The Zero Law States that "when two systems, are Kelvin scale is 100 division between ice

Kelvin scale is 100 division between ice point &

each in mutual equilibrium with a third system, boiling point (with respect to pressure difference)
they are also in equilibrium with each other in the
θ s − θi =
100 θ s Ps
same manner" This implied that sensor device has
= = 1.3661
a thermometric property, X (Measurable changes
that responds to changed in temperature of a θ i = 273.15 θ i Pi
body.
Rankine scale is 180 division between ice point
& boiling point (with respect to pressure
Linear Empirical Law difference)
180 θ=
θ s − θi = s Ps
= 1.3661
liquid-in-bulb thermometer - (X=expansion of
θ i = 491.67 θi Pi
Liquid)
making of a master
Thermocouple thermometer.
- (X=change in resistance)
αG=9x10-9[1/K], and βm =2x10-4[1/K]
(Vb ,o + As ,o ⋅ hs ,o ) (1 + β m ∆t ) = Vb ,o (1 + 3α G ∆t ) + hs ,1 As ,o (1 + 2α G ∆t )
If initial stem height is not zero;
If initial stem height=0;
 A h 
 −3α G + β m − s ,o s ,o ( − β m + 2α G ) 
Vb ,o ∆t Vb ,o
=hs ,1 − hs ,o  
As ,o  1 + 2α G ∆t 
 
 
First Law: The total energy of an isolated system from First Law for closed system (not mass transfer):
one form to another,but can be neither created nor
destroyed: (dQ – dW) = dE ≈ dU
Path dependent P
Work Input=(-),Work Output (+)
P Heat Supplied=(+), Heat loss (-)

Path A ●2 Path-dependent
●2 2
P (v2, P2) (v2, P2) (Work): dW =
∫ 1
PdV
Wexpansion 1● Path B If Constant Pressure:
1●
(v1, P1)
(+ve) (v1, P1) W P(V2 − V1 )
=
Wcompression = mP(v2 − v1 )
(-ve)

Path dependent v v
h = xhg + (1 − x ) hf v=xvg = dU + d (PV )
dH T
dv
2
∫
T
= hf + xhfg Path-dependent
(Heat Transfer):
dQ = TdS
1

ure
x =
h − hf u − u f s − s f
= T
Path A
●2
(S2, T2)
●2 Constant Entropy(Heat
hfg u fg s fg (S2, T2) Transfer): Q = 0
For most practical purposes, the specific volume is Qsupply
1● 1● Constant Pressure(Heat
generally taken as 0.001 m3/kg (+ve) Path B
(S1, T1) Transfer):
(S1, T1)
For normal pressure, sub cooled water Qloss Q212 − W12 = m(u2 − u1 )
(compressed water) properties = saturated water
at the same Temperature
(-ve) ∫ ( dQ )
1
= Q12 = m(u2
P
= m(u2 − u1 ) + mP1(v 2 − v1 )
dS S S = m ( u2 + P2v 2 ) − ( u1 + Pv
1 1 )
PV mRT
= = nRoT or Pv = RT 
1stlaw for a cycle = m ( h2 − h1 )P
P: pressure [N/m2] (closed system)
V: volume
V: volume[m [m3]3] The combination of (Q-W) is a thermo property
Path dependent Q12=mC(T2−T1)
T: absolute temperature [K] R 1  ∂Q  Apply Cv when the process is constant volume
m: R= o Cv = 
m: mass
mass[kg]
[kg] 
m  ∂T V
Apply CP when the process is constant pressure
gas consta
R: gas constant [kJ/kg·K] M P v

m
milar format
Gravimetric with Cthe
method: p – CvJoule’s
=R Law
Ro: universal
universalgas
gasconstant
constan= 8.3143 [kJ/kmol·K] Joule's Law, given that internal energy is a function of
n: number
n: numberofofmoles
moles temperature only nergy is a Cp air=1.005 kJ/kg∙K
m  ∂U   ∂U  ∂U
d∂U   d∂T +   d∂V ;   = 0
Cv air=0.718 kJ/kg∙K
M:
M:molar
molarmass [kg/k or [g/mol] n =
[kg/kmol]
mass =
M  ∂T V  ∂V T  ∂V T T
T2 Molar Method: C p ⋅ M − Cv ⋅ M =R ⋅ M

dT =  ∂T 
 
 ∂P v
dP +  ∂T 
 
 ∂v P
dv U2 −=
U1 ∫ T1 Vd
mC=∂T mCv (T2 − T1 ) [kJ/kg·K][kg/kmol]=[kJ/kmol·K]
cp − cv =Ro
Total differential Change in P Change in v Assume
2 R=Ro/M = 0.287 kJ/kg.K,
H2 − H=
1 m ( h2 − h1 =
) m∫ CP dT = 10 bar. C
1 Specific Heat Ratio: γ= P
Cv

Polytropic Equation Process

index n
n=0 P=C Isobaric process (constant pressure)
n=1 Pv=C Isothermal process (constant
Where pi can be P,T & v temperature)
n=γ Pvγ=C Isentropic process (adiabatic and
Specific heat
ratio reversible)
n=∞ v=C Isochoric process (constant volume)
 Isobaric Process (dp=0) Clausius Statement: "It is impossible to Thermal Efficiency:
W12 P(V2 − V1 )
= construct a device, operating in a cycle that
will produce no effect other than the transfer Useful effect Net work output
ηth =
= mP(v2 − v1 )
U1 mCv (T2 − T1 )
U2 −=
s
of heat from a cooler to a hotter body
=
Energy input Heat input
2 High Temperature Reservoir
∫ ( dQ ) = Q12 = m(u2 Hence for a heat engine:
1
(TH)
P
= m(u2 − u1 ) + mP1(v 2 − v1 ) W Q1 − Q2 Q COP
= COPRefrigerator + 1
ηth = = = 1− 2 Heat pump

= m ( u2 + P2v 2 ) − ( u1 + Pv
QH Q1 Q1 Q1
1 1 )

= m ( h2 − h1 )P= m 2 CP dT Desired output
Refrigerator: Q2
∫1 RE
(cyclic
QL =X QH
COP = Heat pump: Q1
Win X= 0
Isothermal Process (dT=0) device)
Required input Wnet,in
dQ - dW= dU = 0 (zero as dU=mCvdT=0)
QL
2  mRT  21
2
When reversible heat engine
W12 ∫=
= PdV ∫  = dV mRT ∫1 dV Low Temperature Reservoir
or a reversible heat engine
1 1
 V T V (TL)
(RE):
Q1 Q2
V  = = constant
= mRT ln  2  T1 T2
 V1  However, the reverse flow of heat direction is
*mRT can be replaced
permissible as as de-generating work into heat is W Q2 T
V  by PV
also possible ηth ,rev = =−
1 1 2
=−
Q12 = mRT ln  2  Q1 Q1 T1
 V1  Clausius Inequality: if Reversible: if Irreversible:
dQ dQ dQ W T
+Adiabatic
ϒ lnV=coProcess (dQ=0)
PVϒ=C
∫ T ≤ 0 ∫ T = 0 ∫ T
<0 ηth ,real =< ηth ,rev =
Q1
1− 2
T1
ausius equal
PV − P2V2 mR
W12 1 1=
= (T − T ) Entropy : S (gen) Process dependent:
γ −1 γ −1 1 2  dQ 
2  dQ  2  dQ 
 dQ  ( S2 − S1 )rev
2
= S2 − S1 > ∫  ∫  T rev ∫1  T irrev
C v (T1 − T2 )
= mC
*note the change in
dS =    −   = Sgen
order of T  1
 T irrev 1
 T rev
γ −1
  ystem durin
mRT1   P2  γ   dQ  >0 Irreversible process
1−  2
W12 =
γ − 1   P1   ∴∆Ssystem= S2 − S=
1 ∫ 
1  + Sgen
T irrev Sgen =0 Reversible process
 
γ −1 Note: This is always used to test if a process undertaken <0 Impossible process
T2  P2  γ by a system is possible.
=   *if polytropic, replace
T1  P1  specific ratio with n
∆Siso −system = ∆Ssystem + ∆Ssurroundings = Sgen ≥ 0
Isochoric Process (dV=0)
W12= 0 2 2

U2 −=U1 mCv (T2 − T1 )

=Qrev ∫=
TdS ; q
1 ∫ rev 1
Tds

Q12 = U2 − U1 = mCv (T2 − T1 ) Entropy balance for closed system: For adiabatic system,
Q
∑ Tk
Qk=0. Noting that any
closed system and its
Open system (general equation) surroundings can be
k
treated as adiabatic
system, this also implied
S(gen) is : S gen = ∆Sadiabatic system = ∆Ssystem + ∆Ssurroundings
●• 
• C2 •  •  C2  dE dU
∆ Q− ∆W + ∑ min  hin + in + gZ in  − ∑ mout  hout + out + gZ out=
 ≈
 2   2  dt dt Entropy balance for open system:
Or, in the rate form:
•
Q • • • dSsystem
∑ T k + ∑ mi si − ∑ mo so + S gen =dt
Open system with steady flow (general equation)
• • •  C2  •  C2 
∆ Q− ∆W + ∑ min  hin + in + gZ in  − ∑ mout  hout + out + gZ out  =0
k
or
2 2 Q
    ∑ Tk + ∑ mi si − ∑ mo so + Sgen =
∆Ssystem
dq − dw = dh + CdC + gdZ k

mo Entropy balance for

so open steady-state system:
High Temperature Reservoir High Temperature Reservoir •
(Source) (T1) System • • • Q
S gen = ∑ mo so − ∑ mi si − ∑ k
Tk
QH mi
Q1 T Q
si
HE Wnet,out RE
(cyclic (cyclic Gibbs Equation (based on 1st Law): Entropy change T P
for ideal gas:
device) device)
Wnet,in TdS
= PdV + dU T2 P
− s1 Cp ln
s2 = − R ln 2
QL Tds
= Pdv + du (In intensive units) T1 P1
Q2 du = Tds – Pdv (In intensive units) T
(In intensive units) v
Low Temperature Reservoir T v
Low Temperature Reservoir s2 −
= s1 Cv ln 2 + R ln 2
(Sink) (T2) From Gibbs Equation: T1 v1
Tds= dh−vdP (In intensive units)
(In intensive units)

For steady-state For isothermal heat transfer (i.e

High Temperature Reservoir
Kelvin-Planck Statement: "It is impossible to
construct a cyclic device for which the only (TH) t isentropic
is an isentropi
pump: surrounding, thermal reservoir)
external effects are the transfer of heat from a
dw pump = vdP (In intensive units) ∆Q
single reservoir and transfer from it of an QH ∆S =
equivalent of work.
Wnet,out To
∴Q =
W HE
W (cyclic
η X = X 100%
= device)
Q There will be always some
losses (heat)
 Rankine Water Cycle
Ideal Carnot Vapour
Cycle

Actual Power Cycle Ideal Reheat Rankine Cycle (Steam)

Air Standard Carnot Cycle (Impractical) Brayton Cycle (Gas Turbine Cycle)

Pressure ratio:

Actual Gas Turbine Cycle

Multi-stage Gas Turbine Cycle

Ericsson Gas Turbine Cycle
 IC Engine
Volume Ratio
Otto Cycle

Otto Cycle efficiency * Efficiency is based on Compression Ratio (Rv)

Diesel Cycle

Dual or Mixed cycle

* Efficiency is based on Compression Ratio (Rv)

& Cut-off Ratios (rc)

Dual or Mixed cycle

*Pressure ratio (rp)

Cascade Refrigeration
Ideal Vapour Compression
Refrigeration Cycle

Constant Enthalpy Expansion

Fourier's Law of Heat Radiation Characteristics
Conduction

Planck Distribution Law ( wavelength in terms of

Critical Reynold Number micrometer)

Wien's displacement law (wavelength with maximum

emissive power)

Flat Plate (Smooth) Isothermal Heat Transfer Coefficient (h,Pr,k,v

based on film temperature) Stefan-Boltzmann Law

Film Temperature: Heat Transfer Rate:

Laminar:

Turbulant:

Laminar + turbulent:

Flat Plate (Smooth) Uniform Heat Flux Heat Transfer Coefficient

(h,Pr,k,v based on film temperature)

Heat Transfer Rate:

Internal Forced Convection (Smooth) Uniform Heat Flux

(h,Pr,k,v based on bulk fluid temperature)

Heat Transfer Rate: Radiation Balance

Mean Fluid Exit Temperature:

Surface Heat Transfer Flux:

Internal Forced Convection

(Smooth) Constant Surface
Temperature (h,Pr,k,v based For Opaque surface transmissivity = 0
on bulk mean fluid
temperature)

Bulk mean fluid temperature:

For circular tubes:

=Ingress Temperature -
Egress Temperature