I.

INTRODUCTION TO CLIMATE CHANGE

INTRODUCTION

Climate change resulting from human-induced greenhouse gas emissions is affecting

the Earth in ways that are and will be significantly impacting people and our environment for
generations to come. One aspect of climate change refers to the increase in average global
temperatures resulting from more greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. The impacts of
global temperature increase on the Earth are pervasive and significant, including sea level
rise, changes in precipitation and humidity patterns, increased extreme weather events, and
more climate variability. We refer to all of these changes as ‘climate change’.
This module will focus on the difference of climate and weather and on how it
gradually made an impact on our society. After completing the module, you should be able
to answer the following:
1. What is climate?
2. What is weather?
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 3. What are the different characteristics of climate and weather?
4. What are the cause and effects of climate change and its impact?
5. What is ggreenhouse effect and characteristics of the different greenhouse gases?
6. What are the environmental practices to mitigate climate change?
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
● Differentiate climate and weather
● Discuss climate change, greenhouse effect, greenhouse gases.
● Discuss climate change impacts
● Discuss how the community help in mitigating the hazards caused by climate change.
LESSON 1: CLIMATE AND WEATHER
You might know what weather is. Weather is the changes we see and feel outside from day to day.
It might rain one day and be sunny the next. Sometimes it is cold. Sometimes it is hot. Weather also
changes from place to place. People in one place might be wearing shorts and playing outside. At
the same time, people far away might be shovelling snow.

Climate is the usual weather of a place. Climate can be different for different seasons. A place might
be mostly warm and dry in the summer. The same place may be cool and wet in the winter.
Different places can have different climates. You might live where it snows all the time. And some
people live where it is always warm enough to swim outside. For example, the climate of Hawaii is
sunny and warm. But the climate of Antarctica is freezing cold. Earth's climate is the average of all
the world's regional climates.

There's also Earth's climate. Earth's climate is what you get when you combine all the climates
around the world together.

Climate is defined in terms of the

average (mean) of weather elements
(such as temperature and
precipitation) over a specified period
of time (30 years according to the
World Meteorological Organization).
Weather is defined as the state of the
atmosphere at some place and time,
usually expressed in terms of
temperature, air pressure, humidity,
wind speed and direction,
precipitation, and cloudiness.
Meteorologists study weather.
Tools Used to Forecast Climate and Weather
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Weather balloons, satellites, specially designed airplanes, and radar and other
ground-based data collection instruments are used to measure wind speed, precipitation, air
temperature, humidity levels, etc.
Reliable records have been kept since 1800s and provide accurate weather forecasts
(weekly and daily).
Sophisticated Earth-observing satellites equipped with remote-sensing equipment circle the
globe to record sea surface and other temperatures, measure atmospheric gases and rainfall
amounts, take visible and infrared photos of Earth’s surface, and
calculate Earth’s outgoing infrared and reflected solar radiation.
Climate and Average Weather in Philippines
Most of the Philippines have a typical tropical marine climate. So you will find typical hot and
humid weather throughout most of the year. From June to September, the country
experiences a rainy season. In this period typhoons are common. From October to February,
the northeastern monsoon brings cold winds from the north, which creates cool and dry
weather. From March to May the Philippines experiences very hot summers.
The country's average temperature can range from 25 degrees Celsius till 32 degrees
Celsius (78-90° Fahrenheit), with average annual humidity around 77 percent. Highland areas
are much cooler, with nighttime temperatures at night dropping to 20 degrees Celsius (68°
Fahrenheit).
The Köppen Climate Classification System
In the early 20th century, a German scientist named WladimirKöppen developed one of the
most widely used classification systems. The Köppen system categorizes climate into five
main types, which can be further divided into subcategories.

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LEARNING ACTIVITY 1: MY WEATHER DIARY
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INSTRUCTION: List your one week weather update.
DATE AND TEMPERATURE WEATHER PLACE OF PHOTOS
DAY DESCRIPTION ORIGIN DOCUMENTED
DAILY
(EXACT PLACE
WHERE YOU
ARE
LOCATED)
Ex. February 19, 22°C CLOUDY CITY OF
2021 (Friday) ILAGAN

Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
Saturday
Sunday

LEARNING ACTIVITY 2: EXPERIMENT TIME!

“HOW WEATHER WORKS?”
BALLOON IN A BOTTLE
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Materials
Per student:
● 1-liter plastic bottle
● Another 1-liter plastic bottle with a 1" diameter hole in its side that is plugged with a
stopper
● 2 balloons
● 1 cup water

Directions
1. Push a balloon inside a plastic bottle and stretch the balloon opening over the bottle’s
top.
2. Attempt to blow up the balloon inside the bottle. What happens?
3. Next, place a new balloon into the second plastic bottle (the one with a 1” diameter
hole in its side that has been plugged with a stopper). Stretch the balloon opening
over the lip of the bottle like before.
4. With the stopper plugging the hole, can you blow up the balloon?
5. Unplug the stopper in the plastic bottle and attempt to blow up the balloon yet again.
What happens? Why?
6. With the balloon inflated inside the bottle, plug the bottle’s hole with the stopper.
What happens to the air inside the balloon this time?
7. Fill the inflated balloon with water while it is inside the bottle. Step outside or place
the bottle over something that can catch liquid. Now unplug the stopper and watch
the waterworks.
Ask yourself the following questions:
1. What happens to the balloon inside the bottle when you try to inflate it with the hole
plugged and unplugged? What makes the difference?
2. After the balloon is inflated and the hole in the bottle plugged, what prevents the air
from escaping from inside the balloon?
3. When water is placed in the inflated balloon inside the bottle, what causes it to gush
out when the bottle’s unplugged?
You can access the link in youtube for a better understanding:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_CXd2h5O8OU
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Grziaq-caVE&t=373s
Note: Submit your documentary video to your google classroom.
LESSON 2: CLIMATE CHANGE
What Is Climate Change?
Climate change is a change in the usual weather found in a place. This could be a change in
how much rain a place usually gets in a year. Or it could be a change in a place's usual
temperature for a month or season.

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Climate change is also a change in Earth's climate. This could be a change in Earth's usual
temperature. Or it could be a change in where rain and snow usually fall on Earth.
Weather can change in just a few hours. Climate takes hundreds or even millions of years to
change.
LESSON 3: CAUSES OF CLIMATE CHANGE
Is Earth's Climate Changing?
Earth's climate is always changing. In the past, Earth's climate has gone through warmer and cooler
periods, each lasting thousands of years.

Observations show that Earth's climate has been warming. Its average temperature has risen a little
more than one degree Fahrenheit during the past 100 years or so. This amount may not seem like
much. But small changes in Earth's average temperature can lead to big impacts.

What Is Causing Earth's Climate to Change?

Some causes of climate change are natural. These include changes in Earth's orbit and in the
amount of energy coming from the sun. Ocean changes and volcanic eruptions are also natural
causes of climate change.

Most scientists think that recent warming can't be explained by nature alone. Most scientists say
it's very likely that most of the warming since the mid-1900s is due to the burning of coal, oil and
gas. Burning these fuels is how we produce most of the energy that we use every day. This burning
adds heat-trapping gases, such as carbon dioxide, into the air. These gases are called greenhouse
gases.

What Is the Forecast for Earth's Climate?

Scientists use climate models to predict how Earth's climate will change. Climate models are
computer programs with mathematical equations. They are programmed to simulate past climate as
accurately as possible. This gives scientists some confidence in a climate model's ability to predict
the future.

Climate models predict that Earth's average temperature will keep rising over the next 100 years or
so. There may be a year or years where Earth's average temperature is steady or even falls. But the
overall trend is expected to be up.

Earth's average temperature is expected to rise even if the amount of greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere decreases. But the rise would be less than if greenhouse gas amounts remain the
same or increase.
What Is the Impact of Earth's Warming Climate?
Some impacts already are occurring. For example, sea levels are rising, and snow and ice cover is
decreasing. Rainfall patterns and growing seasons are changing.

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Further sea-level rise and melting of snow and ice are likely as Earth warms. The warming climate
likely will cause more floods, droughts and heat waves. The heat waves may get hotter, and
hurricanes may get stronger.

What Is the Difference Between "Climate Change" and "Global Warming"?

"Global warming" refers to the long-term increase in Earth's average temperature.

"Climate change" refers to any long-term change in Earth's climate, or in the climate of a region or
city. This includes warming, cooling and changes besides temperature.

Learning Activity 3: Creating a Venn Diagram

LESSON 4: GREENHOUSE EFFECT AND GREENHOUSE GASES

What is greenhouse effect?
The greenhouse effect is a process that occurs when gases in Earth's atmosphere trap the
Sun's heat. This process makes Earth much warmer than it would be without an atmosphere.
The greenhouse effect is one of the things that makes Earth a comfortable place to live.

Watch out here “What is greenhouse effect?” using this link:

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How does the greenhouse effect work?
As you might expect from the name, the greenhouse effect works … like a greenhouse! A
greenhouse is a building with glass walls and a glass roof. Greenhouses are used to grow
plants, such as tomatoes and tropical flowers.
A greenhouse stays warm inside, even during the winter. In the daytime, sunlight shines into
the greenhouse and warms the plants and air inside. At nighttime, it's colder outside, but the
greenhouse stays pretty warm inside. That's because the glass walls of the greenhouse trap
the Sun's heat.
The greenhouse effect works much the same way on Earth. Gases in the atmosphere, such
as carbon dioxide, trap heat similar to the glass roof of a greenhouse. These heat-trapping
gases are called greenhouse gases.
During the day, the Sun shines through the atmosphere. Earth's surface warms up in the
sunlight. At night, Earth's surface cools, releasing heat back into the air. But some of the heat
is trapped by the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. That's what keeps our Earth a warm
and cozy 58 degrees Fahrenheit (14 degrees Celsius), on average.
How are humans impacting the greenhouse effect?
Human activities are changing Earth's natural greenhouse effect. Burning fossil fuels like coal
and oil puts more carbon dioxide into our atmosphere.
NASA has observed increases in the amount of carbon dioxide and some other greenhouse
gases in our atmosphere. Too much of these greenhouse gases can cause Earth's atmosphere
to trap more and more heat. This causes Earth to warm up.
What reduces the greenhouse effect on Earth?
Just like a glass greenhouse, Earth's greenhouse is also full of plants! Plants can help to
balance the greenhouse effect on Earth. All plants — from giant trees to tiny phytoplankton
in the ocean — take in carbon dioxide and give off oxygen.
The ocean also absorbs a lot of excess carbon dioxide in the air. Unfortunately, the increased
carbon dioxide in the ocean changes the water, making it more acidic. This is called ocean
acidification.
More acidic water can be harmful to many ocean creatures, such as certain shellfish and
coral. Warming oceans — from too many greenhouse gases in the atmosphere — can also be
harmful to these organisms. Warmer waters are a main cause of coral bleaching.

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Greenhouse gases are gases that can trap heat. They get their name from greenhouses. A
greenhouse is full of windows that let in sunlight. That sunlight creates warmth. The big trick
of a greenhouse is that it doesn’t let that warmth escape.
That’s exactly how greenhouse gases act. They let sunlight pass through the atmosphere, but
they prevent the heat that the sunlight brings from leaving the atmosphere. Overall,
greenhouse gases are a good thing. Without them, our planet would be too cold, and life as
we know it would not exist. But there can be too much of a good thing. Scientists are worried
that human activities are adding too much of these gases to the atmosphere.

So, what are these gases all about?

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LESSON 5:IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE
CAUSES ANDEFFECTS OFCLIMATE
CAUSES OF CLIMATE CHANGE (NATURAL CAUSES)
● Volcanic eruptions
● Ocean currents
● Earth orbital changes
More tilt = warmer summers & colderwinters
Less tilt = cooler summers & milder winters
● Solar Variation

CAUSES OF CLIMATE CHANGE HUMAN CAUSES (Anthropogenic or Man-madecauses)

● Greenhouse gases
● Deforestation
● Coal mining
● Burning of fossil fuels
● Industrial processes
● Agriculture

EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGERISE IN SEA LEVEL

● Melting ice sheets (Sea level rise)
● HEAVY RAINFALL ACROSS THE GLOBE
● EXTREME DROUGHT
● DECLINE IN CROP PRODUCTIVITY
● ECOSYSTEMS ARE CHANGING
● HURRICANES
● RISE IN TEMPERATURE
● CARBON DIOXIDE ACIDIFIES SEAWATER′ CO2 and carbonate (which plankton use to
makeshells) combine in the ocean.′ The ocean is already more acidic than it was
50years ago.

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LESSON 6: ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS
What is Environmental Awareness?
To define environmental awareness we must first understand the environmentalist
movement. Environmentalism is an ideology that evokes the necessity and responsibility of
humans to respect, protect, and preserve the natural world from its anthropogenic (caused
by humans) afflictions.
Environmental awareness is an integral part of the movement’s success. By teaching our
friends and family that the physical environment is fragile and indispensable, we can begin
fixing the problems that threaten it.
How to Promote Environmental Awareness
Before you can begin promoting environmental awareness in your community, you must first
make sure that you have a thorough understanding of environmental issues. Stay up to date
on environmental news, read books and other resources, and learn about the issues affecting
your own community. It’s much easier to talk to others about the environment if you’ve
already taken the time to educate yourself.
Examples of Environmental Issues
Here are several cause-and-effect problems that harm our environment:
Oil Drilling- This issue is one that causes a great deal of environmental destruction. Our
dependence on fossil fuel is a global addiction that affects every aspect of the world. Oil
spills and offshore drilling poison marine life, oil drilling (on land) suffocates the earth, and
the combustion of fossil fuels add to the increased atmospheric CO₂, which in turns causes
the progression of global warming and ocean acidification. This is a multifaceted issue and is
a good cause to get involved with because it covers such a broad spectrum of issues.
Deforestation- Millions of acres of forest are cut down for industrial benefit, such as large
scale farming, oil mining, and the production of paper goods. Deforestation causes wildlife
and biodiversity extinction because the loss of habitat threatens many species’ existence.
The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has a Red List of environmentally
threatened species with up-to-date information.
Production of Plastic Goods- Currently our society creates a great dea l of waste and
much of that waste consists of plastic. According to the Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) in 2010 alone 31 million tons of plastic waste was created. This waste ends up all over
the globe in both land and water, a good example is the Great Pacific Garbage Patch. Not
only is plastic waste an issue, but the production of plastic is also dependent on fossil fuel
combustion. According to the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) in 2010 191

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million barrels of liquid petroleum gases(LPG) and natural gas liquids (NGL) were used in
the U.S. alone to produce plastic goods.
Make a Difference
Once you’re well versed in environmental issues, you can use that knowledge to start
beneficial projects in your home and/or in your community.
Possible Project Ideas
Instead of driving to work or school, take the bus, carpool, walk, or ride your bike to cut
down on greenhouse gas emissions. According to the EPA transportation adds to 33% of the
total atmospheric CO₂.
Consider investing in appropriate technology like clean power (solar or wind), if not for your
home then maybe for a community center. This supports a transition to clean and renewable
energy.
Buy reusable products such as glass bottles, reusable bags and reusable cups. Avoid buying
disposable goods such as paper towels, plastic bottles, and plastic bags.
Start composting and recycling, which will help cut down our waste production.
Support local businesses and farmers, and buy organic and pesticide-free food when you
can. Or, start your own community garden.

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 LEARNING ACTIVITY 4: ENVIRONMENTAL VLOG

MAKE YOUR OWN ENVIRONMENTAL VLOG: BARRIO SERYE WHICH REPRESENTS YOUR
ENVIRONMETAL AWARENESS IN YOUR BARRIO.

SUMMARY:
● Weather is the changes we see and feel outside from day to day
● Climate is the usual weather of a place
● Climate change is a change in the usual weather found in a place.
● "Global warming" refers to the long-term increase in Earth's average
temperature.
● "Climate change" refers to any long-term change in Earth's climate, or in the
climate of a region or city. This includes warming, cooling and changes besides
temperature.
● The greenhouse effect is a process that occurs when gases in Earth's atmosphere
trap the Sun's heat.The greenhouses are methane, carbon dioxide, ozone and
water vapor.

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 ● Environmental awareness is an integral part of the movement’s success. By
teaching our friends and family that the physical environment is fragile and
indispensable, we can begin fixing the problems that threaten it.

REFERENCES:
● https://www.usaid.gov/bangladesh/crel-project/module-1
● https://weather-and-climate.com/average-monthly-Rainfall-Temperatu
re-Sunshine-in-Philippines
● https://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/5-8/features/nasa-knows/
what-is-climate-change-58.html
● https://climatekids.nasa.gov/menu/make/
● Alfred-Wegener-InstituteCO2 CO2OceanAtmosphere“shelled-critters”
● https://www.pachamama.org/environmental-awareness

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 II. BASIC CONCEPTS OF DISASTER AND
DISASTER RISK

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INTRODUCTION

Disasters have always been a result of human interaction with nature, technology and
other living entities. Sometimes unpredictable and sudden, sometimes slow and lingering,
various types of disasters continually affect the way in which we live our daily lives. Human
beings as innovative creatures have sought new ways in which to curb the devastating effects
of disasters. However, for years human conduct regarding disasters has been reactive in
nature. Communities, sometimes aware of the risks that they face, would wait in anticipation
of a disastrous event and then activate plans and procedures. Human social and economic
development has further contributed to creating vulnerability and thus weakening the ability
of humans to cope with disasters and their effects.
This module will introduce you to the field of disaster risk reduction. The first part of
the module will focus on defining the basic, but most important, terms in relation to disaster
studies.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
● Explain disaster and disaster risk
● Discuss the nature of disaster and effects on human life is the risk factors
● Describe how and when an event becomes disaster

LESSON 1: DISASTER AND DISASTER RISK

● Disaster is a serious disruption of the functioning of a community/society.
● A disaster is a sudden, calamitous event that seriously disrupts the
functioning of a community or society and causes human, material, and
economic or environmental losses that exceed the community's or society's
ability to cope using its own resources. Though often caused by
nature, disasters can have human origins.

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DISASTER
(Vulnerability + Hazard) / Capacity = Disaster
A disaster occurs when a hazard impacts vulnerable people.
The combination of hazards, vulnerability and inability to reduce the potential negative
consequences of risk results in disaster.
DISASTER RISK
Disaster risk is expressed as the likelihood of loss of life, injury or destruction and damage
from a disaster in a given period of time.
Disaster risk is widely recognized as the consequence of the interaction between a hazard
and the characteristics that make people and places vulnerable and exposed.
RISK = HAZARD X EXPOSURE X VULNERABILITY
Disaster are sometimes considered external shocks but disaster risk results from the
complex interaction between development processes that generate conditions of exposure,
vulnerability and hazard.
There is no such thing as a natural disaster but disasters often follow natural hazards.
Invisible: it is comprised of not only the threat of high impact events but also the frequent ,
low impact events that are often hidden.

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Unevenly distributed around the earth: hazards affect different areas, but the pattern of
disaster risk reflects the social construction of exposure and vulnerability in different
countries.
Emergent and complex: many processes , including climate change and globalized
economic development are creating new, interconnected riks.

LESSON 2: NATURE AND EFFECTS OF DISASTER

NATURE AND EFFECTS OF NATURAL DISASTER
PRIMARY EFFECTS – are the direct result of the natural disaster such as collapsed
buildings and water damage.
SECONDARY EFFECTS – are the result of primary effects. Examples are power outages due
to fallen trees or damaged building and fire from broken gas lines.
TERTIARY EFFECTS – are long term effects of natural disasters. These include changes in
landscape and natural features, loss of habitat and crop failure or reduction due to cooler
temperatures or other interference.

III. EXPOSURE AND VULNERABILITY

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 INTRODUCTION

Many climate change adaptation efforts aim to address the implications of potential
changes in the frequency, intensity, and duration of weather and climate events that affect the
risk of extreme impacts on human society. That risk is determined not only by the climate
and weather events (the hazards) but also by the exposure and vulnerability to these
hazards. Therefore, effective adaptation and disaster risk management strategies and
practices also depend on a rigorous understanding of the dimensions of exposure and
vulnerability, as well as a proper assessment of changes in those dimensions.
This module aims to provide that understanding and assessment, by further detailing
the determinants of risk as presented in every lessons.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
● Discuss elements exposed to hazard
● Distinguish vulnerability from exposure in hazard
● Determine vulnerabilities of different element exposed to specific hazards.

LESSON 1: ELEMENTS EXPOSED TO HAZARD

What is Natural Hazard Risk?
The risk from a natural hazard is determined by the combined understanding of three
components:
● Hazard: how big and how often?
● Exposure: what elements are at risk (people, buildings, infrastructure, agriculture etc.)?
● Vulnerability: how does each exposed element respond to the level of hazard?
Estimating risk is an uncertain science as it involves forecasting events for which the time
and location might be largely unknown. This uncertainty is captured mathematically by the
concept of probability.

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 Reducing risk can only be achieved by decreasing the contribution from one or more of
these three components. Examples of risk reduction or managing the risk in these
components are:
● hazard: building a flood level to alter the course of flood events
● exposure: land-use planning decisions to ensure that new development is not exposed to
hazard events, or influencing the type of development
● Vulnerability: retrofitting older buildings that were built to lower building standards or
before building codes were enforced.
The six main categories of hazards are:
● Biological. Biological hazards include viruses, bacteria, insects, animals, etc., that
can cause adverse health impacts. For example, mould, blood and other bodily fluids,
harmful plants, sewage, dust and vermin.
● Chemical. Chemical hazards are hazardous substances that can cause harm. These
hazards can result in both health and physical impacts, such as skin irritation,
respiratory system irritation, blindness, corrosion and explosions.
● Physical. Physical hazards are environmental factors that can harm an employee
without necessarily touching them, including heights, noise, radiation and pressure.
● Safety. These are hazards that create unsafe working conditions. For example,
exposed wires or a damaged carpet might result in a tripping hazard. These are
sometimes included under the category of physical hazards.
● Ergonomic. Ergonomic hazards are a result of physical factors that can result in
musculoskeletal injuries. For example, a poor workstation setup in an office, poor
posture and manual handling.
● Psychosocial. Psychosocial hazards include those that can have an adverse effect on
an employee’s mental health or wellbeing. For example, sexual harassment,
victimisation, stress and workplace violence.
LEARNING ACTIVITY 1: INFOGRAPHICS

Using the biological hazards we are facing today, which is the “HEALTH CRISIS”, make your
own infographics regarding the recent booming of COVID 19 in the Province of Isabela, but
use the data of your respective municipality the day you made you infographics for example
the updates of the COVID 19 cases in the City of Ilagan.
Make two graphics
● The data in the first graphic is how do you explain health protocols in the
graphics, you can also insert the infos or number of cases here.
● Second, is that put all the quarantine obligations in your certain city, if they are
certain do’s and dont’s, violations, rotational “palengke” time, curfew etc.
You can search your own city/ municipality COVID 19 Updates.
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Attach here are the samples of Covid 19 infographics that may serve as your basis.

Source: PIO Region 2

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LESSON 2: VULNERABILITY, EXPOSURE AND HAZARD
Hazard
A hazard is a natural or man-made event that has the potential to cause impacts to people,
buildings, infrastructure, agriculture, environmental assets and communities.
Exposure
Exposure refers to the elements at risk from a natural or man-made hazard event. This could
include: individuals; dwellings or households and communities; buildings and structures;
public facilities and infrastructure assets; agricultural commodities; environmental assets;
and business activity. Exposure information is about the location and characteristics, or
attributes, of each of the elements and is therefore about what is at risk. This information
feeds into a natural hazard risk analysis to identify what elements at risk are in the location,
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and enough information about each of the elements to help understand how they are likely to
behave when subjected to natural and artificial hazards.
Understanding what is exposed to a hazard event through readily available, comprehensive
and consistent national exposure information allows the Australian Government, state and
territory jurisdictions and emergency management and planning agencies to make
informed, evidence-based decisions to prepare, respond and recover from any events.
LESSON 3: VULNERABILITY TO SPECIFIC HAZARDS
Vulnerability
Vulnerability to natural hazards is an integral factor in understanding the true extent of risk.
Although there is no single definition for vulnerability, it generally refers to the impact a
hazard has on people, infrastructure and the economy. This is, it asks how large an effect
does a hazard of a certain severity have on a particular element at risk? Vulnerability can be
divided into four main areas: physical, social, economic and system-depending on the class
of elements at risk being considered.
1. Physical vulnerability
Physical vulnerability is the potential for physical impact on the built environment,
infrastructure or population. Information on the vulnerability of buildings and infrastructure
has been developed in countries such as the United States and in Europe, but different
building techniques, standards and materials adopted in Australia require significant model
calibration and testing under Australian conditions.
Vulnerability models of people to physical injury, known as casualty models, have also been
developed internationally based primarily on empirical data linking the likelihood of
occupants being injured or killed in the event of building damage or failure.
How we model physical vulnerability?
Physical vulnerability is modelled through describing a probable damage severity or
economic loss for a particular type of infrastructure when it is subjected to some level of
hazard.
Take for example a residential building with brick walls and a tile roof that is subjected to a
particular level of ground motion due to an earthquake. Our models define the probability
that the building will be in one of five damage states. Each of those damage states has a
repair cost associated with it and likely level of habitability. The overall outcomes predicted
for the buildings are not necessarily correct for each specific building, but should be
representative of the overall population exposed to the same hazard.
These models can be developed in a number of ways including:

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● expert opinion: people with experience in the impact of natural hazards develop
understandings of the likely damage caused by hazards of different intensities. This
knowledge can be used to develop vulnerability relationships through a variety of heuristic
techniques;
● empirical models: these are based on post-event damage surveys and are limited to the
infrastructure surveyed and the hazard to which it was subjected. A number of houses all
subjected to the same wind speed would only provide one point on a damage curve.
Insurance portfolio and claim data can also be used;
● engineering models: these are based on our knowledge of the structure and its components
and how they will behave when loaded. This type of model is difficult to develop and will
require calibration against empirical data. However it permits an assessment of what
contributes most to the vulnerability, and the cost-effectiveness of various mitigation
strategies to be assessed.
2. Social vulnerability
Just as different types of buildings respond to hazards in different ways, individual people
respond to hazards in different ways. Social vulnerability refers to the factors that influence
the way people, households and communities react to a hazard and to the things that
influence the losses they experience. Social losses are not always financial; outcomes such
as poor health, mental health issues, loss of social interactions, loss of identity and family
breakdown are all social losses.
Social vulnerability is nested in that the losses of an individual can impact on the whole
household, and the losses of a household can affect a whole community. Community can
been viewed as either a contained geographic area, such as a town or neighbourhood, or a
group of spatially dispersed individuals who meet for a collective purpose, such as a
sporting team or theatre group.
Social vulnerability is complex-just as people are complex-and ongoing research, usually
conducted as post-disaster surveys, tries to understand the interaction of factors that
influence social losses. However a number of factors are understood to play a part:
● demographics and socio-economic statistics, such as age, disability status, income and
motor vehicle ownership. These factors are often needed for operational needs in the
response phase of disasters and are easily measured quantitatively through the Census and
other datasets;
● social capital: the social networks and resources that people can call upon to help in times of
crisis. Friends, family and neighbours play an important role in all areas of the hazard cycle
from warnings, to evacuation, to support in recovery. Some data is available for quantitative
analysis, but the gaps need to be met with qualitative analysis;
● risk perception: the household's understanding of whether the hazard will happen to them,
and what the impacts of the hazard will be. An appropriate perception of the risk is required
before households will prepare for and respond to a hazard. Warnings will be ignored if the
household does not think that the hazard will happen to them personally. Risk perception is
usually studied qualitatively, but people often behave differently during a disaster than how
27 CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER RISK REDUCTION| ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY
 they said they would before the disaster, so quantitative post-disaster studies of behaviour
are also used;
● health and mental health: people with poor health or mental health issues are at much
greater risk of harm or death when a hazard occurs. Conversely, poor health and mental
health are common outcomes of disasters in previously healthy people. There is currently
little quantitative data available for the small areas required for social vulnerability
assessment.
How do we estimate social vulnerability?
Social vulnerability is assessed using socio-economic analysis of communities, largely based
on demographic data from the Australian Bureau of Statistics, but supplemented with other
data sources. Depending on the area, qualitative data may also be available to expand the
assessment to cover the other factors that influence vulnerability. When assessing large
geographic areas, the areas are divided into smaller multiple areas and the data is mapped.
These maps provide indicators of relative risk to highlight the areas with the highest levels of
social vulnerability.
3. Economic loss
Broadly, economic loss tends to be classified as three types of costs:
● direct tangible costs: costs resulting from the impact of the event, such as physical damage to
buildings and their contents, which have a market value and so can be easily quantified
● Indirect tangible costs: costs that result from the flow on effects of a disaster that have a
market value, such as business disruption and clean up
● Intangible costs: any direct or indirect cost that does not have a market value, such as death
and injury, loss of memorabilia, disruption to social activities or loss of environmental assets.
Intangible costs are difficult to measure and so non-market valuation techniques using proxy
values are usually used.
Ideally, an economic assessment of potential or actual losses from a disaster will incorporate
all of these loss categories. However direct tangible losses are the simplest to obtain,
because they follow more directly from the physical impact, while intangible losses are
complex, so many assessments include direct tangible losses only.
4. System vulnerability
Critical infrastructure facilities are made up of many different components that work together
to deliver services to communities. These can be electric power stations, water treatment
plants or telecommunication hubs. Some components might be more vulnerable to hazard
exposure than others. Some might be more critical to the functions of the facility, could be a
more costly component or require longer lead time to restore. The susceptibility of a critical
infrastructure facility to severe hazard in terms of damage and service disruption is called
system vulnerability.

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 How do we model system vulnerability?
System vulnerability is assessed by creating a network model of the facility that represents
the key components and their relationship to others. As the natural hazard intensity is
increased the component damage, loss of function and implications for facility service
delivery is assessed. Information on the likely prognosis for the facility returning to service
is also predicted from repair cost and restoration time.
The software application developed by Geoscience Australia for simulating the vulnerability
is called the System for Infrastructure Facility Resilience Analysis (SIFRA), which is available
openly. It also enables the effect of retrofitting more vulnerable components to be modelled
so optimal mitigation strategies can be developed by asset managers.
What is the difference between hazard, impact and risk assessments?
A hazard assessment is concerned with estimating how often events of various sizes or
larger occur. It can address questions such as:
● What is the probability of a given flood height, wind speed, or level of earthquake ground
shaking occurring at a given location?
● What is the flood height, wind speed, or level of earthquake ground shaking for a given
return period or annual exceedance probability?
● How does the hazard vary spatially? That is, which area is more likely to experience floods,
severe wind or earthquakes?
An impact assessment might be conducted where the impact from a single hazard scenario
is assessed. The scenario may be selected based on its probability of a local hazard severity
occurring, or it may be based on an historical event, or selected to be a certain magnitude
(e.g., Category 5 tropical cyclone, or magnitude 8 earthquake). Impact assessments can also
be used to test mitigation strategies. Questions that could be addressed include:
● What is the building damage for a magnitude 5 earthquake occurring near Perth?
● What would the building damage be if an event similar to Tropical Cyclone Tracy was to
occur again?
● What would the building damage be for a 500 year return period tropical cyclone event to
impact Cairns? What would the building damage be for the same event if the vulnerability of
pre-code buildings were mitigated by strengthening them to current building code
standards?
A risk assessment considers the full suite of hazard scenarios (that is, the full synthetic
event set) to understand the risk (probability of magnitude of loss) to the community,
infrastructure and agriculture. It can address questions such as:
● What is the annual expected building loss from earthquake events for a given location (e.g.,
Perth Cities Project report)? How does the loss estimate change with mitigation strategies
enforced?
29 CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER RISK REDUCTION| ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY
● Which areas will experience higher building loss from earthquakes?
● Which communities are more vulnerable to earthquake risk?

LEARNING ACTIVITY 2: KITCHEN HAZARD HUNT

Identifying & Solving Problems

● Identifying Issues
● Evaluation
● Problem Solving

Kitchens can be very dangerous places to work in. However, if you know the dangers and
avoid them, you can keep yourself safe. This activity is designed to get your students
thinking about some of the things that can be hazardous in kitchens.
HOME QUARANTINE is a trend nowadays, to keep you safe take pictures in the area of your
kitchen then spot the different hazards in the kitchen, to check all the hazard encircle the
area in the picture that you think hazard can occur and then list down all the hazards you’ve
seen.
● Ex: Pot on stove could cause steam burns.

As an added level of difficulty, ask students to record:

30 CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER RISK REDUCTION| ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY
 1. why it is dangerous
2. what could happen if the hazard is not corrected
3. how the hazard should be corrected

ASSESSMENT TASK: TV Broadcasting

INSTRUCTION: You will be grouped into five groups and prepare for a mini-tv
broadcasting, which will highlight the different hazards in the Philippines determine
also its exposure and vulnerability. The TV Broadcasting includes a News report
regarding the past typhoons hits the country, diffrent environmetal hazards
happened in year 2020 – 2021 of the Philippines, you can also insert a showbiz
report, COVID 19 Updates in your certain province and last but not the least is the a
summer trip made by every citizens and diffrents activities they’ve done this
summer. The teacher will give your respective group once he/she already discussed
it.
SUMMARY
● Hazard.A dangerous phenomenon, substance, human activity or
condition
● Vulnerability.Characteristics and circumstances of a community, system
or asset that makes it susceptible to the damaging effects of hazard
● Capacity.Strengths, attributes and resources available within a
community, society or organization
● Exposure.People, property, systems, or other elements present in hazard
zones
● Disaster Risk.The potential disaster losses in lives, health status, livelihoods,
assets and services

31 CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER RISK REDUCTION| ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY

REFERENCES:

● https://www.highspeedtraining.co.uk/hub/hazards-in-the-workplace/
● https://www.ga.gov.au/scientific-topics/community-safety/risk-and-impact#:~:text=
Exposure%20refers%20to%20the%20elements,environmental%20assets%3B%
20and%20business%20activity.
● Philippine Red Cross
● Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.5 South Africa License.
● http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.5/za/

IV. BASIC CONCEPTS OF HAZARDS

32 CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER RISK REDUCTION| ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY

INTRODUCTION

The earth is shaped by endogenic processes, caused by forces from within the earth,
resulting in hazardous events like earthquakes or volcanic eruptions,
and exogenic processes, caused by forces related to the earth’s atmosphere,
hydrosphere, geosphere, biosphere and cryosphere and their interactions.
This module aims to provide the different common hazardous events which presented
in the lesson.

HAZARD
• A dangerous phenomenon, substance, human activity or condition.

Hazards can be classified in several ways. A possible subdivision is between:

● Natural hazards are natural processes or phenomena within the earth's system
(lithosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere or atmosphere) that may constitute a
damaging event (such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, hurricanes);
● Human-induced hazards are modifications of natural processes within the
earth's system (lithosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere or atmosphere) caused
by human activities which accelerate/aggravate damaging events (such as
atmospheric pollution, industrial chemical accidents, major armed conflicts,
nuclear accidents, oil spills);
● Human-made hazards or technological hazards: dangers originating from
technological or industrial accidents, dangerous procedures, infrastructure
failures or certain human activities, which may cause the loss of life or injury,
property damage, social and economic disruption or environmental
degradation (Some examples: industrial pollution, nuclear activities and
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 radioactivity, toxic wastes, dam failures; transport, industrial or technological
accidents (explosions, fires, spills).
IMPACTS OF NATURAL HAZARDS
● Community Impact
● Economic Impact
● Environmental Impact

DIFFERENT TYPES OF COMMON HAZARDS

MAIN GROUP MAIN SUB-GROUP MAIN TYPE SUB TYPE
Geophysical: A Earhquake Ground shaking, tsunami
hazard originating
from solid earth.
This term is used Mass
interchangeably with movement
the term geological Volcanic Ash
hazard. fall, lahar, pyroclastic flow,
lava flow
NATURAL Meteorological: A Storm Extra-tropical storm,
hazard caused by tropical storm, convective
short-lived, micro- storm
to meso-scale extre Extreme Cold wave, heat wave,
me weather and temperature severe winter conditions
atmospheric Fog
conditions that last
from minutes to
days.
Hydrological: A Flood Coastal
hazard caused by flood, riverine flood, flash
the occurrence, flood, ice jam flood.
movement, and Landslide Avalanche (snow, debris),
distribution of mudflow, rockfall
surface and Wave action Rogue wave, seiche
subsurface
freshwater and
saltwater.
Industrial accident Chemical spills, collapse,
explosion, fire, gas-leak,
TECHNOLOGICAL poisoning, radiation, other
Transport accident Air, road, rail, water
Miscellaneous Collapse, explosion, fire,
accident other.
DIFFERENT TYPE OF HAZARDS
34 CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER RISK REDUCTION| ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY
NATURAL HAZARDS
● GEOLOGICAL - Geological process or phenomenon that may cause loss of life,
injury or other health impacts, property damage, loss of livelihoods and services,
social and economic disruption, or environmental damage
● HYDRO – METEOROLOGICAL - Process or phenomenon of atmospheric,
hydrological or oceanographic nature that may cause loss of life, injury or other
health impacts, property damage, loss of livelihoods and services, social and
economic disruption, or environmental damage.
TECHNOLOGICAL
● A hazard originating from technological or industrial conditions, including accidents,
dangerous procedures, infrastructure failures or specific human activities, that may
cause loss of life, injury, illness or other health impacts, property damage, loss of
livelihoods and services, social and economic disruption, or environmental damage

REFERENCES:

● https://www.cdema.org/virtuallibrary/index.php/charim-hbook/methodolog
y/2-analysing-hazards/2-1-introduction-to-hazards

V. Disaster Risk Reduction and Management

35 CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER RISK REDUCTION| ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY

INTRODUCTION

Disasters have always been a result of human interaction with nature, technology and
other living entities. Sometimes unpredictable and sudden, sometimes slow and lingering,
various types of disasters continually affect the way in which we live our daily lives. Human
beings as innovative creatures have sought new ways in which to curb the devastating effects
of disasters. However, for year’s human conduct regarding disasters has been reactive in
nature. Communities, sometimes aware of the risks that they face, would wait in anticipation
of a disastrous event and then activate plans and procedures. Human social and economic
development has further contributed to creating vulnerability and thus weakening the ability
of humans to cope with disasters and their effects.
This module aims to provide the concept of disaster risk reduction
management which presented in the lesson.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
● Discuss disaster risk reduction (DRR) principles, elements, key concepts and
importance.
● Discuss community-based Disaster Risk Reduction and Management.
Disaster Management is defined by the South African Disaster Management Act 57 of
2002 as a continuous and integrated multi-sectoral, multidisciplinary process of
planning, and implementation of measures, aimed at:
• preventing or reducing the risk of disasters;
• mitigating the severity or consequences of disasters;
• emergency preparedness;
• a rapid and effective response to disasters; and
• post-disaster recovery and rehabilitation
Disaster management in its international form entails the integration of pre-
and post -disaster activities in order to safeguard lives and property against possible
disasters. At first glance, it seems as if disaster risk reduction forms an underlying
tenant to disaster management in the definition supplied by the South African
Disaster Management Act. Should this, however, have been the case in practice, then
15 years of disaster management in Africa should have yielded more results, less loss
of life and livelihoods, and fewer disasters. One significant problem with the disaster
management cycle was that it still has a disaster-oriented focus. This means that all
activities and resources are geared towards a disastrous event. A focus on the
underlying causes of these disasters (e.g. risk, hazards and vulnerability) is in most
36 CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER RISK REDUCTION| ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY
 cases not considered, or it is the product of bureaucratic ignorance. Many disaster
managers still choose to refer to the “causal factors of disasters” as espoused by the
UNDP Disaster Management Training Programme over two decades ago. When one
critically judges these “causal factors” it becomes evident that most of them can be
ascribed to some form of vulnerability created by human activity. Another weakness
in the application of the disaster management cycle is that a number of practitioners
viewed the implementation of the cycle as a phased approach where the activities
follow a sequential path. The recognition that each of the cycle’s processes is
simultaneous did not materialise in most cases. Through multiple efforts, the
importance and uniqueness of hazard and risk reduction for the future have become
evident. In contrast to the earlier concepts of disaster management, hazard and risk
reduction practices relate to significantly larger professional constituencies, and
depend on much more diverse information requirements. While there is no doubt that
emergency assistance and response will remain necessary, the potential
consequences of increasingly severe hazards tell us that much greater investments
need to be made to reduce the risk of social and economic hazards impacting on
vulnerable conditions. The challenge for disaster risk management (though a
mulit-pronged approach) in the coming years is to find effective means by which a
much more comprehensive, and multi-sectoral, participation of professional
disciplines and public interests can contribute to the reduction of disaster risk.
Accomplishment of this goal requires both a politicalcommitment, as much as public
understanding to motivate local community involvement. It is in no one’s interest to
continue to accept the rationale that the resources on which all societies depend must
first be lost to hazards before their value is deemed worthy of protection,
replacement, or repair. Disaster reduction policies and measures need to be
implemented with a twofold aim: to enable societies to be resilient to hazards while
ensuring that development efforts do not increase vulnerability to these hazards.

A FRAMEWORK FOR DISASTER RISK REDUCTION

In an effort to graphically display all of the various components of disaster risk
reduction, the United Nations’s International Strategy for Disaster Reduction
developed a framework. Figure 4 is an initial effort to put disaster risk reduction into
perspective given the transdisciplinary nature of the field. The framework must be
studied with the preceding discussion on disaster risk management and disaster
management in mind. One should take cognisance of the complex nature of disaster
risk and all of the interrelated processes linked to disaster risk reduction. It would be
foolish to think that one picture will encapsulate this very diverse field. However, this
is an attempt to provide perspective on the phenomenon we call disaster risk
reduction. The most important aspect of the framework is the context in which
disaster risk reduction occurs. If you reflect back to the definition of disaster risk
reduction, the role of sustainable development is emphasised. It is thus not surprising
that the foundation and context of the disaster risk reduction framework is sustainable
development. The development/disaster reduction linkage will enjoy more attention
later on in this text. Sustainable development means that we are using our current
resources and doing our development planning in such a way that we do not
compromise the abilities of future generations to also develop, utilising the same set
37 CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER RISK REDUCTION| ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY
 of resources. Thus, if we deplete a major resource (e.g. fossil fuels), future
generations inhabiting Earth must seek and development alternatives. This will thus
be due to the present generation’s inability to foresee the hardship which our
development might bring. The same scenario applies to the disaster risk reduction
field. Successful disaster risk reduction depends on its integration with much bigger
issues such as the development agenda.

Figure 1.UNISDR Disaster Risk Reduction Framework (UNISDR, 2004)

One should note that the activities we as humans undertake for development
and those linked to disaster risk reduction are very similar. Each aims at improving
our current development state. The logic in this disaster risk reduction framework
suggests that once we are successful in sustainable development efforts, we will
greatly reduce the risks of disasters. The sustainable development context consists of
socio-cultural, political, economic, and ecosystems or environmental domains
(compare these aspects with the factors of vulnerability to identify the similarities).
Each of these domains can either contribute to overcoming or exacerbating disaster
risk. The preceding sections aimed to put the elements which constitute disaster risk
into perspective. It would therefore only make logical sense to start our explanation
of the framework by focusing on the risk factors. The risk factors (both vulnerability
domains and hazards) provide us with the context in which we need to understand
and investigate the various levels of disaster risks. Vulnerability and capacity
analysis, as well as hazard analysis and monitoring provide us with the required
disaster risk information (refer back to the disaster risk notation). The above analysis
allows for risk identification and also then the assessment of the possible impact of
the hazardous event on vulnerable conditions. Once a disaster risk has been
identified it can be managed. This is done in terms of creating awareness for
behaviour change, but also through the creation of new knowledge. A change in
38 CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER RISK REDUCTION| ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY
 behaviour could be or result in the needed political commitment for disaster risk
reduction. In turn (as has been seen previously in this text) political commitment
leads to changes in policy and governance aimed at enhancing disaster risk
reduction capabilities and institutional capacities. We have many examples where
political will has a direct impact on community actions and the ability of communities
to take ownership of their own disaster risk reduction effort. However, a favourable
environment is needed. Through political commitment certain disaster risk reduction
measures can be implemented. This is where the transdisciplinary nature of disaster
risk reduction comes into play. Such actions could include sound environmental
management and socio-economic development practices such as: poverty alleviation;
securing and enhancing livelihoods; gender equality; increased health; emphasis on
sustainable agricultural practices; and even certain financial mechanisms such as
social safety nets or even market-based insurance schemes. Certain physical and
technical measures, for example land-use planning, urban and town planning, and
the protection of critical infrastructure such as water and sanitation, electricity and
communications are necessary for disaster reduction. Forming partnerships and
networks (whether public-public, public-private or private-private) all lead to
enhanced disaster risk reduction. The identification of the disaster risks should also
be seen as a direct input into the risk reduction measures, e.g. solving a flooding
issue by building a dam or channels.

References:
● https://www.google.com/search?q=UNISDR+Disaster+Risk+Reduction+Framework+(UNI
SDR,+2004)&rlz=1C1CHBD_enPH791PH791&sxsrf=ALeKk02S7aVsh9oQv1yamex8tMTsSz
kQig:1628061797165&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi5gN7o6pbyAhWF4
GEKHUQ1AQEQ_AUoAXoECAEQAw&biw=1366&bih=625#imgrc=TvT7zUycQ2u7zM

39 CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER RISK REDUCTION| ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY

● https://www.preventionweb.net/files/26081_kp1concepdisasterrisk1.pdf
●

40 CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER RISK REDUCTION| ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY