PADER BREAKDOWN.

Date:24 - 08 - 21

SUETECT CODE (9401)

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Multiple Choice hour 15 minutes A Level Structured Questions 2 hours

40 marks 100 marks

40 multiple-choice questions Structured questions

Questions are based on the AS Level syllabus Questions are based on the A Level syllabus
content. content; knowledge of material from the AS

Externally assessed Level syllabus content will be required.

31% of the AS Level Externally assessed
15.5% of the A Level 38.5% of the A Level

Paper Paper

AS Level Structured 1 hour 15 minutes Planning, Analysis and hour 15 minutes

Questions Evaluation

60 marks 30 marks

Structured questions Questions based on the experimental skills of

Questions are based on the AS Level syllabus planning, analysis and evaluation.
content. The context of the questions may be outside
Externally assessed the syllabus content.

46% of the AS Level Externally assessed

11.5% of the A Level
23% of the A Level

Paper

Advanced Practical Skills 2 hours

40 marks

Practical work and structured questions

Questions are based on the experimental skills
in the Practical assessment section of the

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Externally assessed
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11.5% of the A Level

CHAPrer A OMiCa S aUCTURE. Date: 25- 08 -2 g

Atom Smalles pt of on element that Can toke_port fn a

chemcal Chonne Composed soatioonic_poreles

Proton
Relative Mass
Relafive Chasge(+1.b * 10"c)
amue
Net(on Tu U

-
Electron
1
*184 1 6 10 CV

*A atom electúcally nehralblC

+
# p" #e

W aT Do8s A DeFLEcTON PaTTERNy TE e

on arhicle
Cha ge
Mass ofParhicle

Moss # Ałoic
Mass

Na Nucide

Prołon # o(
Atomic # Posiive Jon Negafve d o
Pu sCAL CHEMisTRy Catio0 M i

JN aGANIC C EMISTRy Cahon

Anon / Lgand
OaGaMI ChEMISTay Electtophile Nucleophile
Dunm

e p* p
 Date:

Jmportance ub- Ałomic Padticles.

Proło0 anychang in # illchang elemen ▇

Elechcone ony Change i e will esilt i otnation a ios.

Nehco0 a charg # Wil esolt in omation
sotop s
r

1s0 PES atoms same element withsome nunmer p ro h o n s

but
dillenent numbe o neuttons.
Pro m Dtriom T m
e 3,
H H
n
Isotopes have dilferest physicalpoperhes but same Chenmical
pro eries.

Nor A - LYL ReLATED

)
Sn sotopes
A otoe

s it te
 MAss SPECTROMETRY Date: 26-08-2

a.k.0 Mace Spectroscop

to 10
Spectrometes con

be used to

# on element

2. To abundance each isotope

AS
3. Ar colculation.
Mr determination

M+2. M+4 M16 peaks

6.

Election
Gun
Magnetic
Field

Induction abunda ce
5

Chamber
Electic held
accelerator
Screen

Na (s) Na*

* Every element
monopositive (+1) ion i
the Incluswe of Noble Gases

Elections from election break metallic bonds in

Solid (atomization)
 Dat .

Monatoic Elements.

07. mass

abndance charge
▇

ut tad
107.e keato#
shckS z # f “sołpes
Di/A
23 24 |z :. Ar 923
loa 6 maAe

Relative Atomic Mass

(Z.abundance isotopc mass)

de the eigtred a Moss
a0 elemen Compred
z(7. abundance
)ko the mo5
C-1 aton.

Relative soł picMass

def moss 1ohon neip coanp ed▇
V2 the m oss C-12 atom

There ase2 so pesaf øi.e. B "B.

10.8. Calcolałe abundonce cach soto.
iol
.8 Ox + W(100 -) 1O 8
10
20Z 807.
= 207.
 Date:

Diotomic Elements (C, Br, (0 oioolo n

3C
3
5/. 3/4 9 I
5O 7. /
5O 7.

CL‘. C : Now l e c h ro n s
om euiele on die
hit a lony pif (Molecolar Jon) o break
the bond (Atomic Jons)

Atomric Jons Molecolar Jons

2oA가 nalAsviobN
35 3구,
노 =b C
220

0
0
2

72
* C
e
35 357
C,2

* 22oMoaco와vilo/

( 8010a

35 37 구2 4 *2

1on서 M M M+4 Reakss 0

Robabilily Rato,
3 C 3 , *c* C로
%e 7 3 * 이a 2( * ),
 Date:

Brne (B,)
Atomic Jons Molecolar Jons

81
6 8
Bs
81
e
|68

B 2. B, 6)

3. Bc 16

58160 162

Hydıgen Halides (HCL H8 )

* - 36
HCL
H * 38

Not în A W)

3 Cet 35 35 36 37 38
M M+2

Cl 37

* N modeculor in peaks ia molecole

# h o ko e n s +
 Date
Ce:

(再
H B+ 80
HB* +
oialA
,8
H B* 82

Ht

下B 79

8 6(* 8I * 80 & 82
M M+2

6l⽉1cハ
AToMIC GTRUCTURE Date 31 08 2

lot SHELL 2e

2nd SHELL 8e

3rd SHELL 18e

4m SHELL g2e

2 2n 0 ghell

ANALoGY

CIy OF AN ELECTRON IowN HOUSE

Shell Sbshel Orbilals

Pincple Azimuthal
Woantomn 井 Ouankm YERSON e
ghell Abshell ofbt hols
S Is l
4 S0BSHEuS
32p L ene qy
1
simple
Tco 8x3p3d G 2 P nciple
3 d iecd
L 4s 4phd41 1 4 undamenhal

ORBITAL enion Space wnere MOx Procability

Padkea on eXists

⼝回图回四回四

了 ⼝国⼝ 红四

回国回
P
S D
 Date

Poaol'sExclusionPinciple
twoe(eside inone orbital due to op2oste spin

SHEL Gu6SHEL OkB1TAL

$・ot1s

2sp年s1P'3 4 8

3s 3p3d 31239 18
の5

y
shld4

Na Ie'9 25 2い5
Hund'sRote 2
2s*

aseadded one by one IS

"degIheiale orbitals）

af samttAeg
Teve
Elechro ic Con ienatations Date

80 1s'25 2pp 1 (dlo

2p
1
2ss
1

M* 1s 25“2.35 6 1s2s“23s 3

He 1s 17C b 1s *2’2p 35 13

8 Ar 1s’2’2*35 * 3
SHAPEs OFOrø1TALS.

- orbítal Sphecal

2ah
) - orbtal Dombbell

ynP
2.P
3. P.

er

d- o ital

|e a
 STRUCTURE Date:_

Method Prefilina Case

1s

23

51

block

d block Periodic
Table

Elements

State the # d
Shell 18

d orbital
 () v

Zn
36
Cr
C
Mote Eneegelically Stable Subshells

Comp letely led Ha ied Jncompletelyofilled

Subshells Subshells Subshells

,,5
P taim no

TD
d"e d d , , 4
1s 22*3* 3p3*4s* Xao oSncl
1s%’2p" 3* 3p* 4s'
f qns napon
s*25*2p" 3s *3pa4 *
s%* 2p“ 38* 3p" 3d '

E ECTROmIC CoNFIGRA TioNOF Jo s.

4
8
Is 2s 2p
1 1 1loSs poired e

1s 5 2
1
is added / (emoved
(dom 4s ist than d
y
23
Is“ 25 2“ 3s 363d4 “

3*3p d
,3+
Is2*
AToMIC STRUCTURE Date: 07 - 04 - 21

Metals tend to lose

form positive ions
Less

* Atomic increases

metals

Reactivity metals ineseases down the

Non- metal tends to gain negative 1003

mote (cockne

* Atomic radius decreases

kend of Radi down the Group and across the Period

Noclear charge increases

Shielding / Screening is Constant

* Shielding elect by innere to absorb nudear

force attraction & shield Nalence (tom

the

Effective nuclear charge increases

Nucleas foree of attiocrion 1 atomic (adivs 1,

Shieldina WHect Constont

Constant
 A Uate:

doun the gto

exiDstonce
eldog alence e Shells dsomouclers inc reoses
Despite încreose
on Nalence e"decreases.
nueleas chatge nucler hice attochion
Radios increoseS

lun

RaD
Shells electrosic (eols on
M
Jonic Rod down the GtupP

Gou 1|All Gatups)

3i + Jonic (adivs
ect
Na*
Skeldtng
K* Nuceor o ce attracton on yalenceee

Metols Non - Metas

Atoic Rads Ałomic Racus
Y N

Jonic kocis Jnc Radius

A oMic SraC kJo IZmoN E rEs. Date: 0 - - 21
e S
del encioegiked semoie an e
ea4
atomzato
p0 ( a onizahon is a Scessive
tsr J . Dr00eS
Na( 1 le

D .
a a le

s Jo IZATor
is the_eesgy “egped t temove mole e ( om

1 ol▇ ase sałomsto 1 mole mono –posífive

o(m

gasco s fon vnde głandard Condiions.

2ndJoIZAnoN
the eneg7 (eguitedto(emove mol, fom

1 mol.Monop v goseous io to domL mol. dipostHive

goseo o unde andord Cond'hions. aea
atoizati
O o 20 i lpN

tsh .
( H(g
1e
L
eve(y next E
nd E.
O (9)
le is
L
greater

*
Jo zalior ene. s gertei os we deun because i
osilive onu likethe
e nt and
otom tial y."Thus.
ftom a postiveon.
 Date:_

*
anomalies anom ahi es

U Be 61 No

Why noble hos the highest

1. it has the
highest net aocleat chasge
2. Most stable
electionic cooligutation
* Factors explaining Anomalies

o Why Gip #3 elements nave than Gyp #2 elements 2

Group 3

highes enesgi level thon se of

e is at Be

e More shielded inner e and is moye

distant com nucleus than

Why Grp#6 elements have 1 1st1-E• than Gup #5 elements

Na
13 29

are paired due to spin

easier to remove
 Dat

Jonisahon
G

Mq

Na KV Ga
1a

Ałoíc Numbe
 15-09-21
CHEMICAL BONDING. Date:

Reactants
(Bond
Breaking (Bond Making

* How the Chemical Reaction bea

reactants should collide

2. reactants must collide with the Giant amount

reactants should Collide with proper orientation

Activation Enesqy
it 19 the minimom amount

for reactants

convert into

Chemical Bood on
electrostatic Force
between
oppositely changed specie chemical (eaction

hos

Jonic Bond attraction

Covalent Bond hydrogen bond

permanent dile Permanent

Single Double Tiple Rond atfaction dipole
Polas Non Polas Bonds instantaneous dipole indoced

Metallic Bond farce dipole

Dative Covalent Bond

London's dispersion lace)

 Date:

Jovic B ND is an e echrostahic oice atrchenbehseen

opitdy Chwgd ang * a checal(eocon
1

hasocCerred

onfc bondilomed behoeename łal Non) – meal

z ato

Recong Agek Oxidizi

Red ced
Agent
Oxidzeda)l

Sorie bond i deu ed beheen a metal

*
N - Meta l
but rymetal Non - metaldo not O1 (

ionicbond.

ARrRHEmUs THEoßY

Acd elease ' ionsi aqueo sSoluhions.a

Alka SeleaseO ons in aque Sol lions ,—

LeWiS THEoRy.
2o

Acid- C accepłor
0kidising Agen )
Base donor
(Red cg hgu)
*Melalsase basi in Nature

*Non - metalsare acidic in nature

 Date:

Strength of Jonic Bond down the Goup & Across the Period

Smaller the 100 € greates the Chaige

Size Stronger is the ionic bond

Down the
group:

Size of Cation increases down the

Change density cations decreases

Charge Same anions

Yol.

boric bond strength decreases

Melting point decreases

Across the peiod

Charge on cation increases

Rodius of Cation decreases
Jonic Bond strenath increases

Melling point increases

*
Mg0 used as refractory material to line a

to decomposition
(esistant
by heat
No, o <
AL,O.
?
* Jonic Compounds with high m• p
hard & bittle
 Date:_

Poperies efbnicCompounds
SolidsatGt.P.
2. Giant e
ionic laHficeGiaat hea0s Conli ou

cen dei,
3. oni bonds
no free ions
Dotthey are Conductors aque s moltenŠtate (ee ions

AFree Chage Cat ess a) -

1eeC ) O 1

metal 7 t molten fonic Compound

gaphite que u icCompond
ti queo S acid

5.They howe c(ystallattice Shruchure

NaC
▇

(egulocotangenen o species mvkccoes j 0

atos tomic lat tice
eg He ( )bm
Face Centered Cobic lattfice d

Na
CL

NaC ) C * each o is Surc nded

6CI ons cach
by
Cl by6 Na
Na

Na* C

CsC -p does not have sio ilar structute to NaClbecase

fłs (aho ionic (adiîs dilerent.
 Date:

( Na' (Na Similar Ralio

0-2

Same lattice gtlchore

COVALENT BOND
elections )

Between non - metals & sometimes between metal & non - meta

Ha (Molecule)
Atomic Orbital The proton D each hydrogen
nucle attracts the election in
its shell aS well os the

other arom's shell

Orbital The atoms move towards each

other & their shells overlap.

orbitals averlap

Bond
Length the distance between 2 nocke: of the

i is an electrostatic orce of attraction between

Positively Chased nudes and

negativelt charged e
the overlapped region

Bond Length
 Date:

Single bond Double Bond Tiple Bond

pair is shared 2e pairs are shared shared

Total no. 34

bonding e 2 Lone Pairs

bonding pairs : 1 e in alence shell not involved

bonding

Octet Role
refere to the tendency atoms to
prefes to have 8
in the Valence Shell

They obey noble Confiquation (octet

Period Central orom may have an expanded

Being able to Mote than 8 e in the outer

shell is Known expanding the octet role'

Period elements can expand their octet

by using
on illed orbitals of orbitals

Uinited Octet ( Group 2 4 Gloop 3)

orom can ess. than & e in the
 Date: 4 - 10-21

RECALL Unpaired e take part in forming bonds

Cartoon forms
CHA
bonds but has only

formation of hybid orbitals

Whenever a carbon makes bonds

State Con copration

* exCess
hydrogen towads Catbon & the 2 unpaired feel
& tendency bonds Since ond formation
is According to laws of conservation

to Become

excited
Ground Stake Excited Stare

excitation-

23

* Excitation is Mellused by hydricieation

 hybid O ials H

H 2

8)
H
~>H C - H

op S
Oveclap
3
s

H H

* Al ‘C in alkane ae
3
hybidized
* Each C7 in dimand is

sp " hybidizafion a Ehh ene

each Corbo0 acCoss dooble bond s H

S0l hybidized. (in alkenes)

H
each Carbo i
z
9oghite p 3 1r
p
hybidized 4 n0
 Dat

25s 2
Gf undz Sake

o bydoges
exctakon
hybndi ation
22z

otlyo d -orbital hybids bond

onhybid bond
- orbiols
sp ' sp

H H

음 H

H
p ,.
p S
p S
C *

H He

Aueses undag adion

H1
as they wonk 6 bonds
 Date:

hybidizslion Ethy e
H 으 Ci C 의 H

C 1s25a 2 0)
hyb dized

Gst und Stabe

Ex hed Sate

p ntybid
D - o bia
p SD H - H

S0 - sp -S

350 kTmolz 6 bond

610 KJmo = 6 bonCd

Alkenes are reacive (eactiily is O ed to bond

bond is a eakbond

6 bond 아fan e thon T bond

CHEMICAL BONDING Date: 26 - 10 -21

Dative Coyalent Bond Polarity of Bond Covalent

Character in an Jonic Bond

Simple Covalent Bond both atoms are shared

Dative Covalent Bond Coordinate Covalent Bond )

transler followed
Sharing

lone

lone pairs Empty orbital

1. Donor should hove at least 1 lone

1 electonegative element can only 1 dative bond

irrespective of # lone

3. Acceptor of should have at least

empty orbital

4. Acceptor Con mote than one dative bond.

Once dative bond shape of molecule

bond
angle chonges H'+C -D NAG

NH2 +
H +
H

H H-AN H
Dative
H Bond H
(Tetrahedral
104 109.5 1. Simple Coulent Bond
2. Dative Covalent Bond
3. Jonic Bond
 Date

H O A H O oxoniom
lone boics emphy ofbital

H
x0
H

Bent 104.5
H
H
Tpael Pramidal 101
Daive Bond
empry ofbital lone pars

ALL C A⼈QLA
AI 1s28
33
Yos cao feoresenr daive bond with Qn
Offow
⼼ AL Timited
④ K1 oChel
炙C 荟 Possible e donors
Q Qccephc Q
XX

Al ⼗ C Q AL4 C
KX

CLs CL
in lekiohedrol

Hipeael Plonor doive bond slorks 109.5

20 on donaler Psinis tocards
acceplrof An olomn wihh Q fni led octe
wil hove an enply ofluitol S
Coseous AtcL will focm bonds Alling to a cceph e om a
133.5 133 5 261 donbc e fodm dalive bond
Al Cl
AlQ ALCL 之Cotplere Rts oclet

以 C
Cl Q L
2ALLL2⼀ A A
Q C Q C C Q C

从 以 is a dimer 4 AM
 Date:

N. HA +

Hydrazine

N H

N H

H N H

BASE ACID SALT ADDUCT

+
NH, ALC2

H H CA
H AL H AL. - U

H CL H

donor Lewis base & 109.5 )

e acceptor Lewis acid

PH2

H F
H
H p: H B
H
 Date:

2 emphy
CA orbitals -1
empty orbital

C - Be Make repeat units

CL Be CA
OR

Be

CL

Alkanes

Rest of Organic Dative Bonding

lich e deficient
species species
Electrophile
Lew's Acidi

Generally e Acceptoc Generally e- Donor

Negative ions with lone

element in a molecule
2. Moup 2

3. 3 element in a molecule Electonegolive element with lone

pairs of e in o molecule
EuEcrRoNEAAtviry 4 Poukir of BowD. Date:27- 1O -

Eleehoregaltioily * theabillhyto athach shared pac * ピ

aCovolenF bond.
キ &
HーH H* C:
HーH HC

a dipole is created
2uRewen diskhdier 4thar
Qolar Bond Non -Qolar Bond

Polar Coyalenk Bond Non - Qolac Covelent Bond

0nequal dishibulion ef ale eapally dishibled
* Covadent bond behoeed 2 Coylent bond behueen 2 Similar
asenFa toms aloms.

herd Bechonealhilty
『& gでN FトNe ま
NaN
aM AsPsC
⼿
;

dleckonegay indreases

FaclorsafleclingElechoncqohiily

Noclear
Charg Elechwntgulivih
1
Alomic Size 以
eechonegalivity
Shelding し
Zelechetepithty
 Date:

Peod3Cho des
elechfonegahi ły
Na
% Si S
nceoseS
"
Na C M C Si - p. C S- C

E:ND is toe kiga N .D s decrensing ocro5s the

pe od.
bond polarily decreases
n
6,
C– 6

distorted bond due t poladly

p0Drt
CHEMICAL BONDING : METALLIC BOND Date: 27 - 10 -21

electrostatic .( attraction beheen positively changed

ions and Sea and delocalized

Positive Jon lined in their posttion

and

* When 0. potential difference is applied move.

Factors
Stength ef Metallic Bond

Charge on 100
(Charac Density of ion
Size cloud

Down the Group

1st Goup
size .0 cation increases

Na C:D. decreases
Metallic bond
strenoath decsenses
M.p. decreases

Across the

Period AL
Na
Ma

Chasge increases
Chasge density increases
Xe cloud size increases X Not Cowect

Metallic Bond Shength

M. p increases
 Date:

Covalent Character in on Jonic Bord

Nucleus of Na
Na attracts e cloud
arom

90%. Jonic
107. Covaleat Distortion e cloud
* No ionic bond is

Completely ionic Covalency Greakes the distortion, greater the Covalency

De ines Covalent Character
* Covalent compounds NOTE

may be whally Covalenti Covalency of Acidity of a Compound

Factors

Chasge Density of Cation

Greater the Charge Density Greater the elec honeadivily
More the polarization Onion more the Covalency

Sze of Anion
the Size greater the distortion

Greater the Coyolency

Chasge Density •L Cation

Period 3 Chloides Redominantty Covalent
+44

boric Chasacter4
INCREASE
Covalent Chafacter
 Date:

* E.N.D decreases between the bonded atoms!

When E•N.D. is
too large bond is tonic
When decreases bond is Covalent.

greater Polar
is too less Non Polar
or zero

Down the Group

Group 1 Chlorides

Change Density of Cation

Na Ci Ability .f cation
Jonic Character 1 Covalent Chosacter 4

Trends in Periodic Table

Not Transition Metals
*
applicable to

Across Period Doon the Group

increases C.o. decreases
Charge Lp .
Size of ions
Size

density
Similar
change
Size + Chasge both increage maintaining catio
Elements with similar C.D. have

Have similar polarising Dowes

Similar electronenaliiry
Similar Covalency
Similar Nature
 Date:

Reachon oRe od 3Chlośdes withWahet

H0
Nalldesolve 0
Na
fag) (ag)
pH - 7

C0
2

Mg, di sove Mg
t
H =6:8
2
ALC,
3 6H,0 | Al (O ) H,0 + H + 3C pH = 3

"Parhal ydtolyss
H,0 broken intoOH H
+
dve toaltrachion by A d

ghC. . ionCanbreak
Hiah H,0

C * 2H, 0 S0. + 4H + 4Ce

H,0 brokeninto 04 H*+ aeated

* :Shronaer altrochion 1t3

Complere Hydrolys
-
PC t H,D p0y H (

Comp ehe Hyd lyss

ign C.D. ionsCannoh exst in waker 0s ee

ons ince they llhydtolyse wates and
(orm o onivmons.

e9 Mn* (gp) XieMn0,- (ag)

6+
(ag)
X
s0y Lag)
 Date:

Size
AL Br,
Be Br, Be'

Covalency increasing
Size
of Anion increases

Covalent

thug
greates covalency
exhibitted.

NOTE bond Consists

of vertical oves lapping &
orbitals

occurs when unpaited e ore less than

the no. o bonds fomed
bond
forens only altes the process

by unhybid orbitals

* I bond dorms after of even without hybidization

in hybidization formed by hybid orbitals

Find Oxidation Stake of Central Atom :

jives the

no.
of bonds central atom makes

10 an clement has the same oxidation state as is

no
there would be
no Lp.
SHAPES Date:_

Shape defined around centfol orom Usually the irsh atom

lone Pair is held loosely

attracted by one nucleus

bonding pair is attracted by two (ocler

H H

Lone
bonding Daits will anange themselves in
a Certain
lashion so that repulsive Joices are least between them.

Valence Shell Election Pais Repulsion Theory

Lore pairs and bonding pois will affame in a certain

fashion so that repulsive dice is least between them

Bonding Pote
2. Lone Poir lone Pair Lone Pair

Bonding Pair
Repulsion
Superpoints

1. We will not study a molecule with one Dond

bonding pair
2. H-CL While leaning shapes o molecules double $ triple
bond are treated"
H-CEN 2 bp also os one
bonding paic
46 -2
This meane the forms 6 bonds Since it is in

Group 6. all its e a(e involved it hos no

lone pairs.

L bonds lone.

By Comparing the Group no. & Oxidation state

central atom determine bonds
We can lone pairs
 Date:

Oa Chenislty
H HNo oVeall Hd t Origen atfaints -1 cho e
one bond
thare 0e ()=( O( S

이c

사* Or is a bidsa09 element.

Coteoo es Shapes. A aCentral Atoma

AB,2 A8,3 A8 AB AB,6

S bs ou eom 와f bee 료 badiny pats 의 A.

A2- ARB AB, AB

5
AB AB

2 tol 3 p tol bp▇ ▇b. ol▇ ▇ ▇ Caktal

A 120 A 1여.5"MA B Subscig
A Ao*
Linearm Ieoenal Plaonar eahedtal Tgonal bP
Planar
16tamidal Ochohedral bondtig pa
180 2 . 1Lp. 3bp.1 4b, 2p
G ohoy 120" e
107 0" A*
Lone a (
i onal
Besb
120
A(amidala Soue Aunar
9o
2b 2L
A 어4.5
Bent
 Date:
AB, pn (( d

Ceotal Aom blc 2 e(eg ed in Yalerce

2b: .no p Minímom Go up. 2shell lodotn 2 bonds.

A. Línea Planaf.180"

BeC.
Leohtal Atom DekerminesShape
Bei C: Shape not allected by the
one paics Chlodine .
TotalNalesce (. Cinear Planar

AB, loudo

3b: no lpAMinimuGtoup 3

T ponal Planar 1 0

e. MLC Carbonate (C0

C
C

TołalYalence 24 = gonal
Thig Plana(
 ate:

2 p. 1lp. Min mom Gp '

A Bent - Shape 120

AnC Sa * Groop 4
S Total Yalence e 18 Always Bent

3. AB4
4b .no lp. Mini om Gt up 4

Tetrahedral.10 . 5

CC ollyhalogenated alkanes used as

e exlinaushers .
ane
C
Tetrachlotomethane - CCy
C

TotalNale ce e 32 Tehahedral. 5

3b. no L . MinimumGt 5

Tigonal Byamidal 107

tyscal Stote - ligid

es PC ) Va ence ooihal - . ion Iike
this or aesthelic sense
p
C C C
C

Total alesce 6 Taonol hyiemncal , 107'

 Date:_

Minimum Group 6

Bent 104.5 P-block

*
Containing Compounds smell or toxic

Total Valence Beat 104.5

: Minimom

Axial 90
Equator =

solid

Phosphows Pentachlonde)

Total Valence e = Tigon al Bipramidal

5.

Group 6

Octahedral 90

F
total Valence 48 Octahedral
 a .

Aop p Miimom hg 8
A Squa(e Plana 40

ey
es
F deg Boie
|NvS mate
Xe
S va(e Pland
To o NalCe 36

* Hydgen Conhna Molecules

CHy H, 0
C r hnH H

Bent. 104.5

Tehahedtal . 10.5

H 0, (ydeg Seoide—
Bent
104. 5

0sygen has a chatge 1 becase

bondith anothe eement
makes

N,H(Hydrazine
CHEMICAL BONDING Date:

Jnte molecular Forces Attraction

* Forces between the molecules

WATER
Jalramolecular force

Physical properties depend on intermolecular

Not dependent on covalent bonds

Intesmolecular Forces
£ Attraction
Polas Molecules
Hydrogen Bond. blu

Polos Molecules
Dipole : Dipole Attraction blu

Wool's Forces Non Polas Molecules

Jon Diple Attraction a0

ion & a polar molecule
 Polarity of Molecules.
Non - Polas Molecole

dipole moments Completely conce out of the molecule does

nor haye dipole moments

all diatomic terra atomic Haromic octa atomid molecules

are
polar
bonds afieoul angles
Cential orom Shoola not have any lone pairs central

atom ghould be bonded to same atoms

The bonds are polar howeres

the molecule is non-polar.

Polat Molecule:
When dipole moments do not cancel ost

Centtal Atom either has lone pair(s)

or it is bonded to different atoms

Octahedral Square Planar

Tigonal Bip ramidal
Non polar
Polar Polar

Either
Polar

4 Phenomenon 10 square

planos only nonpolar even

With lone pOlYS
Hydrogen Bonds
Polar Molecules

H-

10 H is bonded to F,O,N in a molecole

hos the ability to form hydrogen bonds with

another molecule Provided othes molecule has
F.O.N.

0, F., N. Non

D. not fpm hydiogen bonds with Polar molecules

ave to absence o Doles on them.

Substances that Dissolve in Water ?

order a substance to dissolve in water it should

Either Form ions in waker ionic Compounds acids

with water
some polar molecules
(a molecule which can form hydrogen

Jong Hydrogen
bond
 Date:

NH3in Wate ony

eg 60, i Watergosv

t .
N H. .H ,
(0,
H &
+ xX
tnsoS erac
CHy i Wate s

Hydrocarons oSe nsoloble

0.
pate lc
4 H Non -Polar

Connot fom hydropen bonds

wi wafe .
Ehanóc Acd t)

H
&-
H- 0-
sydiophili
bydphdbí
hydiopilic

&f&*
H -— C C 0. - H-— 0.

H H 4 H

hyedhopn pa
 Date:_

Shanyh wpagy
H,0
2 NH13
b 10o" b· :17'

Eleclonesahinly of te Eemen
Mole lechogeofvethe elemenk stonge the dif ole
shtonge the hdlooen boed
* he H in water has a hishel partial pe tti cha(ge Ihand
ihe H in om onia 드 sneknes bydea bnd
* Oeale thez
decintahivy 예eoee」shane te dipale
shtooge the hydleeen bonds 2
#z
Hydwgen Bonds Textesivanessz H-bonds 1s(erath

# lbne. poirs
# ‘H’ atoms bondled o F. O. N
&
6"

6 H8* "

6*H H6
%1 N H

* Nlo. 요 lone pass * No. 의의 Hheega Bonds

More the # bne pais , mole the # of H-B nds.a
nelworkz
eh(onge the
9
Mo e the # ofz cfoms msie the # of H-B nds.
hoke
shtofoe the
 Date:

DIPOLE DIPOLE FoRcE (blvi Polar Molecules

- S
H- CL H-CL
Yonder Wool's Forces of Attraction
INSTANTANEOUS DIPOLE :
INDUCED DIPOLE FORCE (Yonder Waal's)
London's Dispersion Force

B/w Non - Polar Molecules

YWFA is the weakest force among all ]MFA

VWFA is Constantly formed E broken

g,----3,

Non - Polar
Halogens

How does Vander Waal's Force

molecule paises by another instantaneous

induced dipde

e cloud
 a .

FAc DR ArFec h SrREMeTH oFVwNFA : !E 9

Size o Clod :

larger Me clo d
eie the pololadtién, shanger the dipde
0n ien
shiönger the VWWFA

m Clod size nereoses

g) wFA becomeS shronger

B g mp/b: încreases
De sily incroses
Yolah ty I

) b.

A ) Yiscosily ncecse

Hioherb P. CO,2 C.2

2e 3e

C, hasbioe edlod
2

Cle
C,
molecole will get moe polaized
molecles wili" have etronger wFAl hot

HC is a asand ▇ s a Solid blc the extensiveness

wFAi U

(
ite a lasoe nchark ven theugh HCt i
hydogen bonclinq
 Date:

Peiod NaMg AM Si S CIAroui

Swochce Metallic7MaciomlecleSimple Molecvles

Condog Metallic Bond Covalen

Conds
Nooder Waal's

m P.

Mg

Na

eleoments

fiuce AHach is b/ every

YosdeWaa) '. molecule

Expln why co has highes Explain why ( hassmi lar .

b . than N, asN,

cO = - 188 C N, = -196 C

CO Poar * Both cO N,hav2

eSi lar
N, nonpolar Cloudze
o YwFA
c0 has dipole : dipole
rce wheseas N, has
wFA

3. Dipole Dpole > VWFA

 Dates

Gtoops Hydides
N NH,3 H- Bonds V FA
PH.
3 Dipole Dipole VIFA

bonds
the e Clood is
NH
bl siz molecole 1
SbH,
AsH3 * Doan the qpop, wNEA be do cot
DH3
oops Hydlides
Gtu 6
H-bonds
H,0 H-Bnd 0 Same tiend
Sr H.
2
Dpole:
Dpole
YIFA WFA

H,S

Same trend
Glass a pseodbeolid
 Date: 22 - II - 2

Jon - Doole Attacfion

> Elechtosta c ce bl an n a olar Molecs e ,d

,0
NaC,
(S)
Na C
(oe) ( )
+H
A
N 0a
0 Na . 0e O
Ce

Hydahion Sphete

NH2
13
+ H,0 NHy

Hvdioge Bmd
VW F
Jon Di ole
o

H0
D H
(a9) (o g ) odan-Dipole
* Wheceye agveaus ion on dicole cxists
시
MACrOMOLECULE . Date:

Giantmolecole
oni (smallet shtochue) s
Diamond C na
Gtaohite C SicaSO,
sp
Telhrahedral
Hoapoal Layered lehvahedral
S
YWFA

h mp bond
HigCoyalent elung
Hgh mp but low s Ihan High m * sttong
diiamond due to lesse Covalest bonds
Hald Co alenbonds,

Ued orCotfna layers can

etch pose Compressed
: U ed as a l búcant
0s Can slde o eS

Cachothe

Bcki stes Fulles ne Bckyballe

allotepe Carbon)
C ize is nanometes
60

imple molecule
held by YwFA l m*

Non - Condockos elechcily

Moselippery thah ephe
STATES OFMAITER. Date: 24 - I| -2|
ba

Mattesooyihngthat has mass occies sp

Gase

Fixedmass
2.No xed NTTC
gases occupy Ylome o Containes , (opancduble tafer
2Yolome = voume d ▇rdke Sine)
Gose hayg negisibe "IFA,

4.haodommofion a porhices . eda huangenet apat poteles)

5. Yolome ogueeos pédes s tot nejible t Yolome / Cothiner.
Yolone o gas = velome e gaseo0s parcles t
eimply Yolome
Elashc colliins.
.Gas compresses when oce apliec x hyvol me xists

Solíds :

Regdlar oiteret o molecoles - egdor (epeoliog potlen i

clone tgcthei in a latfce shrchve
2. Vibations o ec posiltions but do nok move apodk,
3. īMFA s sttong .
.Fvedshape (ixed olkme
5. No ntermdecvlad space + sthong IMFA
, Soids are notCompr esiblea

Lq ids :
suegdu oetvenen moleculeS

2. Prhides moe asoond + sidle pastcne anolthes

3. IMFA weoke than Solid.
. Fixed volume

5. Sontly Compiesble.
 Date:

PHYSICAL PROCESSES

Heat supplied to a solid

Tve to hor heat supply overcome

the IMFA Collapses .

Solid

* A pute substance mells at a certain (condant temperature

Called Pose ice

b. Boiling
Hear suppled to a liqud
Particles qain energy & move randomly
More hear more fandom movement

A lime Comes when

requency
Gas
boiling

* Boiling point is a liked tempesatute at which a pure substance

Converts to gaseous stare from loud stake.

Puse H.O Pure

Sublimation
Sublime solids haye some +
D. p.
m.p. - 78°C

1. Dry Ice 3. 32 & At, Black Solids

2. Naphthalene

bond breaking endothermic

 Date:

* Healing Conve
Which odors olled mp abp2

time

Hactors Mlectica Nolome of Gas GAS LAWS

1. Moles of Gns Lous

2.

3. 3. Lows

Boyle's Lows.

P 1

Charle's Low Thermal Expansion

(pressute t mol afe constant YoT (in Kelvin)
Yot. of

Gas

T,

•978.16 C Templ'c
 Date:

Aiogado' La
(pressote t tenp are Conslnhr)
Y- kn , no. of moles
Y.=K

Y, Y, q adien k
,

A. A3

Bo L s law CHaRes LaW AvoGADR LaW

Y= K K = kn

In"
= Kn
(R)
nkT()
Ys(unol) Gas Constant (R)

p V= nRT
exien sa coanden d al gos las
a b
AoD pONAL
o ÎNFO R= 8.31 Jmol" K-|

PressRE Aw T (Yol. mol. ośe Constanh)

=kT

5
1 ahm=1x 10 Pa
+213
 Date:

pY = nRT V s mass RT d 2o kc
M6

P
Deshy Gus
masS , p.Mr N
K R
Dusty teas Pessore
Conc.=b densily p.M(
RT (bi RT

JoEAL Gas -
Noihermolecolas otce attachon
2. Al parcles ase in andóm Conslaok mohon:e
Ela c Collisions
Nol me
gees padcles is nejib to Yolume
les
g
Aodeal gas a as whichcoeall g la
JDEAL Gas Eo Y,= nRT

REAL GAs * JoeN Gas.

High Tempeałoe
of" hich tempesałste particles goin enegy mo duathe
MFA ▇ gas
.
Low Pesse
yolome f
gosens porticesis sgigitie to wolome o gas at
lb ptei te.

The pieS ie on a gas uasto incseosed fom 2 ahm to 4 atm Yolome

the qas ted of "deal ?
3
dec(easedAcom10čm 36 Cm

Real. becausethe Yolome shoold be halyed 1 it wete dleal

 a G.

Behav oNoble Gasesas Jdeal Gas

1 mol. Ac gas cccupies

3
0.024 dm
6. 02 * 0
Ac gs
Ac altoms ałoms

(a Dt Easa)2. 1
3

Yolome of 1 otom m

,
Noloo mol. Aratoms s (6.„02 101, (2..87 . |o
aht

° Gaseo0 Pareles = 0.07 *

Wlome o
Neliabe MFA | MFA

CompolonbehweenRealGhas JdaGas*
sa

se
Bond
HC

Dipole* ole Cy
VWFA

dealily ncSe0s * Weaker the IMFA

(ealy decrenses moe idl the ges is
He He
(eal
heal as
eol ons OlhoRet Gstses

Sehs)t
 Date:_

Reason
Stonges the
IMFA , greater
the deviation

H - Bond

He Reason of Desiation
ideal-ga ou gaseous particles

H2 occupies I greates vol. than He Since H2

particles are larger than He

He gascous particles is nekible to

Impuity lowess and Substance melts over

tange. of
Greates the impuity lowes the melting point

* Impuily weokens the pressure lower the m • p.

BOILING b.p: liquid

At certain temperatule pure substances have liked bp

Pose Water boils at 100c

is the tempesature at which

Water
Yopou: pressure eopals atmospheric
pressure.
 Date:

FACTORS AFFECTING B.p.

substance boils over

a

lowers
Vapor pressure Substance needs to be heated more

So that vapor pressure atmospheic pressore.

2. Pressure lower the almospherc pressure lower the

atmospheric pressure & bip.

REACTION KINETICS Date:13 12 21

Chemical Readions

Fast Slow

Reactants -+ Products

Bond Energy of reactants M, + O, > NO,

O=0:
Reactants have same
charges

Factors Affecting Rake o Reaction

Temperature increases K:E. of particles increases

collisions 1 late of reaction

reaction

100 particles

#
of particles with E< EA # of particles with

30
probabilitt distribution

60 particles 40

* At hishes temperature more # of parides with

greates the
Ateopency of effective collision & greater the rate
 Date_

Maxwell - Bol manDishibion Curve : (Bdl D foution

# of particles * Aiea ndeCuNve is

# particles with
cetain awouat 이 oegy

50J En
9

오. Rressvre (ooh gss)z

press0(e Voum
의 1ASs

paricles p nitwo ▇
eoc 있 Collisions 1 (atez

Rate ( V
((eachants/p(odochts)
년

3. Concentralfon a
Concentotion 이 (eacants parhickes pe vnit yokume
feeeey of llisiom (de
Rate (reactanks (- Conc
의

Size 이 Rarice (only Jor Solids)

o ace (ea 1
Sze
ae 1
(Q
이 Particlez
(S nce a ea ho o.tao)
(eue olli Sions

lompsChips p owd e d
a
J SC
 Date:

5. Catalyst
It increases reaction
by providing an alternative pathway
which has low

* And (emains chemically

unchanged a the end

A does
catalyst lake part in the chemical reaction

remains the game

Catalysis Homogenous Catalysis

Heterogenous Catalysis
Auto Catalysis

HOMOGENOUS CATALYSIS
Reactants & catalyst have same physical state

conc. H,S04,
Alcohol Ester H,O

2. 5,08, 21 290421 + brown

3. Enzyme Catalyss
 E
Date:

Eozyme Catalys : Metobolfsm

E + S ES EP
( bsttalt Co plex Complex

Loc Ke Hypothesis :
a

Boogy Eozymes Netes

4O )' +
y , (Areosphelc Oidation 의 S0,)

Mechanismz SO, N0 S0 NO ー ntermediate

Roocton N0 + N0,

H TER0GENOUs Co ySsS i
Reactanks Cabtalysts hve dlecen plysoal shake.
Fe
리 3니 2NH
+

2 D eg O +
9
*H -D

Aur0 CaAL Sis

The podoeh 양f a (eaclion & the Calblys

andA + D
Rate Reacki n slas at
Star
Ca alysF
 Date:

+ c,
2+
MnOy + *+C0, Mn“ H,0
oxalate Avłocałalysh

No(a Reachon
(R tm

s 1

(ate

PotColahyss

Kme

E ER6y PhorILe DaGRAMS.

Reacłants Rteumvine-HooeldgPtoduchs ExoEodo

AcvuN REATioN
NE Co CEP !
R P
Jo les
e o/endo
o/endo
xJ Inkermediakes)

Suppoee fobes
100 snds
(sab e Reacłonls pProducts (stable
Sl step aststtp
dillt asy

highh E fo

9
Jn emecate 0.I sec
nstable tate
eaclón * (ate sl s

o step isKaledeei i ng step

 Date:

his w oveimpilied in
e es

exothermic

endo R

endo I
P endo AH

* reoter
 CHEMICAL ENERGETICS
chemical Reaction

Exothermic Endothermic
exit heat
required heat

evoked
heat is heat is
required
R > P R > P

A 50J B 50J A 50J B 50J

= 100J = 100J

20J lost 30J is

as heat NOTE : absorbed

gv = go , AH = A-
Hp -
Atr [ =
1305

n n
N

EA P
R 01-1=80 -
too

AH =D -
20J
AH
✓
P R

> >

Exothermic Endothermic

i. Combustion
Burning i. Bond
breaking s >
l→g
2. Respiration 2 .
Thermal Decomposition
3. Neutralisation 3 .

Photosynthesis
a. Bond
Making g
t 's 4 .

Dissolving of some salts

s .

Dissolving of some salts e.

g.
Kcl
eg
.

N1-4CI
6 .
Nz + 31-12 >
2MHz
7 .
250 , + 0, >
2503
 12 -
01 -
22

CHEMICAL ENERGETICS
Enthalpy Change AH It is heat
change
under certain conditions
of
temperature 4 pressure .

Standard standard conditions

Enthalpy change Enthalpy change under .

Hd
A- 298kt 1- atm

Elements in their standard states are at

0J
of energy e.g Nay Bru,
.

Experimental Theoretical

① -
-

MCAT Hess 's law

Hf&
-

standard
of
EX0
☐
Enthalpy Formation "do
? -

Had
""
standard
of combustion - ✓
I
Enthalpy
""
AS ☐ Hand standard Enthalpy of Atomication ✗ -

"°
Hsoi standard
Enthalpy of solution
endo
- ✓

"

-
☐ that standard Enthalpy of Neutralization - ✓

Him,d°
-

of
""
☐ standard Enthalpy Hydration ✗ -

A2

.
11-1*0 standard Enthalpy of lattice
Energ"°y ✗ -
Chemical Energetics
standard Enthalpy of It is
enthalpy change when I mol .

of a substance
Formation is
formed from its constituent elements in their
A-
Hf° standard states under standard conditions .

Sonic Covalent Compound <

Nay, + Y2
Clay ,
> 1- Nachos
,
I
Hfd NaCl

2Aless + % 02cg ,
> 1- Also >
is,
I
Hfd AGO,

Ccs) + ZH2 (g)

>
CH4 (g)
A-
Hfd CH4

Hit the Atf equation of Ethanol , ↳ HS0H .

24s, +
342cg + 4202 >
↳ HG0H (e)
, g)

Write the Atf equation of Ethanoic Acid .

24s, + 21-1 ,
(g)
+
02cg,
> CH> CO0H
(e)
Chemical Energetics
2
Alas, +
9204g ,
Alibis, Hf AK03
4AL ZA10}(s, Hf AK03
304g 2
+ ✗

, ,

Write
Hf equation of Customs)
H H
Cues, +
So +
202 >
CuSOq(s|
exo endo
"
① 1-1=+92 KJMOI
2MHz N2 (g)
342cg
: -
> +
,
(g)
"
calculate Hf ( NH, ) .
And .
-46 KJ not

Macs, + Y2
Clay ,
> 1- Nachos
, AI-1FQ NaCl =
-800 KJMOI
"

traction =

Hp
-

Hr

800 = ✗ -
0
"
✗ =
-800 KJMOI
Chemical Energetics
"

Q Clegg 1-1=-92 KJMOI

I>
Clzg II.
: -
+ >
is, ,
l ' ' '

O 2x
"
Iclcgi +
Clay ,
> IC1 >
(g)
1-1=+60 KJMOI
-46 0 ✗

( Icl ,)
"
Calculate oHf .

A1S .
14 KJMOI

standard Enthalpy of It is the enthalpy change when I ma .

of a substance

combustion is combusted in excess 0, under standard

completely
A1-1CO conditions .

Element :
Element or
Compound
Metal :

Mg1st 4202
'
1- +

(g)
>
MgO ,s,
1-1=-600 KJ moi

Had N1G =

Hf° MG0
2NA
, ,+ 4204g ,
>
Naz (s)

HI Na =

HF0 Na,0
2
Chemical Energetics
Standard Enthalpy of Element :

Feast 4204g ,
>
FeQs, Hf FE0

Combustion Metal :

HC0 felt 2%,+% 04g ,

>
Fez 031s
,
Fe
Fest
2 ✗
Hilfe) =

HF04-4OS)
PB0 White solid

Pb PB0, black solid

lead
Pb>0, red solid red lead ,
sundhur

Pb
+4204g
1SI ,
>
Pblfs ,
Hf PB0

Pb ,t
, 04g ,
>
PB04 ,
Hf ( PB01

3PB
, ,t 204g ,
> Pb>
04s, 2 ×
He =

Hf Pb>04
Chemical Energetics
standard Enthalpy of Non Metals :
-

Combustion %
C0 1YO 906
☐ Had C
go ,
µ
No,
p s
503
P40 ,

↳ ↳ 02cg ① ( )+
04g ①
> >

, (g) (s , 2cg)

Hf (co) He / C) =

Hf ICQ )

Nz t 02 > 2ND Nzt 202 > 2ND,

2 ✗
Hf (NO) HC1N) =

Hf IN ✗ 2

Pa +302 >
P40 , Hf°(PA06)
B. +50 , >
Paolo Hf°lPuQo)= HY1P,)
Q : -

Explain why 01-4011-1,1=01-4011-1,0)

When 1m01 .

of Hz Completely combusts it ,
gives
1m01 .

of H2O .
Chemical Energetics
standard Enthalpy of compounds :

Covalent
Combustion >
Compounds :

Had
CH4 ! 204g
'
C04, 21-120,1,
-1
He CH4
,g ,

Write Hc equation of CH>COOH .

CH > CO0H
204g 204g 21-120,1,
'

+ > +
,,, , ,

Experimental Method to Hc ↳HGOH mass

of burner +
↳ HG01-1IG 200.00

calculate Hc mass
of burner +
↳ HG0H 195.00

I !:*
"
Water
after burning /g

>
mass
of ↳HS0H burnt, 5.00

1cm =

1g
.
Initial Temperature 1°C 12.0

Final Temperature 1°C 20.0

↳ HS0H 1TC 8.0

"
'
Heat Gained by Water 4.25g K Heat loss
-

c =

② =
m .

c. T =

100×4.2×8 33605 Heat

gain
= =
Chemical Energetics
"

Holes
of n
GHgOH
= 5
burnt
= 0.109 mot .
H KJMOI

46
"
0.109 3360 ✗ =
30.8 KJMOI
1m01 .
✗

"

He ↳HG0H =
-30.8 KJMOI

① .
> mass measured to 2d .p .
.
'

if not in 2dp
error
.
chance
of
CH> OH burned and the temperature
3.00g were
completely
increased 9.5°C
of Calculate
>
water
200 am
by .

He IC1-4OH) ( c--4.2 Jg !
'
K Mr -32 )
- -

① =
me T =D 200×4.2×9.5 =
7980J

M01 .

CH3 OH =D 3 = 0-093 not .

32

0.093 -

7980 ✗ =
85120

KJ.no/-tHcCHzOH---85.lkJmol-t
I -

✗ =D 85 I .
Chemical Energetics
① ↳ He
.

4.00g
and
benzene , ,
was
completely
water increased
of
'
burnt the temperature 200cm

to 31.5°C
from 22.0°C .
The process
(c-
was 85%
efficient) .

of
"
Calculate oHc ' " '
benzene 4.2
Jg K C H
-

, ,

① =
MCOT =
200×4.2×9.5 =
79805

M01 .
C6H, =
4/78 =
0.05

0.05 :
7980×40.85
1 :
✗

"
183 I KJMOI
He C6H ,
'
✗ =
. =
-183 I .
KJ mot

① hexane Cathy burnt to

temperature
.

2g , ,
completely raise

of 150 CM3 1-1<0 by

7.5°C .
The
process was

4. 2. C , 't )
90%

efficient
"
( c-
Calculate oHc
of hexane -

① most
= Y43 -
4725×40.4
= 150×4.2×7.5 I -
✗

= 4725J (is 90%)

"
✗ =
225750 KJMOI
Mol .
41-114 =
2/86--0.023 =D -225.75 KJMOI
"
Chemical Energetics
insulation
^

lag Inaccuracy of Experiment

1- % i.
losses
Heat

of
? walls
I
%
100cm > conduction :

lag
" beaker
-
Water .

% I > convection :
place lid .

§ > radiation

blw the
: reduce distance

flame and beaker .

GHSOH
2. Precision
of Thermometer
calorimeter
Bomb Minimum division = 1°C
'
2--1=0 5°C
Error in one
reading
= .

"
"
110°C Error in T = 1°C ±

25.5°C
%

'
-10°C
µ
Chemical Energetics
Thermometer drawn Effects of Errors on Hc :

pair
☐
He G.HS0H =
-150

Actual Value =
-200
Water
a. go,,
of them.mg, yay, µ,
base
of the beaker

Water is not stirred

b.
properly
C. air is drawn too
fast
d. air is drawn too slow

a. He will increase .
b .

He will increase or decrease .

Heated
by conduction .

Depends
thermometer
on

.
position of

c. He will decrease .
d .

He will decrease .

More air drawn ,

more
Incomplete combustion .

heat drawn .
Chemical Energetics
I He
+ 0, CO ,
Hf
=
>

C +21-1 , >
CH4 Hf
GH6 +0 ,
> CO , t 1-1<0 He

* For reactions in which He =

Hf ,
the
Hfd
can be
found experimentally .

'

Hf MgO > List all the Measurements

"

-
Mass
of Water
-

Mass
of Mg
Initial temperature of water
water
-

-
Final temperature of

HT ① met -
Uptil now :
Hf =

* We have studied these

Chemical Energetics
Theoretical Calculation
of Hf and He
H
R
:p
✗J
H =
Ep Ep -

yj
✓
H =
✗+
y
J

The dependant
Hess 's law
of
enthalpy reaction is
: on

initial and
final states of a reaction but is

independent of the route taken .

Question : -

Calculate Hf ( CH41 using following data

" CH4 + 20
He (c) -386 KJMOI=
,

"
He 11-1,1=-296 KJMOI
✓

C0, +21-120
He / CH41 -688 KJMOI
"
=

☐
Ht
T.pt/f---29OkJmol
✗ "

↳ 2K4g +
,
>
④"
'9'
R

+ 0, -386 21-296) +202

-386
+
v 68£
v
-

✓ +4 in -688 2/-246) f- 688J

(
04g ,
21-12011)
Chemical Energetics
Question : -

Calculate Hflcotlb) using following data

He (C)
"
=
-286 KJMOI

He / Hd
"
=
-396 KJMOI
"
He /Cotto) : -926 KJ not

"t
6%+31-12 ,g, >
↳ Hey ↳ Hot Q >
GC01-3HD
,

6/-286) +60, 310<31-396)

✓ ✓
+7.502
-926
GC0 , 31-1,0
<

61-286) +31-3961+926
Hf / C61-1GI =

"
=
-1978 KJMOI

E.
Hf =
He R -

He P
Chemical Energetics
oHf° of Housing following
① : Calculate ↳ data

"
0th (C) =
-386 KJMOI
(1-12)
"
OH , =
-296 KJ not
He /↳ H8)
'
☐ =
-512 KJ moi

Hfd / ↳Hot -
-
(31-386)+41 -29611+512
"
=
-1830 KJMOI

① :
calculate Hf of ↳ HS0H
using following data

He (C)
"
☐ = -386 KJMOI
☐ HC1H ) ,
= -246 KJMOI
"

0Hc(GHs0H)
"
=
-1110 KJMOI

"t
2C + 31-1 , + 420 ,
> ↳ HG0H
" "b)
-

+ go,
+1.502 -1110 +302
31-296)
✓ ✓

IC0 , 31-1,0 2%+31-1<0

302 external 302
0.50,
already present
Chemical Energetics
Calculate Hetchy) using following data
Hf (CH4) = -290
Hf (elements) =
0

☐
Hf IC02) = -396

01-1+(1-1,0) =
-286

"t " "

C CH4 +20, i C0 +21-1,0
+ 21-1 , >
CH4 ,

+02 +02 +202

-468 + ✗ =
-290
✓ ✓ a
✗
"
C0, 21-120 ✗ =
678 KJMOI

.it/clCHa)= -678
Pi .

He =
HF1P) -

HF1R)
✗ -146 ✗ -327
0
① : CQ
(g)
+
HzQg,
>
CO2 (g) +
Haig)
calculate 01-1
of the above reaction
using following data
'

Hyg ,
+
1204g ,
>
1-1,04, 1-1=-286 1-40<=-327
①
(g) +420µg ,
> ①<
g,
H = -327 Hf 1-1<0 =
-196

HOW >
Hzog, 1-1=+90

-286+90 →
-

146 '
✗ -327 -
✗ +196 = -131 KJMOT
Chemical Energetics
G9H +2kt
>

no ,
-1
>
Cldiam) Hc Diamond Hc Graphite
'

tic
' '

He
r n
/
C0,

standard Enthalpy
Atom:<ation
of It is the when 1m01
enthalpy change
in its standard state is converted into its
.

of atoms
substance
in

Hatmd state under standard condition

gaseous .

compound
'
Metal Non Metal -

Covalent
, ,

Metal :

Hatm H" "

N9S' > µ
,g, HG1H >

Hgg
Hab Hyap ,

Hatm
zn > In
1st
Hsub (g)
Chemical Energetics
Non -
Metals :

"
2cg,
>
2H(g ,

def iii. rt Metals & Non Metals :

-

It is the
enthalpy changewhen 1m01
gaseous
atoms is
its element in standard state under standard
.

of
formed from
conditions .

Metal { Non Metal

-

Non -
Metal :

444
'
H2 (g) 21-1 /
N4G Ng N=N
'
' 2
,
g) ,

2 ✗
Hatm H Hatm N = 472

I
204g ,
>
0cg )

Hatm 0
=/ 20=-0
Chemical Energetics
otlatm
? Peg,
Pals If of
'
4 * the physical state
,
1

an element is solid or
01-1×44
" liquid ,
some
energy
will

↳ But 44×16 ✗ (AP) ) be utilized to

change
1-1×44
the state
to
ofThen the element

" gaseous .

energy
4 Big will used to
be break
covalent bonds in the

gas .

'
Hatm P
'
Honey
'
P P
4 4 ✗
Hyap 4 ✗
✗
= + +

Hatm④
18 581s, >

{ (g)
48×01-1 ' HatmlBr)
Brace, Brig
>
2
✓
,
'
I
858 let 48×815 -
s)
42×01-1 ✗ Br Br
-

'
18×01-1 '
'

i 213821g )

858
(g)
Chemical Energetics
Covalent Compounds :

Explanation Use
previous def -

enthalpy change when 1m01 .

of
compound is converted into its atoms in
a
gaseous
state .

CH4 '
4g,
+ ↳
Hg ,
Hatm CH4 =
4C H
,g, = 4×410
'
= +1640 KJ moi

All
group
4 tetrachloride CC14 , >
Cig ,
+
44g ,

liquids at r I
>
are .

:p .

CC14 sick, Geck, Hatm CC1, Hxapt 4C Cl

Hyap 4C .cl
=

Snag Pbcla •

CC14 1GI

CH > CO0H ,e, 20cg

Gg 411g
> + +
, ,
,

3C H + C- Ct C- 0 + C- 0
Hyap
-

'
+ 0 -

H
CH>COOH
(g)
Chemical Energetics
BOND ENERGY : It is the amount
ofbond
energy required
to

break 1m01 .

of a .

Endothermic
Always "

e.g.CH +410 KJMOI

=

Average Bond
Energy Ittois the average amount of
:

energy required
break 1m01
of bond . a .

Diamond
Graphite .
:

Avg .
value of C C
C C C C taken

"t
Q .

Ces, t 2cL >

CC14 (e)
,g,

Calculate Hflcclal using the

following data

Hatm (C)
'
= +720 KJMOT '
Hyaplcclq ) =
+7015mi

Cl -
Cl =
+ 242 KJ molt
'
C- Cl =
+ 340 KJMOT

Ccs, + 2cL , '

CC14 (e)
(g)
21242 ) +70
+720
✓ ✓ ✓
Hf Icq) =
1204 -
1430
"

Ccgs 44cg cclyg, -226 KJMOI

' =

,
4C Cl
-

41340)
Chemical Energetics
Standard Enthalpy of Reaction Hr

Hr Hr
↳H4 + H2 ⇐

41-16 ↳H4 + H2 ⇐

C2H ,
^ . . ✓ 7

Hf Hf Ho Ho Ho

ZC0Y-3HP
"

2C +21-1 , ZC1-3HZ 2002+21-1,0 H20

Hr= Hf P -

Hf R Hr= Her -

Hep

Hr
↳H4 + H2 ↳He
✓ 7

V
V ✓

24g ,
+
411cg 24cg
, , 24g
,
+
6kg ,

Hr=B E -

R -
B. EP
Chemical Energetics
① Ht
4s,
:
t 2cL
,g,
>
CC14 (e)

Calculate Hflcclal using the

following data

Hatm (C)
'
= +720 KJMOT '
Hyaplcclg )= +7015mi
'
Cl -
Cl =
+242 KJMOT
'
C- Cl =
+340 KJMOT

Ccs, + 2cL > '

CC14 (e)
(g)
21242 ) +70
+720
r r r
Hf lady) =
1204-1430
"

GG1 4CI , '

Clay,
=
-226 KJMOI
,g
4C Cl
-

41340)

(g) +
44¥
^

.gs/4B.ElC-ClI
,

* Can appear in exam like Hatm

this .
GG11-2CI
^

Hatm

(g) +
2Clug) v
↳ (g)
1-If I
✓
CU4W / Hxap
Chemical Energetics
① :
Sieg, + 2cL , >
sick (g)
,g,
µf
(a) Calculate B. F-
ofIsi)Si -
Cl
using following information
'
:

Hatm +680 KTMOI

-

Hf (silly)
'
=
-315 KJ mot

B. F- ( C- Cd )
"
= +242 KJMOI

Draw
(b)
energy level
diagram .

(c) Explain why the B.F- Isi -

Cll calculated in part (a) is

different from the value in Data Booklet .

°Hf
(a) Sig +
24g ,
.
silly ,g,
680
, •
212421 ✓
41ST Cl) -

Sig, 4dg , Sieg +4dg,

,

41ST Cl) si Cl
"
680+21242) 370 kJmd
Hf
= - -
=
-

n
Sieg, +41kg)
(b) ^ n
(C) Silly is not under
" ""
standard conditions
Sig,±2Clug, .

Hatm
Hatm
(
liquid at
rtp but in
question
gas)
Sits, it's
☐
+2
Clay ,
in

Hf
,
sitting
Chemical Energetics
① : 2X + 61-1 >
XZH , 1-1=-1800

B. F- 1×-1-11=+250 k5moH Calculate B. EIX -

✗I

+1800
✗ 21-16 >
2×+61-1 Hatm
ti i
'

H -
X -

✗ - H 61250) + ✗ ✗ -
=
1800
1 , I, X ✗ - =
300 KJMOI
"

Hr
① Nzg +
3421g ZNH >
'Y
: >
, ,
g) , ,
H H H

(a) Calculate Hr
using following data

N IN =
944 H -

1-1--436 N -
1-1=390

(b) Calculate Hf of NH3

944+31436) 61390)
"
a. -
=
Hr = -88 KJMOI

"
b. -88 =
-44 KJMOI
2
 Chemical Energetics
② :
CH4 + 20 , > C0, 21-1<0
+ He

C- H
calculate
410
•
He
using
the
following data :

° "
0=0 496 ?
CH4 + 20
,
CQ1-2HP
G- 0 740 414101
✓
214961 ✓
217401 •
41460)
,

0 H -

460 G4H 40 G20 20+41-1

He =
{414101+214961}-{217401+414601}=-688 KJMOT
'

standard Enthalpy change It is the enthalpy change when 1m01 .

of a substance

of Solution
I exo
completely dissolves in water to form infinite dilute solution
☐
HS01 end,
under standard conditions .

Ionic Covalent Compound "

"
NaCl ? Nai, Chain +
,s,
Chemical Energetics
Experimental Method to calculate Hsu

Cup
}
150cm
Hsu N1-4CI :
>

✓
Initial Temperature I 14.0
2.00g Final Temperature I 8.0
NH4H
Water T0C 6.0
.

Beaker
?
100cm

' I
14N 35.5cg
4.185g K
-
-

C =
g

Find Hsoi : E- me T =D 100×4.18×6 =

25085

MO1 .

N1-4CI =
2.00 = 0.0374 0.0374 -

2.508
53.5
1m01 -

"
✗ =D + 67.1 KJMOI
 Chemical Energetics
Hess's law :
Theoretical Calculation
of Hsd

Nafees ,
>
^
Nai,
"
+
Eli, n

OH hyd Hhyd
'
a-
(g) ^
(A2)
Hf Hf [£ 1st Electron Hf
(AS) µ Affinity (As)
Nay ,
^

Haim Hatm

Nay +
12th Nats) 12
4g,
, ,g,

standard
Enthalpy of It is the enthalpy
change when 1m01 .
Ht ions are

Neutralization neutralized
by OH ions to form infinite dilute solution
-

Hneo under standard conditions .

1-1++01-1
-

"
>
1-1<0 1-1=-54 KJ not

"
HC1 + NA0H > NaCl + 1-1<0 1-1=-54 kJmd

"
Hill ,
+ ZNAOH >
Naff + 21-1<0 -1-1=-108 KJMOI

H
some
energy
is utilized in the ftp.COOH + NA0H > CH > COONA +
1-1,0 -54
dissociation
of the acid .
Chemical Energetics
Experimental Method:
NA0H + HCl > NaCl +
H20 H

Cup
}
150cm
>

Haag , v Initial temperature I 15.0

'
0.2 moldm
Final temperature I 24.0

:[I
T0C to
Naomi,
ps 0.2 moldm
-3

}
50cm

② =mcT 130×4.18×4 =
4890.6J

n NaOH = 0.2 × 50 =
0.01 mot
1000

"
0.01 -4840.6 ✗ =
-484 KJMOI
t -
✗

H
cacog.es ,
>
Calls, +
CQ41
2HU H, H2 2HH
✓ ✓

CaChtC0<+1-1,0 Cachet H20

H= H, -

H2

-
 9

Chemical Equilibria Chemical Reactions

Chemical Reaction

Irreversible Reversible
A reaction which proceeds in A reaction which proceeds in

one direction both directions

only . .

R > P R .
-

P
cone .
✗
Éyie1d ✓ ✓

R .
Yield / 100% .

Dynamic Equilibrium
INhen the rate
of forward
reaction
equals of the rate
backward reaction ! and
.

the
of reactants and
p time
cone .

products become constant .

2

cone . Cone .
CONC .

R .
R . R .

p•
. .

P time P time time

Products Reactants P -
R P R
Chemical Equilibria
Le Chatelier’s
Principle

Le Chatelier’s Principle:
When a stress is laid upon a certain reaction , the reaction
will
oppose the stress and move in the opposite direction .

>
Temperature Pressure ,
Concentration Catalyst
, ,

Temperature:

N, + 31-1
,
-
'

2MHz H O exo

low temperature
favors exo reaction

high temperature favors endo reaction

% > Not 100% ,

yield yield
EXOTHERMIC ENDOTHERMIC

temperature temperature
Chemical Equilibria
Haber’s Process:

N, + 31-12 .
-

2MHz EX0

LOW TEMPERATURE : HIGH TEMPERATURE :

Position
of equilibrium will
shift Particles gain
energy
and

forward forward reaction is

as collide more
frequently : rate
exothermic I yield
will increase
of NH3
:

.
of reaction increases .

450°C

IMPACT OF TEMPERATURE ON REVERSIBLE REACTIONS :

I .
Le Chatelet 's
Rate
*
If irreversible reaction
,

2. techatelier 's is not related .

3 .
Charle's Law

Contact Process:

2502 +
02 -
-

SO, Exo

*
Again we use
Compromised Temperature to achieve Max .

rate & yield > 450°C

Chemical Equilibria
Pressure: only for gases
HIGH PRESSURE :

N4G! 31-12,5 2MHz,g Position equilibrium will shift

ofbecause
'

, ,

4m01 2m01 .

forward reactants
have
of of gas
.

more # moles
than products .

techatelier 's Rate

Pressure High Pressure 200 atm
High >

v ✓

For increased yield

2502g +
02cg; 503g
* an
'

, ,

However I -2 atm is used since almost the

> we
get
same yield at low
pressure .

Low Temp
EX0
2A +
Bgi Gg Dig
-
+ .

High Pressure
, ,

low Temp
this, Big Cgi Dg Exo
.

+ '
'

, , low Pressure

High Temp
Acs, By (g) Dig ENDO
.

+
-
+
Pressure
-

,
, low
Chemical Equilibria
Concentration: "

:P
.

R
'

- - - -

'
"
R . P R .
-
p
. .

n -
-

II. .
p .

Catalyst:
R .
-
P exo

Position
*
of equilibrium & % yield
R is not
affected by catalyst .

> Increases rate To reduce

energy
To allow to be costs
equilibrium .

achieved
faster .
Chemical Equilibria
Factors Position of % Yield Kc or Kp
Equilibrium
Temperature
Pressure - -
✗

Concentration - -
✗

✗ ✗
Catalyst ✗

A + B .
-

C + D

*
Equilibrium Constant K is calculated
for any
reaction at equilibrium .

>
Concentration Kc Pressure Kp

products ;
-

NHg.it 342cg 2MHz Kc

'
=
'

,g,
.

,
I reactants :

Kc is the ratio
of cone .

of products to cone .

of
reactants at
equilibrium .
Chemical Equilibria
How to write expression of Kc ?
>
6
Kc (NH31 M01-2dm
Nagi 342cg
+ 2MHz
'
' = =

, ,
,g
1^12/+1-1,13

Liquid
Kc Aqueous * Solids are NOT written in Kc
Gases expression .

He 1 Extent
of Reaction is Forward
Kc 1 Extent of Reaction is Backward
Kc = 1 Extent
of Reaction
of both sides is the same

* He tells us about the extent

of reaction
Stoichiometric
CALCULATION :
>

Moles 4dm
'

2 2
I 1 , ,

2HC1
Hag Clay
'

+ '

, , ,g,

Initial 2m01 3m01 0m01

Reacted 1m01 1m01

Equilibrium 1- not 2m01 2m01

Equilibrium Mixture

Holes at
equilibrium are a measure
of concentration iff the stoichiometric
moles
of reactants are
equal to the moles
of products .
Chemical Equilibria
When stoichiometric
of
+ reactants
moles are
equal to

the moles
of products ,
initial mixture sum
of moles is
the same as
equilibrium mixture sum
of moles .

① N> + 3h>
'

2^11-13191
cgi
:

(g) 200cm
}

4 not N, & 9m01 H , were allowed to

eqoilibrate.AT equilibrium ,
it was
found that
2m01 N, were
present Calculate Kc
. .
0.26ms

N2 +
BH2 cgi 2MHz (g)
'

(g)
2

I 4 9 0 he = 40.2
R 2 6 20.2 30.23
E 2 3 4
the =
0.012 not"dm°

Here ,
= 1

Kcfwd
Chemical Equilibria
① :
① +
H20 (g) -
'
① +
Haig)
(g) 2cg ,

1m01 .

CQG , 4 1m01 .

Hoog ,
were allowed to
equilibria
at 400K .
At
equilibrium it was
found that 33.3%
of
equilibrium mixture was Ha .
Calculate Kc .

I 1 I 0 0 ✗ =
33.3 ✗ 2 =
0.666
100
R ✗ ✗

E I -

✗ 1-x x x

0.334 0.334 0.666 0.666 kg =

0.666×0.666 =
4.0
0.334 ✗ 0.334

② :
CH > CO0H + ↳ HG0H -
-
CH>COOC> Hsu +
Halle,
,e, , ,
Kc=4
I 1 1 O O
R x x

E 1- ✗ 1- x x x

x -

✗ = & 3×1×-2 ) 21×-21=0 -

'

4- ×) ( x 2) (3×-2)--0
-

2
4- 8×+4×2 =
✗

3×2-8×+4=0 ✗ = 213 ✗ ¥2
3×2-6×-2×+4--0
Chemical Equilibria
①
2502cg, Ozcgj 2503cg
: '
+
)

150cm}
I 5m01 6m01 1m01
R 2 I 2

E 3 5 3m01 '
Kc= ?
formed
"

Kc 130.15) 0.03 not dm

' >
-

=
=

130.1s)' (so .is)

Factors affecting Kc:

( products ]
K,
N4G; 31-12,5 -2MHz EX0
=

,
,g,
( reactants

CATALYST the Kp
: no
effect on

CONCENTRATION the Kp
: no
effect on

PRESSURE : no
effect on the Kp

TEMPERATURE : it
effects Kc Kp
Chemical Equilibria
Factors affecting Kc:
Kc Kc

exo
Temp .
endo Temp .

Kc
Kp

pressure

*
Higher the temperature , higher the kendo

*
Higher the temperature ,
lower the K exo
Chemical Equilibria
Kp and Calculations:
Only for Gases
N2G +342g 2 NH3
'
'
.

, ,
(g)
Partial
Pressure KP =
PNÉ UNITS : Pa kPa, ,
atm
Pµ
,
✗
PH?

What is Partial Pressure & How to Calculate it?

It is the pressure exerted
by a
gas
in a mixture
of
in a closed container at
gases equilibrium .

A 4m01 PA = 4 Pc = 15
24 24
5m01 B
PB = 5

C 15m01 24

PTOTAL = 50 atm DALTON 's

NTOTAL = 24 atm PTOTAL =
PA PB Pc
+ + LAW

Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure:

sum
of all partial pressures of all
gases
at
equilibrium ,

in closed container to the total pressure

a
,
is
equal
of gases .
Chemical Equilibria
F-
H2G)+ flag 2HClg 2atm
'
=
'

, ,

I 5 6 0 Kc=6 Kp= 6
R 3 3

E 2 3 6

When stoichiometric
* moles
of reactants products
=
,

Kc =
Kp .

① Hugs Clzcg
2HClcg +
'
: -

, ,

HCl had dissociated

At
equilibrium it was
found that 80% .

Calculate Kp .

I ✗ 0 0 Kp =
0.4×0.4=4
'

R 0.8/1 0.2

E O 2x-
0.4 × 0.4/1
Chemical Equilibria
① :
H, + Iz -
-
ZHI
Calculate :

I 2 3 1 i. Kp at 120°C

R 0.5 0.5 ii. Kp at 20°C

E 1.5 2.5 2 iii. Forward reaction is exolendo?

'
2 =
16 > extent
of reaction is
forward
1.5×2.5 15

i. 16 @ 120°C Iodine sublimes :

gas & Kp .

15

ii. @ 20°C Iodine is solid .

'

.
.

Kp = Put >
( {g) ÷
%:{ ) =
0.762 atm
PH2

iii. Endothermic .

* Bra 1,1-120 physical

,
states
may
be
changed to

confuse candidate .

* Molar ratio can

only be applied to
find products via

product ratio or reactants via reactant ratio .

Chemical Equilibria Ionic Equilibria

Ionic Equilibria (Acids, Bases & Salts):

Acids release Ht ions in solutions

aqueous .

Acid dissociates in
Strong completely aqueous solutions .

Weak Acid partially dissociates in solutions

aqueous .

Acid Weak Acid

Strong
HCl ,
HP04 HN03 , Carboxylic HR03 HzPO4
, ,

""
HI,
"
HC1 > +
Cia, Holly .
-
21-1++0,
,g,

Hydrogen Hydrochloric
31-1++10043
-

chloride Acid H>P04 .

-

HN03 , >
HEY N03-1AG
,
+
,

* pH depends on concentration

of an acid ,
not how
acid is
strong
or weak an .

+
pH is a measure
of H ion
concentration in a solution .
Chemical Equilibria Ionic Equilibria

Salt + H2 Salt + H20

,
>

" "
Redox %, Bob Neutralization

Acid
Metal Metal
Oxides Neutralization carbonates

L S

salt + H20 Salt +1-1<0 +

C02

Bronsted and Lowry Theory of Acids and Bases:

Acid proton Ht donor

Base proton Ht acceptor
CH>COO HzO+
-

CH>CO0H +
H20 .
-
+

Acid Base ,
Base Acid ✓

Conjugate of Conjugate
Ethanoic Acid of Water
Acid Base Pairs
* same
highlights are
Conjugate -

* H20 may act as an acid or a base , thus it is

an Amphoteric Oxide .
Chemical Equilibria Ionic Equilibria

① CH>OH CH>COO CH30HI

-

:
CH>CO0H + > +

acid base

F-
-

HF
C21-1GO + >
C21-1OH +

base acid

+ -

↳HG0H +
1-1<504 >
↳ HS0H >
+
HS04
base acid
Inorganic Chemistry Periodicity
Period 3

Metals > Non -

Metals

Trends Across the Period:

1 I

p
Covalent bonds b/w atoms
P
p p VINEA b/w the molecules
Inorganic Chemistry Periodicity
Period 3

Trends: Arisa monotonic

element
n n

É
;ÉE
e
o
E

OÉ
EE €0

'

Period } Atomic Number

n n

General
§É
"

Trend §
②

;ÉÉ _É
> 7

Period Atomic Number

+1 to +2 is
greater
a
n
si n Ar

percentage change in Metallic Bonds

f- Cl
w p

charge density than +2 ±É ↳aknt Bonds

, µ,
¥8 µ
, s
to +3 " At YINFA "
s;
¥
ÉÉ
.

s
At
Na
""
p
ce
Ar ¥3
7 7

Atomic Number Atomic Number

Inorganic Chemistry Periodicity
Chemical Reactions

free electrons Metalloid No

free electrons

Chemical Reactions of Period 3 Elements:

i. Reaction with Chlorine

> Chlorides with Water

Reaction
ii. with
Oxygen
> Oxides with Water ,
Acid Base

iii. Reaction with Water

 Inorganic Chemistry Periodicity
Chemical Reactions

Reaction with Chlorine:

Ea
heat White Solid
'
Na , + 292
,g,
>
Nacho Yellow Flame

heat White solid

Mg ,s,
+
Clay,
>

My 21s, White Flame

heat White solid

2AM, +3cL ,g ,
>
Adidas, White Flame

heat
Silly Colorless
six, + 2%, >

,e, liquid
limited Ck
heat colorless liquid
Reaction completion Pg ,+ 6cL ,g 4pct>
-

* is >

, , µ White Flame
determined via
change in Ck
reweighed
excess
mass Heated 4
.

""t White Solid

till mass becomes constant .
Resit 104g ,
>
↳ Pllscsi
INhite Flame

* Na used in powder Clz

%%¥µ-TiY pG
>

rather than lumps to irate Ha

,

& to ensure Max .

reaction :

heat
'
'
all Na reacts .
.
Na , + 292
,g ,
>
Hacks,
Inorganic Chemistry Periodicity
Chemical Reactions

Reaction of Chlorides with Water:

diss""" complete
Na!
NaCl > +
Cling , SiCl4+2HzO hydrolysis
>
SiQ+4HCl
diss"""
Nigel
,
>
Mg,[g +2cL;ag
,
, silly +41-1<0 > Si OH + 4HCl
,

complete
PQ31-3HN hydrolysis
>
1-131%+31-14

Pclg +41-1<0 > H >PO41-5HU

""" ""

1-1<05.2++1-1++3Cl
"""
I
Alcl, +61-1,0 P IA1 OH
-

I > + HC11-2CI
Inorganic Chemistry Periodicity
Chemical Reactions

Exam Perspective :

silly + H20 > Si OH

,
+ HCl
>
Sized, + H20 >
Siz OH , + HCl

pcls + H20 > H ,P04 + HCl

0
Clip -
Cl 12cL replaced by 01 11

ce11
ce
-
ce 13cL by 301-11 OH
-
F '
OH

OH

Polly + H20 '

OH OH HC1
Cl
)P -

Plot,
+

HIP PTU
OH
-

OR
Cl
OH
>p -

p=O + HC1
OH
OR

0 =P -
P = 0 + HCl

* Chlorine is more reactixe than Iodine ,

but Iodide
is more reactive than Chloride .
Inorganic Chemistry Periodicity
Chemical Reactions

Reactions of Period 3 Elements with Oxygen: Redox

Exo
' heat White Solid
Na,O,g,
2Nd +
202cg
>

,s, , Yellow Flame

heat White solid

Mg ,s,
+
1202cg ,
>

MgQsi White Flame

heat White solid

2Al , +320µg ,
>
AK03 ,s, White Flame
heat
sits ,
+
0µg ,
>
Sikes , Grey Solid

heat -

Pais,+ 302 limited

>
P40 6IS, White Solid
heat White Flame
P4 ,sY 502 excess
>
P4 010cg -

heat Colorless Gas

5 + 0 >

502cg
, , Blue Flame
heat
502+1202 10s
>

5031g '

catalyst
Inorganic Chemistry Periodicity
Chemical Reactions

Reaction of Oxides with Water:

ÑÑ"NazQs ,
+
H20 ,e, >

2Na0H,ag , pH -14
-

"
Bos
MgO ,s,
+
Half, >
MG0H /zag , pH=8
Weakly Basic solution
Amphoteric
AK0> + HQ1E,
}
> Does not dissolve
Acidic ST0, + 1-1<0 ,e >
at all
,

Phosphorous Acid

)
B. 06+61-120 >

4HsP03caq , pH =3
Paolo +
61-1<0 >
4HzP04iaq
Acidic
sulfurous Acid Phosphoric Acid
50<+1-1,0 >
HS0, pH=2 or
,aq,
SO + H20 >
1-1<504 ,aq, pH= 1
,

sulfuric Acid

To Oxide kihai ,
property Hydroxide
*
property wo

ki bhi hai .
Inorganic Chemistry Periodicity
Chemical Reactions

Reaction of Oxides with Acids & Bases:

Amphoteric
>
RIP

Reaction of Period 3 Elements with Water:

Inorganic Chemistry
Inorganic Chemistry
March 12/19

Al

si

> silk is acidic & will not react

with HCl .

cex
P4S

March 12/20
"°

'P40t41-131004 > I2H

,o
PO "
"2°
2Hᵗ
>
SO} >
1-12504
HP04
"①
6101-11
-

H3
""
AK03 S2A-1OH) }
H20
Hit ZNAIOHI
-

"
NA20 > 2101-1 )
Inorganic Chemistry
March 12/20

June 12/20

October 12/20
Inorganic Chemistry Group 2

Alkaline Earth Metals:

Metallic Radios :

half the distance between

metallic lattice
nuclei in a

giant .

'

New
Principal Quantum shell Radii
Inorganic Chemistry Group 2

* Down the lesser

group ,

energy is
required to

remote a pair of e- .

Greater shielding effect & the

larger distance of valence e-
from nucleus
^ outweigh the
attraction
of nuclear
charge .

'

Reactivity down
" group
Power
Reducing "
Inorganic Chemistry Group 2

Reaction with Water:

PH=
Bees, +
H20 , > ✗
org,
=
6.5
-

Moyes ,
+
HP1E, >
My /OH! ,a+q ,
H
,
very slow reaction

Reaction
-

Nlgcs ,
+
Holly ,
>
MgO ,tHz ,
'
vigour
down the
=D
group
Cacs, +
thou, >
CAIOHI >
+
H2
=/ 2 last

Sres, +
HQ1E, >
SK0H) ,
+ H,
'
=/39
Boys, +
HOW >
BA0H)< + H , ✓

tag
oxides
'

down the
Solubility of hydroxides
*
group .

BEIOHI , ,Mgl0Hk ,
CAIOH! ,
SR01-1IZ ,
BA0H),
IS1 1SI lag tag laql

Solubility of sulfates v
down the
group .

1st IS1
laql laql 1SI

Besog , Nlgsog ,
Cason . Srsoa .
BA50
,
Inorganic Chemistry Group 2

Reaction with Oxygen:

*
Group
oxides
2 metals
React
burn in air
forming white solid
.

rapidly .

2134s, +0µg ,
>
2BeQs, white
flame
2mg +0µg
, ,
>

21kg9 ,
white
flame
2cal +0µg ,
>
2CaQs, brick-red flame
25ns, + Qg, >
2801s, scarlet -
red
flame
2Baµ+Qg ,
>
2BaQs, apple green flame
-
Inorganic Chemistry Group 2

Interesting Information:
Formation of Peroxides

only a- bond breaks

When Metal is Roasted in Air

Metal Nitrite
Tested with damp
red litmus paper
Inorganic Chemistry Group 2

Reaction of Metals with Dilute Acids: exo redox

Dilute Acid Salt

Metal
Hug
+ > +
,
Group2 part(2)
 Polarization
of e- cloud

Charge
^

Densit

down the
group

An ore contains
_
Inorganic Chemistry Group 17

Halogens: SALT FORMING ELEMENTS

Non -
Metals Non Polar -

simple Molecules
,
.

Eeg ,
-

Yellow Gas starch I, -

Blue Black
-

Greenish Yellow
Brown
Chigi Briaq I> Brown
-

Gas g-
-

, •

Brig ,
-
Red Brown liquid Brig ,
-

Brown
1µg
-

,
Violet

↳
Black Solid Be
I,
,g,
-

T.ua/do-YiolelBrxydo-
)
Brown
hexane)
sublime Solids hexane

Black Solid clue,µ☐ne×ane, Pale Green

Atzg
-
-

Physical Properties of Halogens:

I
Fzig ,
*
g
> > s
^
-

size
Chess *
M.p b. p of
cloud increases
e-

Brzeg Volatility
-

of YINFA
,
strength
v :

density
^

I is ,
* also increases
, .

Atvs * color darkens

, ✓
Inorganic Chemistry Group 17

Bond Energies of Halogens: "

KJMOI

of
"

F- F 158 * size atom

'

bond
Cl -
Cl 242 *
length
Br Br-
193 *
overlapping of orbitals becomes

1- I 151
✓
*
bond
energy ,
ineffective

Electronegativity and Reactivity:

4.0

Displacement reaction is
a
perfect example 3.02.82 ,
* Get less

of REDOX reactive

halogen from
"

halide
*
reactive halogen displaces ✓
reactive a

solution .
Inorganic Chemistry Group 17

F2
1GI
strongest oxidizing
agent INTERESTING :

Chigi
Fz + H20 >
1-11=+0,

Bragi
I2
1GI

Weakest oxidizing
Atcg ,
agent

Chemical Reactions of Group 17:

REACTIONS OF HALOGENS ✗2
* Reaction with H ,
*
Reaction with NaOH cold & hot
,aq,

REACTIONS HALIDES ✗
-

OF
*
Precipitation
* Reaction with cone .

HS04 µ,
 Inorganic Chemistry Group 17

Reactions of Halogens (X2):

Acid strength is also
explained by H ✗ Bond -

i. Reaction with Hydrogen: "

form
"
halides
Energy Halogens react with H ,
gas
to
hydrogen .

+ Weaker Reaction
HF ,
-
H + F-
✓

HCl H
+
+ d-
vigour v4
Acids
>

strong
H ✗
-

HBR > H
+
+ Br
-

halogens
Bond become
1-1++1 stronger
-

HI >

"
unreactive
Yyeak H ✗ -
bond easily donates
proton H tion .

Enthalpy Changes
using gillen values of
bond energies in the
DATA BOOKLET .

BOND BOND
H = -

BREAKING MAKING

* Reaction becomes ✓
exo

bk B. E
of H X
-

Thermal Kc down
*
stability of H ✗ -
*
✓

decreases & B. E.
of the
group .

H ✗ -

,
or
Inorganic Chemistry Group 17

ii. Reaction with NaOH (Cold & Hot):

>
Disproportionation

cold
NA01-4AQ
✗ It cold NA0H > ✗
"
+ X"0 -1+1-1<0

e.
g. t.cl?g,+2Na0Heaq ,
> 1- Nadia'q+1Naa"0+1-10 ,
laql
sodium chlorate I
IC10
-

He
-

> 1cg
IC10
' e-
1Cl+ Bleach
-

>

Hot
NA01-4AQ sodium chlorate 11
+5

3C.li?g,t6Na0Heaq-5NaCliaq+tNaCl0,t3HPu tag
,

5Cl°5 " e- -

see
Balancing redox
>
6
qs+
.

se
-

Ceo with electrons

-

>

It ¥0 -1+1-1<0
"

✗ hot NA0H > ✗ +

,

+5

3Naci"O > 2NacÑ + 1- Maceo

,