CE 223

Soil Mechanics
Index properties of soil-I

Dr. Manendra Singh

 Properties of soils
Properties of soils can be classified in two types:
➢ Index properties or physical properties
➢ Engineering properties

Index Properties of soils:

❑ help to assess the engineering behaviour of a soil and which assist in determining its
classification accurately are termed ‘Index Properties’.
The various properties of soils which would be considered as index properties are:
➢ The size and shape of particles: soil colour, soil structure, texture, particle shape
➢ The relative density or consistency of soil: grain specific gravity, water content, in-situ
unit weight, density index, particle size distribution, and consistency limits and related
indexes.
 Properties of soils

The index properties of soils can be studied in a general way under two classes.
➢ Soil grain properties:
are the properties of the individual particles (size and shape) and the
mineralogical character of the finer fractions (applied to clay soils) of which
the soil is composed. It is commonly used for soil classification and
identification.

➢ Soil aggregate properties:

depends on the structure and the arrangement of the particles in the soil mass.
It has a great influence on the engineering behavior of soil mass.
The engineering behavior of a soil mass is related with strength, compressibility and
permeability characteristics.

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 Soil Colour

➢ Important to identify the types of soils.

➢ Soil colour may vary widely, ranging from white
through red to black.

➢ Depends upon the mineral matter, quantity and nature

of organic matter and the amount of colouring oxides
of iron and manganese, besides the degree of oxidation.
Such as Manganese compounds and decayed organic
matter (Black Colour), Pyrite (Green and blue colour).
➢ Change in moisture content leads to lightening of soil
colour. A dark coloured soil turns lighter on oven-
drying.
 Soil Shape
➢ Provide a qualitative idea of the behavior of a soil mass composed of different shape of particles.
➢ The particle shape of bulky grains may be described by terms such as angular, sub-angular, sub-rounded, rounded
and well-rounded (Fig. 3.1).

➢ Can visualize the nature of the coarse grained particles only. Coarser fractions composed of angular grains are
capable of supporting heavier static loads and can be compacted to a dense mass by vibration.
➢ The influence of the shape of the particles on the
compressibility characteristics of soils are (for
example):
I.Reduction in the volume of mass upon the
application of pressure.

II. A small mixture of mica to sand will result in a

large increase in its compressibility.

Fig. 3.1: Different shapes of soil particles

 Soil – Particle Shape
Shape of bulky particles
•Angular particles are those that have been freshly broken up and are
characterized by jagged projections, sharp ridges, and flat surfaces.
•Subangular particles are those that have been weathered to the extent that
the sharper points and ridges have been worn off.

Angular Subangular

Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH 6

 Soil – Particle Shape
Shape of bulky particles
•Subrounded particles are those that have been weathered to a further
degree than subangular particles.
•Rounded particles are those on which all projections have been removed,
with few irregularities in shape remaining.
•Well rounded particles are rounded particles in which the few remaining
irregularities have been removed.

Subrounded Rounded Well Rounded

Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH 7

 DETERMINATION OF WATER CONTENT, SPECIFIC GRAVITY

Determination of water content {IS: 2720 (Part-II)–1973}

➢ is necessary in soil compaction control, in determining consistency limits of soil, and for the calculation of strength
and stability of all kinds of earth works and foundations.

Three methods to determine the water content:

(i) Over-drying method
(ii) Pycnometer method
(iii) Rapid Moisture Tester method or, Calcium Carbide Method
(i) Over-drying method
➢ is the most accurate approach.

Procedure
➢ Take a clean container of non-corrodible material and its empty weight.
➢ Place a small quantity of moist soil in the container, and take the weight.
➢ Place the container in a thermostatically controlled oven for 24 hours, the temperature being maintained between 105-110°C.
➢ Weight the weight of container along with soils after 24 hours with weighing a balance with an accuracy of 0.0001 N (0.01 g).
Determination of water content {IS: 2720 (Part-II)–1973}
The observations are:
Weight of an empty container = W1
Weight of container + wet soil = W2
Weight of container + dry soil = W3
The calculations are as follows:
Weight of dry soil = W3 – W1

Weight of water in the soil = W2 – W3

𝑾𝒕. 𝒐𝒇 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 (𝑾𝟐−𝑾𝟑)
Water Content, = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% …………… (3.1)
𝑾𝒕. 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒓𝒚 𝒔𝒐𝒊𝒍 (𝑾𝟑−𝑾𝟏)

LIMITATIONS - Oven-drying at 110±5°C does not result in reliable water content values for soil containing
gypsum or other minerals having loosely bound water of hydration or for soil containing significant amounts of
organic material. Reliable water content values for these soils can be obtained by drying in an oven at
approximately 60 to 80°C.
Determination of Specific Gravity [IS: 2720 (Part-III)-1980]
It is an important parameter to determine the various properties of soils such as void-ratio, degree of saturation,
critical hydraulic gradient, zero air voids for compaction, unit weight at different conditions, particle size by wet
analysis.

It can be determine by using pycnometer (coarse-grained soils) or, density bottle (for all type of soils).

Procedure:
➢ Determine the weight of empty pycnometer (W1) in the dry condition (Fig. 3.2).
➢ Place the oven dried soil sample in pycnometer and determine the weight of
pycnometer and soil sample (W2).
➢ Fill the remaining volume of pycnometer with distilled water or kerosene gradually
and remove the entrapped air by shaking or applying vacuum or by gentle heating.

➢ Take the weight of the pycnometer, soil and water (W3) carefully.
➢ Empty the bottle, clean properly and filled with distilled water or, kerosene.
➢ Take the weight of bottle and filled water or kerosene (W4).
Fig. 3.2: Pycnometer
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Determination of Specific Gravity [IS: 2720 (Part-III)-1980]
Calculation (Fig. 3.3):
I. Wt. of solids Ws = W2 – W1,
II. Wt. of water = W3 – W2,
III. Wt. of water filled completely in Pycnometer = W4 – W1,
Weight of water having the same volume as that of soil solids = (W4 – W1) – (W3 – W2).

Fig. 3.3: Determination of specific gravity of soils by Pycnometer method

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Determination of Specific Gravity [IS: 2720 (Part-III)-1980]

By definitions and Archimedes’ principle,

𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅𝒔
𝑮=
𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅𝒔
𝑾 𝟐 − 𝑾𝟏
𝑮=
𝑾𝟒 − 𝑾𝟏 − (𝑾𝟑−𝑾𝟐)
𝑾𝒔
𝑮=
𝑾𝟐 − 𝑾𝟏 − (𝑾𝟑−𝑾𝟒)
𝑾𝒔
𝑮= …………………………………… (3.3)
𝑾𝒔−(𝑾𝟑−𝑾𝟒)
If kerosene (generally used for clay soil or soil containing organic matter) is used,
𝑾𝒔
𝑮= 𝑿 𝑮𝒌 …………………………………… (3.4)
𝑾𝒔−(𝑾𝟑−𝑾𝟒)
𝑮𝒌 = Specific gravity of kerosene at the temperature of the test

The specific gravity is reported at a temperature of 27°C.

Determination of Specific Gravity [IS: 2720 (Part-III)-1980]
The specific gravity is calculated at temperature 27oC ± 0.2oC. If the room temperature is
differ from 27oC, following correction is necessary:

𝑮′ = 𝑲. 𝑮 …………………………………… (3.5)

𝑮 ′ = corrected specific gravity at 27oC, and

𝑹𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒕 𝒓𝒐𝒐𝒎 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆

𝑲=
𝑹𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒕 𝟐𝟕𝟎 𝑪
Table 3.1 Specific gravities of some soils

Fig. 3.4: Density of water in relation with temperature

Determination of water content by pycnometer method

Applicable if specific gravity of solid is known.

 DETERMINATION OF PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION BY SIEVE AND SEDIMENTATION ANALYSIS

Size of the particles

The classification according to size divides the soils broadly into two distinctive groups:
I. Coarse-grained soils (properties based on the grain size distribution)
II. Fine-grained soils
From an engineering point of view, these two types of soils have distinctive characteristics.
➢ In coarse grained soils, gravitational forces determine the engineering characteristics.
➢ Interparticle forces are predominant in fine grained soils.
As per Indian Standard:
Gravel = 80 mm to 4.75 mm size
Sand = 4.75 mm to 0.075 mm size
Silt = 0.075 mm to 0.002 mm size
Clay = Less than 0.002 mm size
The particle-size distribution is found in two stages:
(i) Sieve analysis, for the coarse fraction.
(ii) Sedimentation analysis or wet analysis, for the fine fraction.

Significance of Particle Size Distribution analyses

➢ Provides the basic information for revealing the uniformity or, gradation of the materials within
established size ranges and for textural classifications.
➢ The size of the soil grains is of importance in such cases as construction of earth dams or rail road
and highway embankments, where earth is used as a material that should satisfy definite
specifications.
➢ In foundations of structures, data from mechanical analyses are generally illustrative; other
properties such as compressibility and shearing resistance are of more importance.

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Particle size distribution by sieve analyses (Mechanical Sieving) [IS: 2720 (Part IV)–1985]

Sieves
➢ Are made by weaving two sets of wires at right angles to one another.
➢ The square holes thus formed between the wires provide the limit which determines the size of the
particles retained on a particular sieve.

➢ The sieve sizes are given in terms of the number of openings per inch or Size of aperture. The number of
openings per inch varies according to different standards.

Fig. 3.5: Sieve size of particles

Sieves Opening: Rounded-hole and Square-hole opening???
• The advantage of the square hole sieve is the additional speed of sieving. Not only does the
square-hole sieve have a large percent open space per unit area of sieve (almost twice for 0.5
mm sieve) but particles lodge less in the wire sieve under sieving vibration.

• The only advantage of the round-hole sieve is its durability; however, substantial large-
opening wire sieves are made and give little trouble if the mesh is suitable crimped.
• Thus square-hole, wire sieves are be recommended over round-hole sieves in order a) to
avoid needless particle shape discrimination, and b) to speed sieving procedure.

Tarner, C. B., & Bourget, S. J. (1952). Particle-

Shape Discrimination of Round and Square
Holen Sieves. Soil Science Society of America
Journal, 16(1), NP-NP.
Particle size distribution by sieve analyses (Mechanical Sieving) [IS: 2720 (Part IV)–1985]
Table: Common Sieve Sizes Used by IS, BS and ASTM Standards

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Particle size distribution by sieve analyses (Mechanical Sieving) [IS: 2720 (Part IV)–1985]
Procedures (IS 460-1962)
➢ Stack the sieve in decreasing orders of their aperture sizes (larger sizes over the smaller) and keep pan at bottom.
➢ Carefully pour the oven dried soil sample into top sieve and place lid on top.
➢ Place the sieve stack in the mechanical shaker and shake for 10 to 15 minutes.
➢ Remove the stack from the shaker and carefully weigh and record the weight of each sieve with its retained soil
from bottom to top sieve and also weigh the soil retained in pan.
➢ Convert the weight of material retained on each sieve to a percentage of the total sample.

𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 on that sieve

% 𝑹𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒏 a particular 𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒗𝒆 = 𝑿𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔
Cumulative % retained= % 𝑹𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒗𝒆s of larger sizes + % 𝑹𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒏 that particular 𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒗𝒆
% Finer than the sieve under reference= 100 - Cumulative % retained

In of case cohesive soils, the material is to be washed through it with water (preferably mixed with 2 gm of
sodium hexametaphosphate per litre), until the wash water is fairly clean.
➢ The material passing the bottom-most sieve, which is usually the 75–µ sieve, is used for conducting sedimentation
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Particle size distribution by sieve analyses (Mechanical Sieving) [IS: 2720 (Part IV)–1985]
Procedures (IS 460-1962)

1. Dry sieving
Coarse sieving:
coarse sieving is done for the particle having size greater than 4.75mm(Gravel.)
Sieves used in this case are 80mm. 40mm, 20mm, 10mm, 4.75mm
Fine sieving:
Fine sieving is done for the practical having size greater than 0.075 mm and not exceeding 4.75 mm(Sand)
Sieves used in this case are 2mm. 1mm, 600 micron, 425 micron, 300 micron, 212 micron, 150 micron, 75 micron.

2. Wet sieving
If soil contains more than 5% of fine particle, a wet sieve analysis is required.
Soil fraction passing through 4.75mm sieve is generally washed before sieving in order to dislodge (remove) clay and
silt particle present over the sand.
2 grams of sodium hexametaphosphate is added in 1 litre of water before washing.
Particle size distribution by sieve analyses (Mechanical Sieving) [IS: 2720 (Part IV)–1985]

Fig. 3.6: Chart for recording grain size distribution curve of soils
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 PARTICLE OR GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION CURVE
The grain distribution curves can be used to understand certain grain size characteristics of soils. The %
finer (N) than a given size is plotted as ordinate (on natural scale) and the particle size as abscissa (on log
scale).

Advantages of semi-log plot for particle size distribution curve,

o The soils of equal uniformity exhibit the same shape, irrespective of the actual particle size
o As the range of the particles sizes is very large, for better representation, a log scale is required.
The shapes of the curves indicate the nature of the soil tested.
On the basis of the shapes we can classify soils as:
1.Uniformly graded or poorly graded: represented by nearly vertical lines. Such soils possess
particles of almost the same diameter.

2. Well graded: possesses a wide range of particle sizes ranging from gravel to clay size particles.
3. Gap graded: some of the sizes of particles missing.

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 PARTICLE OR GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION CURVE

Data obtained from Sieve Analysis

⚫Curve I represent a soil in which most of the soil grains are the same
size. This is called poorly graded soil.

III
I

II

Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH 24

 PARTICLE OR GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION CURVE

Data obtained from Sieve Analysis

⚫Curve II represents a soil in which the particle size

distributed over a wide range termed well graded.
⚫Curve III represents a soil might have a combination of
two or more uniformly graded fraction. This type of soil is
termed gap graded.

Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH 25

 PARTICLE OR GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION CURVE

Data obtained from Sieve Analysis

Particle size distribution curve can be used to determine the

following parameters for a given soil
⚫ Effective size D10
This parameter is the diameter in the particle size distribution
curve corresponding to 10 % finer. T he effective
size is a good measure to estimate the hydraulic conductivity
and drainage through soil.
T he higher the D10 value, the coarser the soil and the better
the drainage characteristic. 26
 Particle size distribution curve
#10 #60 #200
100

90
80

70

60
Percent

50
finer

40

30

20

10
10 1 D60 D30 D10 0.01
0
Particle diameter (mm)
Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH 27
 PARTICLE OR GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION CURVE
To determine uniformity of a soil qualitatively, Hazen (1893) proposed the following equation:

𝑪𝒐𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝑼𝒏𝒊𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑪𝒖 = 𝑫𝑫𝟔𝟎 ………………..…………………………. (3.18)

𝟏𝟎

𝐷60 = particle size such that 60% of the soil is finer than this size, and
𝐷10 = particle size such that 10% of the soil is finer than this size (also known as effective grain size)
For all practical purposes we can consider the following values for granular soils.
Cu > 4 for well graded gravel
Cu > 6 for well graded sand
The shape of the particle size distribution curve is described by coefficient of curvature (Cc),

𝑫𝟑𝟎 𝟐
𝑪𝒄 = ……………………………….………..………………. (3.19)
𝑫𝟏𝟎 ∗ 𝑫 𝟔𝟎
𝐷30 = particle size such that 30% of the soil is finer than this size
The soil is said to be well graded if Cc lies between 1 and 3 for gravels and sands.
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 Sedimentation analysis (or, Hydrometer Analysis, or Wet Analysis) [IS: 2720 (Part IV)–
1985]
➢ is a widely used method to determine the percentage of soil particle passing through 75
micron IS sieve. The data are plotted in semi-log graph combined with the data from
mechanical sieve analysis (wet sieve) to get complete grain size distribution curve.

➢ is based on ‘Stokes Law’ for what is known as the ‘terminal velocity’ of a sphere falling
through an infinite liquid medium.
If a single sphere is allowed to fall in an infinite liquid medium without interference, its
velocity first increases under the influence of gravity, but soon attains a constant value.
This constant velocity, which is maintained indefinitely unless the boundary conditions
change, is known as the ‘terminal velocity’. The principle is obvious; coarser particles
tend to settle faster than finer ones.

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 Sedimentation analysis

The terminal velocity of the spherical particle by Stoke’s Law can be determined by equilibrium of the particles.

𝟏 𝑫𝟐 𝑮−𝟏 𝜸𝒘
𝒗= .
𝟏𝟖 𝝁
𝟏𝟖.𝝁.𝒗
∴𝑫=
𝜸𝒘 (𝑮−𝟏)
(∴ 𝜸𝒔 = 𝑮. 𝜸𝒘 )
Where,
D = diameter of the spheres, cm
G = specific gravity of the materials of sphere
Sedimentation analysis
If a spherical particle falls through a height (He) centimeters in t minutes
𝐻𝑒
𝑣= 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
60 𝑡

𝟎. 𝟑. 𝝁. 𝑯𝒆
∴𝑫=
𝜸𝒘 𝑮 − 𝟏 ∗ 𝒕

𝑯𝒆
∴𝑫= 𝑲 ………………………………………………………. (3.11)
𝒕

𝟎.𝟑.𝝁
∴ 𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓, 𝑲 = …………………………….………………………. (3.12)
𝜸𝒘 𝑮−𝟏

Where,
𝜇 = the viscosity in poise (dyne-sec/cm2) (1 poise = 0.1 N·s/m²)
𝛾𝑤 = unit weight of water (N/cm3)
D = Diameter of particles in cm
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Sedimentation analysis

Table 3.2: Value of K Table 3.3: Absolute viscosity of distilled water in poise
 HydrometerAnalysis
➢ Used for the determination of unit weight of suspensions at
different depths and particular intervals of time.

➢ A unit volume of soil suspension at a depth ‘He’ and at any

time ‘t’ contains particles finer than a particular diameter ‘D’.
➢ Particle diameter is determined by Stokes' law whereas the
percentage finer than this diameter is determined by the use of
the hydrometer.
➢ The principle of the method is that the reading of the
hydrometer gives the unit weight of the suspension at the
center of volume of the hydrometer.

Reading increases in downward direction towards hydrometer

bulb.
Fig. 3.7: Hydrometer method
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 Hydrometer Analysis

• A hydrometer is an instrument used for the determination of the specific gravity of liquids. As the specific
gravity of the soil suspension depends upon the particle size, a hydrometer can be used for the particle size
analysis.
• A special type of hydrometer with a long stem (neck) is used. The stem is marked from top to bottom,
generally in the range of 0.995 to 1.030 .
• At the time of commencement of sedimentation, the specific gravity of suspension is uniform at all depths.
When the sedimentation takes place, the larger particles settle more deeper than the smaller ones.
• This results in non-uniform specific gravity of the suspension at different depths. The lower layers of the
suspension have specific gravity greater than that of the upper layers.

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 Hydrometer Analysis

• Casagrande has shown that the hydrometer measures the specific gravity of suspension at a point indicated
by the centre of the immersed volume.
• If the volume of the stem is neglected, the centre of the immersed volume of the hydrometer is the same as
the centre of the bulb.
• Thus, the hydrometer gives the specific gravity of the suspension at the centre of the bulb.

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 Hydrometer Analysis
Calibration of hydrometer
• To determine the depth at which the specific gravity is measured, calibration of the
hydrometer is done.
• The volume of the hydrometer, VH is first determined by immersing it in a graduated cylinder
partly filled with water and noting down the volume due to the rise in water level. The
volume of the hydrometer can also be determined indirectly from its mass.
• The volume of hydrometer in ml is approximately equal to the mass of hydrometer in grams,
assuming that the specific gravity of hydrometer is unity.
• The depth of any layer A-A from the free surface B-B is the effective depth at which the
specific gravity is measured by the hydrometer. As soon as the hydrometer is inserted in the
jar, the layer of suspension which was at level A- A rises to the level A’ –A’ and that at level
B- B rise to the level B’ –B’ prime . The effective depth He is given by

where H = depth from the free surface B’-B’ to the lowest mark on the stem,
h = height of bulb,
VH = volume of hydrometer,
A = cross-sectional area of jar.
In Eq. (a), it has been assumed that the rise in suspension level from A - A to A'-A' at the centre
of the bulb is equal to half the total rise due to the volume of the hydrometer. Thus

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 Hydrometer Analysis
Calibration of hydrometer
As the sedimentation progresses, the specific gravity of the suspension decreases and the hydrometer
goes deeper and deeper, and the effective depth increases. The hydrometer reading R, of course,
decreases (Fig. 3.6).

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 Hydrometer Analysis
Calibration of hydrometer
• The markings on the hydrometer stem give the
specific gravity of the suspension at the centre
of the bulb.
• The hydrometer readings are recorded after
subtracting unity from the value of the specific
gravity and multiplying the remaining digit by
1000. Thus, a specific gravity of 1.015 is
represented by hydrometer reading Rh of
(1.015- 1.000) x 1000 = 15.
• The graduations on the right side of the stem
directly give the reading Rh.
• As the effective depth He depends upon the
hydrometer reading Rh , a calibration chart can
be obtained between the hydro-meter reading
Rh and the effective depth He.
• For determination of the effective depth He
from Eq. (3.8), an accurate scale is used to This chart is used for finding the effective
determine the height h and the depth H to depth (He) corresponding to hydrometer
various graduations. Fig. 3.5 shows a typical
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calibration chart.
 SAMPLE PREPARATION AND TEST PROCEDURE
Pre-treatment of soil
➢ Pre-treatment of soil is necessary when soil containing more than one percent of soluble salts, then the soil
should be washed with water before use.
➢ If the soil is lateritic soil will be attacked by the acid but unless they contain calcium, need not be given the
acid treatment. Even the soil containing insoluble calcium salts, acid treatment is necessary.

Dispersion of soil

➢ Take 50 gm of soil sample passing through 75µ IS sieve. (For clay 50gm and 100gm sand)
➢ Mixed 33 gm sodium hexametaphosphate and 7 gm sodium carbonate and mixed with100 ml water.
➢ Keep the soil suspension in the mechanical stirring device for 15 minutes.
➢ Keep the sample in 1000ml cylindrical and fill the soil sample with distilled water upto1000ml.
➢ Take another cylinder with distilled water.
 Hydrometer Analysis-Test procedure
• Exactly 1000 ml of suspension is prepared as explained. After
stirring, the suspension is washed into a 1000 ml jar and water
is added to it to bring the level to 1000 ml mark.
• The suspension is mixed thoroughly by placing a bung (or the
palm of a hand) on the open end of the jar and turning it
upside down and back a few times. The jar is then placed on a
table, and a stop watch is started.
• The hydrometer is inserted in the suspension and the first
reading is taken after ½ minute of the commencement of the
sedimentation. Further readings are taken after one minute,
two minutes and four minutes of the commencement of the
sedimentation.
• The hydrometer is then removed from the jar and rinsed with
distilled water and floated in a comparison cylinder containing
distilled water with the dispersing agent added to the same
concentration as in the soil suspension.
• Further readings are taken after 8, 15 and 30 minutes and 1, 2,
4, 8 and 24 hours reckoned from the beginning of
sedimentation. For each of these readings, the hydrometer is
inserted about 20 seconds before the reading. The hydrometer
is taken out after the reading and floated in the comparison
cylinder.
Dr. 40
Manendra
 Hydrometer Analysis
Corrections of Hydrometer Reading
Generally calibrated at 20° C or 27° C
Three types of corrections:

➢ Temperature corrections
➢ Meniscus correction
➢ Dispersing agent correction

(i) Meniscus correction-

• Since the suspension is opaque, the observations are taken at the top of the meniscus. The meniscus correction
is equal to the reading between the top of the meniscus and the level of the suspension. As the marking on the
stem increases downward, the correction is positive.
• The meniscus correction (Cm) is determined from the readings at the top and bottom of meniscus in the
comparison cylinder. The meniscus correction is constant for a hydrometer.
• If Rh' is the hydrometer reading of the suspension at a particular time, the corrected hydrometer Rh reading is
given by

• The corrected hydrometer reading (R) is required for determining the effective depth from the calibration chart
 Hydrometer Analysis

(ii) Temperature correction-The hydrometer is generally calibrated at 27°C.

• If the temperature of the suspension is different from 27°C, a temperature correction (C) is required for the
hydrometer reading.
• If the temperature is more than 27°C, the suspension is lighter, and the actual reading will be less than the
corrected reading. The temperature correction is positive.
• On the other hand, if the temperature is less than 27°C, the temperature correction is negative.
• The temperature correction is obtained from the charts supplied by the manufacturer.

(iii) Dispersion agent Correction-Addition of the dispersing agent to the soil specimen causes and increase in the
specific gravity of the suspension.
• Therefore, the dispersing agent correction is always negative.
• The dispersing agent correction (Cd) can be determined by noting the hydrometer reading in clear water and
again in the same water after adding the dispersing agent.

Thus, the corrected reading R can be obtained from the observed reading R’h as under.

Dr. 42
Manendra
 Hydrometer Analysis

Composite Correction
• Instead of finding the corrections individually, it is convenient to find one composite correction. The
composite correction (C) is the algebraic sum of all the corrections.

• The composite correction is found directly from the readings taken in a comparison cylinder, which has
distilled water and the dispersing agent in the same concentration, and has the same temperature.
• As the hydrometer has been calibrated at 27°C to indicate a specific gravity of 1.000, the difference between
the reading taken at the top of meniscus and 1.000 is in magnitude equal to the composite correction.
• The negative of the hydrometer reading in the comparison cylinder is equal to the composite correction.
• The composite correction can be positive or negative.
• For example, if the hydrometer reading is +2 (i.e. 1.002), the correction is -2, and if the reading is -3 (i.e.
0.997), the correction is +3. The composite correction is found before the start of the test and at every 30
minute interval.

Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH 43

 Hydrometer Analysis

Relation between Percentage Finer and Hydrometer Reading

𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑮𝒔
% Finer than any size D= ∗ 𝑹 …………..………………….………………………. (3.17)
𝑾𝒔(𝑮𝒔−𝟏)

Where, Gs = specific gravity of soil particles; Ws = weight of soil solids in volume V of 1000 ml
R = corrected hydrometer reading for meniscus, dispersion and temperature
https://www.elementaryengineeringlibrary.com/civil-engineering/soil-mechanics/sedimentation-analysis-hydrometer-
method#:~:text=Readings%20on%20the%20hydrometer%20stem,and%20represent%20them%20as%20Rh.&text=Now
%20before%20determining%20the%20effective,the%20volume%20of%20the%20hydrometer.
 LIMITATIONS
➢ Particles size obtained by analysis is in term of equivalent diameter (i.e. the diameter of the sphere which
falls with the same velocity as the actual size) which is less than the particle size given by sieve analysis (i.e.
particles not spherical).

➢ The specific gravity of solids for different particles is not same but it is assumed same in analysis.
➢ Stoke’s law is applicable only when the liquid in infinite. The presence of walls of the jar affects the results
to some extent.
➢ Stokes’ Law is applicable for spheres of diameter between 0.2 mm and 0.0002 mm. It may be noted that
spheres of diameter larger than 0.2 mm falling through water causes turbulence whereas for spheres with
diameters less than 0.0002 mm, Brownian movement takes place and the velocity of settlement is too small
for accurate measurement. In both cases, Stokes’Law is not applicable.
➢ The analysis cannot be used for chalky soils, because of the removal of the calcium carbonate of chalky soils
in the pretreatment by hydrochloric acid.
COMBINED SIEVE AND SEDIMENTATION ANALYSIS
• It the soil mass consists of particles of both coarse-grained and fine-grained soils, a combined analysis is
done.
• The slurry of the soil is made as mentioned in the wet sieve analysis.
• The slurry is sieved through a 4.75 mm IS sieve. The material retained on the sieve is oven-dried and a
coarse-sieve analysis is done.
• The material retained on a 75 µ IS sieve is also oven-dried and the sieve is analysis is done using the set
of fine sieves.
• The suspension passing the 75 u sieve is mixed with a deflocculating agent, if not already done. The
hydrometer test is performed on the suspension,.
• The percentage finer than any size can be calculated on the basis of the original mass of soil taken for
the combined analysis.

Dr. 47
Manendra
 Uses of Particle Size Distribution Curve
➢ Classification of coarse grained soils
➢ To the coefficient of permeability
➢ To know the susceptibility of a soil to frost action
➢ To design the drainage filter
➢ To provides an index to the shear strength of the soil.
➢ To judge the compressibility behavior
➢ Useful in soil stabilization and for the design of pavements

Dr. Manendra Singh, NITH 48

 Engineering applications of particle size distribution
o Selection of fill material
o Road sub-base material
o Drainage filters
o Ground water drainage
o Grouting and chemical injection
o Concreting material
o Dynamic compaction
o Knowledge of grain size is very important to access liquefaction
potential of soil

Dr. 49
Manendra
 Problem 1:
The specific gravity of the grains of a soil was determined in the laboratory using a
pycnometer and the following measurements were made:
Weight of solids, Ws = W2 - W1 = 100 g
W3 = 613g
W4 = 550g
Symbols W1, W2, W3 and W4 have the meanings as explained earlier. What is the
specific gravity of the soil grains? In order to confirm the value, a second observation
of weight W3 was made, after repeatedly evacuating the pycnometer using a
vacuum pump. The value of specific gravity thus obtained was 2.73. Determine the
volume of air entrapped in the soil suspension when the first measurement was
made. Neglect the effect of temperature.
 Problem-2
A sample of a dry, coarse-grained material of mass 500 grams was shaken through a nest of
sieves, and the following results were as given in the table below.
(a) Plot the particle size distribution (gradation) curve.
(b) Determine (1) the effective size, (2) the average particle size, (3) the uniformity coefficient,
and (4) the coefficient of curvature.
(c) Determine the textural composition of the soil (the amount of gravel, sand, etc.).

Dr. 51
Manendra
Q. 2 Solution

Gradation curve.
100

90

80

70
PERCENTAGE FINER (%)
60

50

40

30

20

10

0
0.01 0.1 1 10

PARTICLE SIZE (mm)

Dr. 52
Manendra
 Problem-3
500 g of dry soil was subjected to a sieve analysis. The weight of soil retained on each
sieve is as follows:

Plot the grain size distribution curve and determine the following:

(a) Percentages of gravel, coarse sand, medium sand, fine sand and silt-clay fraction in the soil as
per IS: 1498-1970.
(b) Effective size
(c) Uniformity coefficient and
(d) Coefficient of curvature
(e) The gradation of the soil

Dr. 53
Manendra
Q. 3 Sol

100

90

80

PERCENTAGE FINER (%)

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
0.01 0.1 1 10

PARTICLE SIZE (mm)

Dr. 54
Manendra
 Problem-4

50 g oven dried soil was used in a hydrometer analysis. The corrected

hydrometer reading after 2 min in a 1000 cc soil suspension was 25.0.
The effective depth, He, for RH of 25 is 12.13 cm. Taking specific
gravity of solids as 2.75 and viscosity of water as 0.01 poise, calculate
the coordinates of the point on the grain-size curve.

Dr. 55
Manendra
 Problem-5

In order to find the relative density of a sand, a mould of volume 1000 ml was used. When the sand was
dynamically compacted in the mould, its mass was 2.10 kg, whereas when the sand was poured in loosely, its
mass was 1.635 kg. If the insitu dry density of the soil was 1.50 Mg/m³, calculate the relative density. G = 2.70.
Assume that the sand is saturated.

Dr. 56
Manendra