f ‘Thou his nt we sl Lo tem aig 4 ingle sin thi tle Seem diagram of ‘ti what ewe. However su stole eh ae ht she et Fup ee itlony ste opps fos appedto wens spon Te dagroms ovr of magne Fut ‘ilenphase hs po ‘Sonston'n'be eine.Elastic behaviour Elst behaviours strate in Figure 2. The dformatonis revel she oang curve, whic pled as Fy acess, these asthe ‘loading, re, plotad vy i reduce again. When the force completly removed, fhe wld hae no permanent extension. For most substances the extension i ‘dst proportional tothe agatude ofthe fore actos tbe whole east ange, but hie ot ala the ease. Rubber in example of @ mst a [SHEN the ela extenson docs not depend nearly om the terse force. TV [rotramme looks in dealt some ofthe phsnomena of ruber lets: You Ein watch his programme at any te during your study athe uit Section 2 ‘iting aa microscople tel how sols respond cata to ese fore ie 2, as ena Mow ei ean aly on mal fee 0 Rte es dt ea vn ov ln Serato Pat Britt behaviour ‘The lstrted in Figare 3, wich shows the rest of tensile ts narod of ts at room temperature The respon ofthe fed to an inresng tense Fle i ls sgh upto th pont at which it suddenly saps, Tas type of ‘eepons i sharers bite behavout, the sujet of Scion 3. Ductile behaviour Dace behaviours iste in Figre 4 This shows the piel response of sali specinen fen tet Up to the point Pn the raph the dorms “Ya. fo ere Due nvr ym Fram de eat Isat fhe fe ele mp eerie dtr at alg ‘oul cores cm ong be spe Paste dermaton as tikes plse enor ut ena eth srt a ining he ‘fess, The mt hs nom ano dfrmaon aed he pom 5 EX vente om yi. at mtn ewe 3 Brite behavioueUNIT 10. Mechanica! propertes of sale ‘ions eerie (elastie) and proportional to the magnitude of the applisd fore Poin Preprsetsthelmitefelasic ands own athe eld point Any yl pot funtherncreasn the applied oe beyond that corresponding tthe id pot Prete a pormanent extension ofthe spesinen For example spied lors i rad incensed (otha corresponding to the poss M the force ‘xtesion graph fellows theloadingcarve OPN. Itheforces the progressively Fedvced, the suing extension vil leon the unloading curve MN, Even when the Jad i removed completely, the specimen wil havea permanest ‘konsion ON. Thi typeof reverb deformation ale pat plate behaviour Figuee Sa shows part of singh rsa of cada tht hasbeen patly {lord ner tenon. The photograph ides thatthe deformations ‘ccrred not by an elongation in he deon ofthe fore, bt bya procs of Sip lon et of well ie planes tht art an angle co the ection of lip the ten fore The crystal appears t defor rather Tike x pak of cd (Figure The proces ofatipewentaly ade ta the mation ofaconttion ‘or nek inthe sample (Figure So. Ony a smal inrease nthe ese fore then requed 1o cause fate Pate deformation i dacs a Son ‘he audionsualsequenes deserts fhe mechan of Gutta eal nd Fee 5 Pst deformation ising ryt A ry fad ome SHE oe foe shone pins (magacatna ©) Sea, ‘Rpreiton ath ap fae ams ck cst Fama of ‘Caton one art rl of pinot ote meal wn eee ‘Our ukinate sm inthis itis o anew such despivey simple question ax ‘why ia ruber balloon so eis to low op? why gles itl and why ha alee be drawa sto wires, where wood cannot 2 Elastic behaviour nis appropriate to bepa the dicuason ofthe mechanic proprio sole with list, sine, ou have seen in Figures 2 and al soi exhibit ‘ome dere flat nthe nil stage of eo onding 2:1 Quantifying elasticity: stress, strain and elastic modull ‘The fist practical investigation of etc phenomena was evi out in the secon ha ofthe eventcothconary hy Robert Hooke, ets aie) ‘fmatera mich ar metal spins and wits and wooden beams y hanging ‘tits on tem and measuring the eauling exten or in he eof Bans the dere of bending. Hooke found hat for most mater the tenon ‘vas diecy proportional 10 the weight nde also noted that the te ‘mpl usually recovered thr orignal ship when the weights were more Inother words us you savin Figure 2s when sod steht atl the tension ofan dite proprtonl tothe magnitude he tae oe‘S272_The physes of matter “Te statement of this proportionality i one formulation of whats tow known a: Hoke ow igre) As Figur showed nol sls oe) ts pip ‘but mos structural materials sch a ec do and Hooke's iw fee oft cornerstones of modem eginering ‘Ar Hooke’ discoveries, there was ite progres inthe stadyof ltt for the next 120 years. The main protien confronting elghenth ctury sets was the fact that the observable deformation uf solid subjected to» oad depends aot only on the natu the materi, Hat lo 0 the shape tad a othe tet sample A metal eam is erty Tes il tan thin wie ade ofthe same tal. I! was easy enough o make observation onthe deformations of small abet, but Hooke and his contmporancs did at know Row to ‘rapolate fo lars samples, manly bean they didnot have un analy ‘ethogue for separating ie dependent and asteial-dpendent ells ‘wera method f analysis hat accounts for both the sie andthe ature of 4 3peinen was not discovered ut the beginning ofthe nineteen entry, although th st of experiments that anv rie to this advance satay te) Spe slsrated in Figure. The resuke ofthe thee eaperments may och been separately (a) lo Fy with Fan A comsant (b) oct with Fy and A constant (o) Ala /A wit and Fy constant Alenativey, they maybe combined into a singe proportionality Abc FWA ‘This can be euranged to gve al 7 o ‘The uamtity Alt! scaled the tenle strain and given the symbol cy. The fen stain has a measure of the atonl or prceniags) chang nag ‘fsb resulting fom the appa of esl ore I samp oral Fength is retched to egth (Ah then the emestrine deed ai] ® ‘The quantity Fy on hee and si of Proportional he one sere ad given the symbol Sri spesking, ses deena gunn, sce it proportional ofr whch of eave a vette Figues a Shower we ae deg with be snp sein whch the tere fre 8 sped aay along the ath ofthe wi andthe ring eters sho is ane dieton (course ata 4 eae a hay spend fo 1} Under tsecondions the ony sry component we soot {5 worry aboot the oe paral othe a lending To the spl teat the wes component i al ter discon may betaken asta ‘Sretional nature of se ignored. a general therefore ses is a measure ofthe foro er uit re within sid ‘Sct ft ie a Capt rma tafe of thermal motion, to resume a crumpled conformation once the setciag Foyes removed, This of ours, sspyapother way f saying that the ean sw behave easly under tion. On prot grounds alone we can tus boa long way towards explaining the ety af angen mola 11 i quite easy to make these sols of probability argument quatane by !pproimating the behaviour af» plymer molecule to that of chain with & lage number of links of equal length, I the splet mode ofthis ype ii "sumed that teins have nonteracton with one another By analogy wih "he ea as Gin hich sis assumed that thre ae no lneacions betwee he otc this mode! scaled the Wel ci Since he poston ofeach ak ‘independent ofthe postions ofthe ison eter sige othe deetion of frecve inks completly random. We can therfore anase he situation a iu 26) Comptes ca el ran hla wt 10 Baa a ‘ern pope 7) Eason ac eine tom he Figure 28 shows a compute simulation of chan wth N inks, each of gt ‘Crandon jit a two dimensions Ths exacly equa othe random ‘vik dacused in Unit? in the context of difion so me can sue the sult, eid on tat occasion: the rms end-o-end distance of the chain sien By W “9 Equation 14 is extremely significant in explaining the phenomenon of rubber flay? I ststes that when the cain unststched the root mean sare Endovend tain eng i ual ones the guar rot ot Ik however, the cain were extended fly it nd-toand length wou be oat es the numberof lis, N. Te penal enemy of the chan is therfore IN or Nea chain with 0D inks could be extended fo a nich a fen tins average normal lng one with 1 inks could be extended handed 25, The nal els ofall such moiiation on The form of Equation 14 ae txily ide te cn ho nee8272 The physics of mater fo all without actly stetchng ay fonds, This at once shows why only ‘beatin wih ey logs chain moles exhibit elastomeric bebavout TV programme 7 compute simulation is used to generate a large number ff chain conformations fone of which wa tasted se Figure 25. 1th ‘le eay to calla the probablty ofthe cain adopting conformation with sparta ead-ovend stance ofr (Figure 26, This curve corespors ewe 26 Graph shoving how aly a enon uined tin it adap ‘Strion th» pre ndtoand dens ‘ to the physical situation in which very large values of - al extension of he ‘hao vey smal alse almost exact overlay ofthe eds of he cain) “cextsmelyunkaly to our The most probable conformation les between the eens, and the chain fe mort lily Yo adopt one ofthe many poste {rumpled contormations. ‘As well as their et extensbiiy, rubbery subsanees aio exhibit some very {nous thermo-laic behaviour! One of the most eoual properties of ‘laste is demonsteved in TV programme 7s sample Bld under corstaat ‘eoson contacs when iis healed. Ths phenomenon (knows othe Grugh- ote eect) sin comple contrast to the behaanur af al ther types ost, ‘ich expand ot heuing whether or nt they are being svt to ese Tore ‘An important pact of TV programme 7 is devoted odin fhe Gough Sole sot aa the way in wich the del chi moved ean account for this phenomenon The main ses inthe argument are summarised in Box 2 FQ 6 Experiments show tht the elstic modalus of an dastomer under ‘enon inreases with increasing temperature. How may tis emperature d= Dendence be actoused or usg a model of fandom oven) cite tole Another strange hermo-lsicpropety i easily demonstrate wih a ruber fund. Tooch the mil fe band to Jour ip 2nd pl shy on bh nds IW should be immitely obviou tha the tempersture ofthe bands a ‘esended: Why should the extension of a clstomer res inthe eveation cheat (One explanation is sed on an analogy betwen the sudden extension of 29 ‘stone andthe rap compresdon ofan esl pas ses are elastic wih spect to tor ylume the app pressure ons fied mast of eal gs Inctensed the ome decreas but corre orginal val whet the presre ‘ced panto dupa the inital conditions. Work moat be dove on the tens to compres i and the internal energy ofthe ga heer ines urns Eompresson. In an ie pa, the moecls exert no forces on on athe, 50 ‘he ena intra energy can oly be stored inthe form of Knee energy of ‘he molec Thus compression causes the temperate ofthe gat te. he cvlution of at that ogous when ruber is tte may Be explained ‘yam ental argument In ths ease, work ust be get etch the sample 10 the internal energy of the robber incense. Av wat demonstte ia TV cough-toule electUNT 19 Mechanics proper Box2_ Tho Gough-Youle eect NO TENSION Foran idea chan, these two ‘onoratins have the sme ray Both loca With ‘roi roportionaltoe"*, both ae eal Ike 2 o UNDER TENSION \o ® BOB 5 Ba gmer -Attow The extended cosformation @ is more tel [At bigh T,exp(AB/ET)-1 and p.—-ps 20 the crumpled conormaton ijt a itty a he extend one. Therefore ‘he cain contrat whoa Beated der tension8272. The physics of mator programme 7,anclastomerc soil doesnot store potential energy to the extra ‘Erna energy mast be ransormed into Knee fhe moles eats thesampe bores warner Its et posible to eat ruber elastic DY ‘isan thermodynamic itkoogh th approach eyo the scope S272 “The ea hain mode th provides aisfactory explnations for althe unwual ‘mechanical properties of robber Indeed, with more detailed analysis aod the ‘ncknon of seme thrmedyaamic arguments can produce exelent quanta: tive arocment with experentl data ‘The theory's ony drawback its tal geaeraiy:itimpis ht al ongchain solecules should be elastomeric: Paci expevencedemonstates ht this ‘ply nose: ok for wane esol Whee the fal potential extensby f chain-lke molec san be abined i the bulk mater depends on the atangement of the caiss andthe forces th bind tem ithe substance o be elatomers the termes fres mus buffet weak for the mlcne to rearrange ther conformation rey ‘ren of thermal motion This requerent raises Jot another question if ‘he molecsles can move with slmont complete fecdom with esp to one nother, a do the molecules na qui, nh rubber asl and not a In the ca of natural rubber, the aes fe nthe fact thatthe erp enformations of the chains alvays result in eatarglenetsbetneen eh These entanglements donot hiner he heal nation segments molecules, so they do ntact the kneic mechanism of clatomereBehvicu. They do, weer rent erease restos tthe lg seal sigpage of molec Pst ‘oe anole, whichis characters of bg ike Now. Natural uber thus has Solita resent Test on sly short timescale 1 the loading is pple fora log perio, the ehuns gradually disentangle themseler and appreciable fw ofthe bal mater ean tke ples, epetly Uubder hgh stress rat hightemperature Tso reduce Now edhe eating. Fermanent dfornations tht ton ruber a raceme” by eatog Ht with fuiphur Thi proces ntoduces mimes cownages between molest ‘hlns Figure 27) Like the entanglements cross-nkages pei elrge amount ‘of segmental motion, so the extensbtyfthe rubber revel) oafeced (Figure 29. The ret advantage of rose inking that italy limite: the mest undesabe elect of ow permanent deren unde load. Vulcan ‘tio lo bas the added bons of greatly reducing both the sac knees ‘of marl robber and low of laity a low temperate “The ideal chain motel of elastomers shows that elastomers behavior is 3 ‘manifestation ofthe thermal tion of polymer molecu of segments of mole ‘les Arte temperature desensed, ti notion gradually sows down atl the thermal energy sno longer scent to surmeunt the ene bari 1 {eationl marion abot the earbon-carbon bond in the skboneo the ein, [Athi pont known ash las tmsion enperacreT the chain a rae ‘pce and the substance asumes 2 rps, amorphoursructre The blk ‘aerial ino longer anelasomer, but the kind of ar, bite fld know Sree, ‘Te trandrmation fom rubbery to glassy state completely reverb prepex (Ty = 100°C) sheted oabout 140°C ican be etched or twisted info almost any shape and will retain ths skape when cool dowa to room ‘emperatre (On the other hand, as shown in TV programms 7, sample of rubber (7, ~70°C) cooked in gui irogen Yecomes tte ad wil sate it tre hammer; each inv legen, weve, wil pine eastomete Properis ust warms up to room temperature aga ‘The mechanism of brit factore wil be examined in detail in Section 3, bat ‘he castomer-to-gls wanstion in polymers nad) indeates on ofthe main ‘estos forte ragl-natute of ass helt ha the molecular chan segments ‘ve mmotie nd al ited Lo form single network ste ans ha he ‘old cannot sustain mich deformation under sexe ‘Goold mea eto) tienes st paral ‘eed an (fll teed ver Sslelonee eanisation oeslnking ce tanstion temperature Figwe 28 Typical tree stain cesUNIT 10. Mechanical propartes of solids AQ 4 At the end of TV programme 7 thre is a demonstration involving a ‘bbetspked mhee The we starts off completly bland, bu who the Spokes om oot tie at Rated the wheel rotates Cam you explain how the ‘Emonsration works? 1-5 Summary of Section 2 1 Asold ssid o behave clastic iis deformation unde fad ier. 2 A sold obeys Hooke’ law if the mount of iar deformation is dict roprtonal othe load nis mest eoera frm Hooke’ law tates that esl tremor dry peopotonal to tne stain the proportionality constant Y'Soyleris then spy 3 fection ofthe materia independent af the shape and stavolthespecinen ThisconsanY,knowas Young'smodluss therefore 1 ease ofthe sls ofa materi 3. Costing sols have relatively high yalues for Young’ model, anging irom 210!*Nm fr diamond to ~ 10!" Ney or plcal etl A simple toe forthe interatomi potent quite sscenl in predicting the atc behaviour af estan sol unde esion. 44 Amorphous, ley solids have iteradine valves for You's madulus (type 10°10! Nim?) because heir open network satu filly aly distorted 'Elsomners such as rubber have enormous clastic extensibility omnes ‘to 50) ender tension and cavespordingl low values of Youngs modus (2 10'Nm*) Youngs mosuls in however, avery uefa parameter thiscontent since eastomers do tot obey Hooke’ aw for much of ther atic range, Polymers show elastomeric proper i the flloweg conditions ae Sst: {@) The moleules are long and chine (In order forthe substance to display ‘id rther than guid properties, aspplementary condition that the mae ‘ues ae long enough to ge etangled with one another, or tat the chains fe crosslinted by chemical bonds) (©) The molecular chains must be Heil: in other word, each nk must be {Me to rotate fee This condition wil only Be aise i he forces Between sola ar fly weak, {@) The robsance most be above i ss tansion temperatura practic, terion (0) wl nt be eet uns this the ease ‘A static thory based on the kite mation ofa fay joined chun can Provide quantitative explanation of the major festres of elstomese be vou, acladiag the contraction on heating under tension and the evolution ‘84a 5 Wil increased crssdinking increase or decrease the elastic modulus ‘ofan eastomer? ‘8406 Aste bar an a cocete col of he same (usted ength are both to besbjectedo the cameo fore slong theirong tes The particu appliation requires that oth shoud elongate fo the sume extent. the ro Seonal aca othe te bars Sea what should be te cose section area ‘ofthe concrete clam? (Auume that forthe load iol, both vo nd fclumn obey Hook's aw The Youngs motul ote and conrte are ised ferTabeIEEE SEE S—€-— S272_The pyscs of mar 3 Brittle behaviour 8.4. The strength of solide Although the idea ofthe strength of materia isan eveyday one, srngth ' not an ey property to dene. A working dniton mise sength that property tht tells ws hat maximum load or impact Sli wll eat wibout flue’ The prbiem then becomes one ofexplaing what we eat by fila. Thar re obviously may ferent ways in which old ny tai ‘itmay be tear, hater ke pass cumple suddenly under presse ike an mpy beer can), or deform continous, bat reer ke Hastie) How an these tarlous phenomens be dasa? ‘To bean with we ned to distinguish between the tel sd the compresie strength ofa materi whch ae no elated in any gor way. Some leis sae ionge der tension than under compression. Wood tees a this ra) {case the cell structure of wood Figure 16) bck a compression. Most ‘wading mater, on the other hand are much stoner n compression thn in tension. stonewalls strong under compression, but vial ll ot support any tele ses a al nthe vera ection. Comers song ‘in compreson, but weak under tension, fo exacy the same reson is mise Seopi structre fe ridiled wit cracks We shall ren to this pnt in Some ‘dea in Sobseton 33. fais Ta ue ‘The example of he dy-stone wal cel shows how important its avoid ‘eo sess in any sch constuction. The ext tne You lok at» othe Cathedral you may hike treet thatthe Ag butts and much of he ‘atury are ot merely derive ther an purpose to ease tha sess emans compresive aero the whole cotesestoal ses of the Wall Fue 2 show how uch devises hep o mansin safe compressive oo896ygye 29 Tene ad compenive nmasoney structs. Iota raced by al STRUCTURAL LOADING IN GOTHIC CATHEDRALS mercer 0000 eee soem “LO , ara) JL ZY the mortar is under isle ote ent of ‘Satay ere by foceees Bunda eT Fig tres (zine Cts « (Re Bay ™Although bldg materia are mor ofte wed in compression than tension, ‘here ate applications inthe conten industy in hich tea stregth ‘mportant. The flowing SAQ deal uatatvly with compress sd ele stress inthis context. ‘8407 Theapyarent ese seengthof concrete can be considerably incensed bythe proces known a pressing Te voles tng ste ros el ander oostan tension inside a mould ito which gua conette Poel Fite 30), When the conerete has et and hs fey stick to he sie the nso om the rods is released and the mould removed. Explain why'the proceae Impcoves the tense properties ofthe concrete stb Can you se why Knead estresing? I there any Hitt the tenn loud ha abe applied othe Ss ods at he Besaning ofthe roses" eis not possible to quote a single gue for ‘the’ compressive strength of & ‘ater because the Way in which a specimen tehives under compres it ‘elated to shape sel od for example, willauppor a compressive ure tha ‘woul be sufcent to buckle a thin so panel Compre nrngih ay 'orfre be rater diet to quanti, bu tease senate fy ty mesures simply a matter of earring out he ort of elt conser In the introdutory section, along the lies irate in Figure 1. The ‘ande ofthissection, we shall concenteats on the wa in which vil teri Il under tenes {Ta.7_ deo the two characteristic ete that dings materia re. nthe next subsection we shal quanti thee observations 3.2 Prodicting the tensile strongth of a brittle crystal “The analy in Subsection 23 gave ail acute quantitative predictions of the laste properties of anionic esl andthe sbvous question to ask not ‘whether the tame mode can give egy good estimates for tense reap Figue 31 sa schimatiedingram of plane of fons in crystal of sain chloride. The eral is beng steed bys progressively mccain ete foes of magnitude Fy. The allowing FTQ rover some Of the rol om Section 23,0 it would be a good test of our understanding to see whether you can complete without ooking back a (4) How will the tad be shared among the lon? (b) Five rows of ions are shown in Figure 3 there aren such ewe in the etal as whe what fre wll act on each row? (6) How dos the mpi ofthe force pe: ‘ow depend onthe crosescional tea over which the fore asad the Spacing Betwous the rows? As the tensile fore gradually ines, 0 does the sepsraton + tetwsen the Tons » ven row. At frst each increase inthe ene foe shane by sn eaual increase nthe retring fore F, betwen each india pl of fone (Figure 32) tn othr words the rsa sponds lacy Yo the ond. Once {he manta ofthe tes fore per ion row Fria eceds that of the maximum posible restoring ore (Fn he traction between tions wil longs bs suicen co hold them tgeter andthe etl wl rah. the rungitde ofthe tense force requ Yo produc fracture seo Fy te the facture codon may be tena FtiA= ~ hom] 415) The teil strength of solid may also be defied in terms ofthe Breaking ses on, which te tent ores per ei are equi o east Fre Schic igm be eH SAO") ‘etl rows of neta Sdn i el je ee broaking toes 2%‘S272_The physes of matir ‘eta enh rn) Fein erek Deca metomtasrapim stn teeters ca vaio toes ‘vee the onc The maou onl leo hs otoing oe (Fhe Sous hierar cng ls emi Sindy ud (Shs ut edema ets Tete a mi epi fe Lanna Sa rs ea oem Prictng what ese load the crystal wil bear witout breaking aunts 19 ‘afuatig the expressions for oy abd ey. The answer lo 1TQ9 shows tha the ist tp must Seto Bod (Fh 20 rnin erm experinetally arabe cuanto We shall start rm the equation fo the pi potent energy fan one xt hat we usin Section uation 9 From this expresion we can derive the restoring fee bsteen Son pi Since Fe = tae", 09 “The masimum rtoring force eorraponds 07 ~ ra a othe tring point at which dr 0) Applying tho cone ghee ~) rae)" Fone = 118 reshng sainUNIT 19 Mesheica properton of sole ‘An imeronc separation of 1. this epresens the maximum exesion ofthe ysl ht can te countered by the attctonbxeweeh th one Hen, he ‘aking sta 02 ‘Thus the fst prediction of ths model tat th breaking sin of «sodium chore etal shold be abot 2 "Now what about the breaking ses? In TTQ 9 you worked ou that this was ven by cn — (Fault ‘To eximate oy we eel an expesion for (Flu ad this easly obiained trapping the Goodin on to Equation 1 = Sosy ” ne awe a Fay ting Con es Eu a 9 et oon : ay Tre Substiuting the appropiate constants for NaCl (2 — 1.7476 and» 10° into Equation 18 genom 265 10"? Nin? The second prion ofthe modal is therfore tha the breaking wre of som chloride erst shold be about 3% 10° m2 How close do these theoreti estimates come tothe messed vslies? Une fortuna. experiments show that the actual breaking sere of soda thloride crystal ofthe order af 10°Nm'*, Generally spesking, eal tryst wil reak under ene tres hundredeor thus tes salt than that predicted theoretcaly The breaking stan i of cure, la cor ‘espondingly may order of mage lower than the sorta alt This sitaation summed up in Figure 33, eee ete cl dh fe Neg pers toner 2”‘S272_The physics of mater le reiements tothe model dune in Section 2 are made then the pes of the theoretical and experimentally determined stress-strain caves ain ‘ood aseement or sal ans as you hae son ts model (shy nda) predicts Your's modulus wih resonable accuracy: Thee an enormous ‘serepanc, however betwen menevred and theoreti values oe he reskin Stree of both brite and dul esas. Tn the ext stsaetion we shall ‘Sonsde how the model mist be mot to account for brite behaviour. 8.8 The strength of real materials Faced with a direpaney of two of tree onder of tagstude between the predicted and measured stenghy of rsa your fst reaction was probably {ne of dep suspen of the mode! we used. Aer al. one of the ase enti procedures conan etn» Aypotbe agune a sapere Ite thay Eoretly pest t let the righ der af magne for some tease ‘qunty then scan be vetaine and perhaps rend fret and expe ental sls ae widely dren, tue the heres who Baye To oak tothe drawing Board, bt ath purl ease, thee some evidence to sggest that the theory may be neater al “Much of his evidence comes rm exerinents on hs. Everyday experience tells us tha sis brite not verystrongmateia In fc theese Wresking Se of «cl hn i ah Yn mh ao ay Inboratory gisware, fs bout 7 10*Nm*, Beste of the complied structure of glass tent to work out an ansiycal expression for the ‘ateratomi force carve and, Rees 19 poi the hens breakin us ‘he way we di for sodium eheeid. Luckily, there are other methods. mostly based on eergy considerations, whereby breaking sre canbe stele, Tneases sucha sodium ehleride that en be tached inser dient ways, the various techniques ate all ound to give very salar answers For pa ‘ney arguments peel tense braking ees a about 4 10! Ne, fava handed es peter than the stese that thin as rod ca etal Withstand. Acs sight seems like the sodium chloride ory over ai. Ia Ihiscase, howeet, the story has anoher chapter. When gas is heated, it docs not exhibits ditinct meting point. Instead, sellens radually, without ppredabiechange fo molecule tutus, Ul en {aly ican be lasind ae ory vsous guid tthe malin sate con ‘be drawn or Biwn into visually ny shape. To make a thin la rod frm & ‘hk one, all you have to doi est he fod inthe wile ud draw the wo nds staly apart This process ean be vpeated many ime o podem esiely tinge Hamat Eapetmentson the tn srengt of sch Hae Were ist carr out 9° A. Gift about 1920 and be reported surpeing Phenomenon the hiner he ies eget the eae tes hey coal pe port The breaking tess gradual from vale ofsbost 17> 10" Nene= forthe bulk material to roughly 10. 10" fort teshy raw bee 25, 1m (thousandth ofan Ine) Thick. AS the flaents are dete down sl ‘rhe, thie strength increases enormoly, shown in Figre 34. At the ie ‘png ina Olena beating ‘fe wt oh Srgamt wont by AA On)LUNIT 10. Mechanical propetes of solids Grif cared out his experinent twas wot posible to make orto tt ass fs with hikes of sth about one en thon ofa ah (2, but extrapolation ofthe dat indeed that laments of veggie diameter sould hive strengths very lowe tothe prdsd thsoretaly Fa 10_ Think back othe analysis ofthe expected stength of «ey with the sodium chloride stracure Fors tld of ths iype, in the uit iit ‘lament ‘foes ticks would cont simply of single ie of atom (orion) Ist supising that sich lament shoud eibit the thesia eng ‘The fact that tis ocasionally posible for materials in the shape of flaments ‘o approach a stenh cresponding tothe tenth of thet chemial bonds show that thee ino major fun the theory Remember, the tao ed onthe assampton of ec structures Can telly te that italy al sols fate flawed in some way that enormodyeduce thee mechan seegt? Grn was the tis suspect that ths might be the cate sod to ie a ‘quantitative analysis ofthe elect that surae cracks might have onthe ese Siena of sai Figure 3a shows an lead crackd sla of material under esi loading (Cea, te sires inthe shaded potion of thesis preter than would be ifthe dl were pert because the load spread across fewer toms How the sess estruted inthe romainer thea? Oe possible model would fo ature that the last strani eve in the em column scat Staining the eac, shown a Fire 356) I this were the coy, the olin ‘ofmateral onthe ighthand side would not sch in response othe tease fore andthe Ifa side ofthe lab would longte more than the righ Such behaviour certainly not observed in practice A mush more reac model is showa is Fpure 35) Here the sain i sceved only resion immediately around the crak. This meas tht the res tae tind inthe figure caption are consented inthe ncighbourhdod othe cack tp. ‘Suess concetatons ave Nystad i Figure 36 1a Grifih nad come to suspect, the facture proce ented at a crack tip the bite fare of material may simply be regard nthe propsestion tof rack troup the bl sali, What thon ape the care) cons overing ‘rack propagation? To aus acta, work must be done to ek bonds and form new surfaces The wark for energy ip required to ceae a cack of unt breadth and ong L mus thetlre be proportion tL Some o his ‘energy i recovered, beeabse when crack honed sai energy lve je 36 Stes comsaeatins in a noche aps of Pepe. The ate ne, tt een ses opcden andr poh he ak ter cee en tw Penta sro Tho er nth te sod eh peace eon where ths st a a tin la ees o Fg hc of co le TOA pte bt eae, al Stun et nthe rhe pcm, (6) rote mao bo sa ‘eaten oowond aon the path along whch esa oF Fom ncn stom tough‘212 The physics of mater cover the are shown shaded in Figure 37. For the cack of uit bread, his ‘leted stain encgy wil bs proportional to £2. The energy inp and output ‘Se rloted in Figur 38st funeton ofthe crack length. The stag he oreponde to wha is known atthe mork facture: tat is the energy that ‘ost be supple inorder to break bonds and st lenglen the crack. (Re ‘bomber that energy supled 1a sytem i defined as potv) The parole ‘Sresponde tothe sin every eeued asthe crack propagates. The ne ‘Shor Ey outed forthe crack to propagates theore ven by = work of fetre~ ain ener reuse Fatt Plot on Fire 38 the graph of a5 function of, What consesons (do you draw? (esr oral he aver and comments Bforeproceding) “The engi Le shown a Figue 4 epresens a rial vale fore popugation the cack Leal the Gri or cea) crak Tenth. “Te equation for the crack propagation coergy can be writen out more fll p= WLS Bl whee isthe breadth f the crac, Wis the mork af ature require to cea ‘Toot ata ofp sce and ye the tai ney released pr unt volume Figure 4 shows thatthe eal crack length corespoods to the turning Putin the cure of Ey vets (tothe eondion JEL = 0, Tos since Spano She = W926 this tring point Wh = 2b and he cial rack length sven by Et Noth oftatureant are of erack re strain eoerzyunit volume 09 b In order to inert thi eriteson we need to relate the strain energy pe unit ‘Volume to measurable quant, This ean be done by noting that the work ‘Sone in sething the spermes converted at liste energy, o° “an nce the sod ands equal fhe aver wader he force entesion Curve (Pinar 3) Therefore, fora mate tha obeys Hooke’ aw. strain eneay = 1, Since tensile tet or = F/A and tense rainy ~ A tein energy = JoverAl “The strain enerey pe uit volume, Eis therefor given by By= dover since AI = yom of specimen tn tems of Young's modulus ¥= fe, the Stain enerey released er unt ylune aed Subsiating into Proportional 18, rw acd A aie Fae 37 sheep ini ate neon o thei rebel be ot theme shape weve gh | Se gre a8 The cy igre. The ot dn ei Beacon ere Th rs, ‘nmr eat ob Hone’ in, sail ergy eel ovUNIT 10, Mechanica propertae of sols where W isthe work of facture J“) foreach suslace ete, Vis Young's Taodals (in Nn”) and cor) ithe average ensie tess the material in [Nim=?) The vale ofthe properonaty constant depends onthe est gomery otiheenck ‘So long a8 crck shallower than the etal length, will be stable, no ‘ater bow great the stest concentration a sp. Equation 20 shove tt, ‘Sr you would expec, the cel erack length derese with increasing te i ao cea tht a ater with large work of rare anda high Young’ ‘modula will safely support quite lage cracks. This sth reason why ss (it's 63m? and Y= = 10° Noy 9 bit wherens metal (= 10°10 16S" and Y = 108" Ne) ate not “The rigid neoworkstrctre ofthe covalent bonding in gas means tat tt ‘ot poset distort te molar bond to any sigatea extent below the Frere surtace. The work o ratte que Iw not Yer) mock greater tan that egured fo break the bonds tthe rare surlace. Ar rick propa, [ar more stain energy leased hans eqied for ceating two new sans ‘The excess energy i diated as sound anda atc wave in he soi which rer in the formation of ew crac he material haters In metal onthe ‘ther hand; mechaaisis est by whi the mec steactue dated (0 2 eonsidersble depth beneath the Entre sic, recling in Bigh work of featore and large vale for Ly. (The nature of these mechanisms for the tsopton of energy during fact the sbjet of Seton Ste ships Ivebeea kon to dvelo each inhi hulls upto metelong an hose the whole with ofthe plate without ulering catestope comsoquons. 1a 12, You know from Section ? tht rubber can sore avery large srin ‘neray Yet an infted balloon wil burst iit sped with «pn. What does fs ebservation tel you about the work of actae of robber? 3.4 Summary of Section 3 1A sold is sid to te brite i fractures under a tense lad without ‘nderpoing» permanent paste deformation, 2 Like the Young modulus the emi breaking tess and strain fan oa ysl may be caeulatd theory Tom he iteratomie potent exes) Finction.Ualike the Yous’ moduls, for which measured and there ‘alsa i reasonable sprement, the expermently determined breking Stain fr a alk spesnea of «brite sold several orders f magaitade Smale than the tora prediction. Breaking seins of tween 10° and 10" ae til of te material. 3. Onlyin the aso laments with eft smoot surface does the ctl iene strength approach that prod fheoeteally ost sds the presence lof surae cracks ross in sess concerns st the crack tp and ross the tone rene 44 Fox each mates there real Grit crack length, blow which te ‘rack wil not propagate spontaneously. The vue othe eal crack length ina particule Sola depends onthe aio a the Work of race to the stain ergy teased bythe ceuck, Aa 8 “Toughenot esas ued inca windsrens is made by cooling Yxy ‘hot hss auch 2 way tha he outside hardens and contrat white nse ‘atl so. The esl that when the cooling procs i comple, the outsde thes see is in compression, whereas the lade in tenson Explain ‘vy tis sess perm makes the pas Wough 80 9 Comparison ofthe skeletal structures of various apes and monkeys shows that whetes the tices ofthe spine ie roughly preportonal to he lnmas eight the kes ofthe im tones and bsg ery ach teat (in elation tothe vertebrae for large anal thn or all ne nen that the bones a al aimals have more or x the same seth and Youre’ moduli ean you explain this observation?