List of Experiments / Jobs

1. To study different types of measuring tools used in metrology and determine least
counts of vernier calipers, micrometers and vernier height gauges.
2. To study different types of machine tools ( lathe, shape or planer or slotter, milling,
drilling machines )
3. To prepare a job on a lathe involving facing, outside turning, taper turning, step
turning, radius making and parting-off.
4. To study different types of fitting tools and marking tools used in fitting practice.
5. To prepare lay out on a metal sheet by making and prepare rectangular tray, pipe
shaped components e.g. funnel.
6. To prepare joints for welding suitable for butt welding and lap welding.
7. To perform pipe welding.
8. To study various types of carpentry tools and prepare simple types of at least two
wooden joints.
9. To prepare simple engineering components/ shapes by forging.
10. To prepare mold and core assembly, to put metal in the mold and fettle the casting.
11. To prepare horizontal surface/ vertical surface/ curved surface/ slots or V-grooves
on a shaper/ planner.
12. To prepare a job involving side and face milling on a milling machine.
Writing an Experiment Report

During the two years of the IB physics course you will perform a number of experiments. You
must keep a record of ALL the experiments which you perform . For a few of the experiments
you will be required to present a full, detailed report, which will be graded. The grades will form part of
your final result (remember, a significant percentage of your final result will be based on your practical
abilities). It is recommended that your reports should be set out as follows.

Title Introduction Diagram Method Results Theory Conclusion

1. Title (Aim)

The title must state clearly the aim of the experiment. It must tell the reader what you are trying
to prove or measure. For example, “Ohm’s Law” is not a suitable title for an experiment report,
whereas, “Experiment to verify Ohm’s Law” is a suitable title. Similarly, “Relative Density” is
not a suitable title but “Experiment to measure the Relative Density of some common
substances” is a suitable title.
2. Introduction

If the experiment is designed to verify a law, state the law in the introduction. The introduction
can also include such ideas as why the results/conclusions of the experiment are important in
every-day life, in industry etc. (it might even include a little historical background, but not too
much).
3. Hypothesis

Before starting your investigation you usually have some idea of what you expect the results will
show. The hypothesis is basically a statement of what you are expecting. For example, if you are
trying to show how two variables are related, state the expected relation and try to give and
explanation of you choice. For example, when Newton was thinking about gravitation, he
assumed that the strength of the force of gravity would become weaker as one moved further
from the body causing the field. He suggested that the relation between force and distance might
involve the inverse of the distance squared and to defend this choice he pointed out that the
surface area of a sphere depends on the square of its radius. Various observations then confirmed
this suggestion.
4. Diagram

In most cases a labelled diagram is useful. Every electrical experiment report must include a
circuit diagram. If diagrams are drawn by hand, use a sharp pencil and a ruler. (If you use a
computer, learn how to make the best use of your drawing program.)

5. Method
The method section should give enough detail to enable another experimenter to repeat the
experiment to see if he/she agrees with your results/conclusions. The method should include
 a description of the apparatus used
 what measurements you made (if possible, in the order you made them)
  what precautions you took to ensure the best accuracy possible
 a mention of any unexpected difficulties (and how you overcame them)

6. Results

You should record all the measurements made during the experiment along with some indication
of the uncertainty of each measurement. Whenever possible, present the results in the form of a
table.
7.Theory

This section should include any information which might help the reader to understand how you
used your measurements to reach the aim mentioned in the title. For example, in one experiment,
designed to measure the relative density of a substance, the actual measurements made are two
distances. The theory section of a report on such an experiment must include a clear explanation
of how these two distances are related to the relative density of the substance being measured.
8. Conclusion/Evaluation

Every experiment report must have a conclusion. If your aim was to verify a law, state whether
you have verified the law or not. If the aim was to measure a particular quantity (e.g. relative
density), give the final measured value of the quantity in the conclusion.

In the case of an experiment designed to measure some well known physical constant you should
attempt to explain any difference between your result and the accepted result. For example, if
you find g = 9.5 ms-2, you should try to think of the most likely cause of this obvious error.

If the experiment results were in some way unsatisfactory, try to suggest how the investigation
might be improved in order to improve accuracy of measurements or range of data obtained. This
evaluation section should include comments on the apparatus used and the method employed.
1. To study different types of measuring tools used in metrology and determine least
counts of vernier calipers, micrometers and vernier height gauges.

Caliper

A caliper is a device used to measure the distance between two symmetrically opposing sides. A
caliper can be as simple as a compass with inward or outward-facing points. The tips of the
caliper are adjusted to fit across the points to be measured, the caliper is then removed and the
distance read by measuring between the tips with a measuring tool, such as a ruler.

They are used in many fields such as metalworking, mechanical engineering, woodworking and
woodturning.

Inside caliper

Two inside calipers

The inside calipers are used to measure the internal size of an object.

 The upper caliper in the image (at the right) requires manual adjustment prior to fitting, fine
setting of this caliper type is performed by tapping the caliper legs lightly on a handy surface
until they will almost pass over the object. A light push against the resistance of the central pivot
screw then spreads the legs to the correct dimension and provides the required, consistent feel
that ensures a repeatable measurement.
 The lower caliper in the image has an adjusting screw that permits it to be carefully adjusted
without removal of the tool from the workpiece.

Outside caliper
Outside calipers are used to measure the external size of an object.

The same observations and technique apply to this type of caliper, as for the above Inside caliper.
With some understanding of their limitations and usage these instruments can provide a high
degree of accuracy and repeatability. They are especially useful when measuring over very large
distances, consider if the calipers are used to measure a large diameter pipe. A vernier caliper
does not have the depth capacity to straddle this large diameter while at the same time reach the
outermost points of the pipes diameter.

Divider caliper

A dividers

In the metalworking field divider calipers are used in the process of marking out suitable
workpieces. The points are sharpened so that they act as scribers, one leg can then be placed in
the dimple created by a center or prick punch and the other leg pivoted so that it scribes a line on
the workpiece's surface, thus forming an arc or circle.

A divider caliper is also used to measure a distance between two points on a map. The two
caliper's ends are brought to the two points whose distance is being measured. The caliper's
opening is then either measured on a separate ruler and then converted to the actual distance, or it
is measured directly on a scale drawn on the map. On a nautical chart the distance is often
measured on the latitude scale appearing on the sides of the map: one minute of arc of latitude is
approximately one nautical mile or 1852 metres.

Odd leg caliper

Odd leg calipers

Oddleg calipers, Hermaphrodite calipers or Oddleg jennys, or just plain Ol' Jennys, as
pictured on the left, are generally used to scribe a line a set distance from the edge of workpiece.
The bent leg is used to run along the workpiece edge while the scriber makes its mark at a
predetermined distance, this ensures a line parallel to the edge.

In the diagram at left, the uppermost caliper has a slight shoulder in the bent leg allowing it to sit
on the edge more securely, the lower caliper lacks this feature but has a renewable scriber that
can be adjusted for wear, as well as being replaced when excessively worn.

Vernier caliper

Parts of a vernier caliper:

1. Outside jaws: used to measure external lengths

2. Inside jaws: used to measure internal lengths

3. Depth probe: used to measure depths

4. Main scale (cm)

5. Main scale (inch)

6. Vernier (cm)

7. Vernier (inch)

8. Retainer: used to block movable part to allow the easy transferring a measurement

A variation to the more traditional caliper is the inclusion of a vernier scale; this makes it
possible to directly obtain a more precise measurement.
Vernier calipers can measure internal dimensions (using the uppermost jaws in the picture at
right), external dimensions using the pictured lower jaws, and depending on the manufacturer,
depth measurements by the use of a probe that is attached to the movable head and slides along
the centre of the body. This probe is slender and can get into deep grooves that may prove
difficult for other measuring tools.

The vernier scales will often include both metric and Imperial measurements on the upper and
lower part of the scale.

Vernier calipers commonly used in industry provide a precision to a hundredth of a millimetre

(10 micrometres), or one thousandth of an inch.

Digital caliper

A refinement now popular is the replacement of the analog dial with an electronic digital display.
This version of the caliper allows reading the value directly from a single display. Many digital
calipers can be switched between metric and imperial units. All provide for zeroing the display at
any point along the slide, allowing the same sort of differential measurements as with the dial
caliper but without the need to read numbers that may be upside down. Digital calipers may
contain some sort of "reading hold" feature, allowing the reading of dimensions even in awkward
locations where the display cannot be seen.

With all of these benefits, digital calipers have by no means replaced the dial caliper. Digital
calipers typically do not have the beam structure of a dial or vernier caliper and therefore do not
have the repeatability or accuracy to an amateur user. Dial calipers have the potential to last
much longer with their repairability

Using the vernier caliper

A VERNIER caliper must be properly applied against the part in order to take the desired
measurement. For example, when measuring the thickness of a plate a vernier caliper must be
held at right angles to the piece. Some practice may be needed to measure round or irregular
objects correctly.

Accuracy of measurement when using a caliper is highly dependent on the skill of the operator.
Regardless of type, a caliper's jaws must be forced into contact with the part being measured. As
both part and caliper are always to some extent elastic, the amount of force used affects the
indication. A consistent, firm touch is correct. Too much force results in an under indication as
part and tool distort; too little force gives insufficient contact and an overindication. This is a
greater problem with a caliper incorporating a wheel, which lends mechanical advantage. This is
especially the case with digital calipers, calipers out of adjustment, or calipers with a poor
quality beam.

Simple calipers are uncalibrated; the measurement taken must be compared against a scale.
Whether the scale is part of the caliper or not, all analog calipers -- verniers and dials -- require
good eyesight in order to achieve the highest precision. Digital calipers have the advantage in
this area.

Calibrated calipers may be mishandled, leading to loss of zero. When a calipers' jaws are fully
closed, it should of course indicate zero. If it does not, it must be recalibrated or repaired. It
might seem that a vernier caliper cannot get out of calibration but a drop or knock can be
enough. Digital calipers have zero set buttons.

In later years (maybe since the 1990s) a clever modification of the moveable jaw on the back
side of any caliper allows for "step"-measurements. For example: the distance from the side of a
screw head to the edge of a surface.

A vernier scale lets one read more precisely from an evenly divided straight or circular
measurement scale. It is fitted with a sliding secondary scale that is used to indicate where the
measurement lies when it is in between two of the marks on the main scale.

Verniers are common on sextants used in navigation, scientific instruments and machinists'
measuring tools (all sorts, but especially calipers and micrometers) and on the odolites used in
surveying.
When a measurement is taken by mechanical means using one of the above mentioned
instruments, the measure is read off a finely marked data scale (the "fixed" scale, in the diagram).
The measure taken will usually be between two of the smallest graduations on this scale. The
indicating scale ("vernier" in the diagram) is used to provide an even finer additional level of
precision without resorting to estimation.

An enlarged view of the caliper shows it has a resolution or precision of 0.02 mm. The reading is 3.58
mm. The 3 mm is read off from the upper (fixed) data scale. The 0.58 mm is obtained from the lower
(sliding) indicating scale at the point of closest alignment between the two scales. The superimposed red
markings show where the readings are taken.

Vernier Height Gauge

Vernier & electronic height gauge

A vernier height gauge is a gauge with the additional refinement of a vernier scale for greater
accuracy in reading or setting the tool.The FIG shows two height gauges, the left height gauge
has the vernier scale, the right one has a digital readout making it an electronic height gauge.
These measuring tools are used in metalworking or metrology to either set or measure vertical
distances; the pointer is sharpened to allow it to act as a scriber and assist in marking out work
pieces.
They may also be used to measure the height of an object by using the underside of the scriber as
the datum. The datum may be permanently fixed or the height gauge may have provision to
adjust the scale, this is done by sliding the scale vertically along the body of the height gauge by
turning a fine feed screw at the top of the gauge; then with the scriber set to the same level as the
base, the scale can be matched to it. This adjustment allows different scribers or probes to be
used, as well as adjusting for any errors in a damaged or resharpened probe.

The VERNIER Scale

A Vernier scale is a small, moveable scale placed next to the main scale of a measuring
instrument. It is named after its inventor, Pierre Vernier (1580 - 1637). It allows us to make
measurements to a precision of a small fraction of the smallest division on the main scale of the
instrument. (In the first example below the "small fraction" is one tenth.) Vernier scales are
found on many instruments, for example, spectroscopes, supports for astronomical telescopes
etc. One specific example, the Vernier calliper, is considered below.

Using a Vernier Scale

Figure 1 shows a Vernier scale reading zero. Notice that 10 divisions of the Vernier scale have
the same length as 9 divisions of the main scale.

figure 1

In the following examples we will assume that the smallest division on the main scale is 1mm so the
divisions on the Vernier scale are 0·9mm each. The position of the zero of the Vernier scale tells us the
number of cm and mm in our measurement. For example, in figure 2, the reading is a little over 1·2cm.

figure 2

To find a more precise reading, consider figure 3 (which is a magnified view of part of figure 2).
 figure 3

We are, in effect, trying to find the distance, x.

To find x, find the mark on the Vernier scale which most nearly coincides with a mark on the
main scale. In figure 3 it is obviously the third mark.

Now, it is clear that ............x = d - d’

Remembering that each division on the main scale is 1mm and that each division on the Vernier
scale is 0·9mm, we have:

x = 3mm - 3(0·9)mm = 3(0·1)mm

Therefore, the reading in the example is: 1·23cm

Similarly, if it had been, for example, the seventh mark on the Vernier scale which had been
exactly opposite a mark on the main scale, the reading would be: 1·27cm

Hence, the level of precision of an instrument which has a Vernier scale depends on the
difference between the size of the smallest division on the main scale and the size of the smallest
division on the Vernier scale.

In the example above, this difference is 0·1mm so measurements made using this instrument
should be stated as: reading ±0·1mm.

Another instrument might have a scale like the one shown in figure 4.

Therefore, the precision is: 1mm - (49/50)mm = (1/50)mm = 0·02mm.

Results of measurements made using this instrument should therefore be stated as: reading
±0·02mm.

The diagrams below illustrate how to use a Vernier calliper to measure:

Measurement and Experimentation

Vernier Calliper

The meter scale enables us to measure the length to the nearest millimeter only. Engineers and scientists
need to measure much smaller distances accurately. For this a special type of scale called Vernier scale is
used.

The Vernier scale consists of a main scale graduated in centimeters and millimeters. On the Vernier scale
0.9 cm is divided into ten equal parts. The least count or the smallest reading which you can get with the
instrument can be calculated as under:

Least count = one main scale (MS) division - one vernier scale (VS) division.

= 1 mm - 0.09 mm

= 0.1 mm

= 0.01 cm

The least count of the vernier

= 0.01 cm

The Vernier calliper consists of a main scale fitted with a jaw at one end. Another jaw, containing the
vernier scale, moves over the main scale. When the two jaws are in contact, the zero of the main scale and
the zero of the vernier scale should coincide. If both the zeros do not coincide, there will be a positive or
negative zero error.

After calculating the least count place the object between the two jaws.

Record the position of zero of the vernier scale on the main scale .

Principle of Vernier

You will notice that one of the vernier scale divisions coincides with one of the main scale divisions. (In
the illustration, 3rd division on the vernier coincides with a MS division).

Reading of the instrument = MS div + (coinciding VS div x L.C.) = 3.2 + (3 x 0.01)= 3.2 + 0.03 = 3.23
cm

To measure the inner and outer diameter of a hollow cylinder or ring, inner and outer callipers are
used.
Exp no 2
Aim- To study different types of machine tools –Lathe, Drilling and Milling machines

Machining

“Machining or metal cutting is the process of producing a Workpiece by removing unwanted material from a block
of metal in the form of chips. “

This process is most important since almost all The products get their final shape and size by metal removal, either
directly or indirectly. The major drawback of this process is the loss of material in the form of chips

Machine tools

“A machine tool is a power driven machine for making articles of a given shape, size and accuracy (according to
blueprints) by removing metal from work pieces in the form of chips.”

Classification of Machine Tools:

Machine tools can be classified in various ways

From the point of view of view of their field of applications, machine tools are classified as:

1 General purpose machine tools: These can be used for performing in general a great variety of machining
operations. e.g. Lathe, Milling, grinding machines.
2 Single purpose machine tools: These machine tools are designed to perform a single machining operation.
e.g. Broaching, Hobbing etc.
3 Limited purpose machine tools: These machine tools are capable of a narrow range of operations on a
wide variety of work pieces. e.g. automatic cutting off machines.
4 Production machine tools: These are mainly used for mass and batch production and are have more
rigidity and high power than other types of machine tools. e.g. automatic cutting off machines. e.g. multi
tool lathes , multi spindle lathes, NC & CNC machines, machining centers
5 Special purpose machine tools: These machine tools are designed and, manufactured individually and are
intended for performing a certain definite operation in machining a certain definite work piece.
According to accuracy (in increasing order)

1. Normal accuracy
2. Higher accuracy
3. Precision
4. High precision
5. Super high precision
According to weight

1. Light weight (up to 1 ton)

 2. Medium weight (up to 10 tons)
3. Heavy weight( over 10 tons)
According to processing operations type

1. Lathe
2. Drilling and boring
3. Planers, shapers, slotters and broaching machines
4. Milling
5. Grinding machine
6. Gear and thread cutting

Fig-1 Material Removal Processes

In all metal cutting processes (Fig-1)excess material is removed from the starting workpiece so what remains is the
desired geometry, e.g.: turning, drilling, and milling; also grinding and nontraditional processes

Lathe Machine

12.1. Introduction

A lathe is probably the oldest machine tool, stemming from the early tree lathe, which was turned by a rope
passed around the work a few times and attached to a springy branch overhead. The work was supported by two
dowels struck in adjacent trees. The operator's foot supplied the motion, which was intermittent and fluctuating.
The tool was held in the operator's hand. Later a strip of wood called a "lath" was used to support the rope and
hence named as Lathe. From this crude beginning and over period of more than two centuries, the modern engine
lathe has evolved. Until about 1770, lathes were useless for metal cutting because they lacked power and a holding
device strong enough and accurate enough to guide the tool. For its development to the form in which we know it
now, we owe much to Henry Mauldsley, who developed the sliding carriage and in 1800 built a screw cutting
lathe. Now-a-days, it has become a general purpose machine tool, employed in production and repair work, because it
permits a large variety of operations to be performed on it.
 Fig -2 Lathe Machine

12.2. Working Principle of Lathe

Lathe removes undesired material from a rotating workpiece in the form of chips with the help of a tool
which is traversed across the work and can be fed deep in work. The tool material should be harder than the
workpiece and the latter held securely and rigidly on the machine. The tool may be given linear motion in any
direction. A lathe is used principally to produce cylindrical surfaces and plane surface, at right angles to the axis of
rotation. It can also produce tapers and bellows etc. Operation of turning is done on parts as small as those used by
watches to huge parts weighing several tons.

A lathe basically consists of a bed to provide support, a headstock, a cross slide to traverse the tool, a
tool post mounted on the cross slide. The spindle is driven by a motor through a gearbox to obtain a range of
speeds. The carriage moves over the bed guide ways parallel to the workpiece and the cross slide provides the
transverse motion. A feed shaft and lead screw are also provided to power the carriage and for cutting the
threads respectively.

Fig. 3- Basic principle of lathe machine

1. Speed Lathe

Speed lathe is simplest among all types of lathes. Speed lathe normally doesn’t possess gearbox, carriage
and lead screw. The tool is mounted on the adjustable slide and is fed into the work by hand only. It consists of a
bed, a headstock, a tailstock and a tool post mounted on an adjustable slide. Spindle speeds up to about 4000 r.p.m.
can be obtained easily. It is used in

• Wood working

• Spinning

• Polishing

2. Engine or Centre Lathe

This lathe is widely used and is so called because in early times, power was obtained from the engines. It
differs from the speed lathe as it has additional mechanism for controlling the spindle speed and controlling the feed
of the fixed culling tool. The cutting tool may be fed both in cross and longitudinal direction with reference to the
lathe axis with the help of a carriage.

The engine lathe, depending upon the power transmission may be classified as

 C’ Belt driven lathe.

 Motor driven lathe.
 C’ Geared head lathe.
3. Bench Lathe

Bench lathe is so small that it can be mounted on a bench. The bench lathe and the engine lathe differ in
size from each other. This is used for small and precision work.

4. Tool Room Lathe

A tool room lathe is an engine lathe (more precise) equipped with additional attachments needed for tool
and die-making operations. Various extra attachments are steady rest, quick change gears, draw in collets
attachment, thread dial, taper turning attachment, various chucks and a pump for a coolant. It has a geared headstock
and its spindle speed can be varied from very low to high. A tool room lathe is more expensive than comparable
sizes of engine lathe.

5. Capstan and Turret Lathe

This lathe is used for the mass production (very large production) of identical parts in the minimum time. In
this lathe, the tailstock of an engine lathe is replaced by a hexagonal turret, which can mount different tools at
different faces. These tools can be fed into the workpiece in proper sequence with no removal of tool and just by
changing the position (face) of the turret.
6. Automatic Lathes
In order to increase the quality and quantity of work, automation is implied, and the lathe used for this purpose is
known as automatic lathe. Once the tools, machine, work parts are set, the machine performs all the operations
automatically. The changing of tools, speed and feeds are also done automatically.

7. Special Purpose Lathes

Special purpose lathes are designed to perform the specific operations, which cannot be performed
efficiently by the standard lathes.

Lathe Construction
The five main parts of the lathe are: the bed, the headstock, the carriage, the tailstock, and the gearbox.
Below are illustrations of different lathes and lathe parts. Study these parts and be ready to answer questions
concerning their names and locations.

Fig- 7 Carriage: Saddle and Apron

The names given to various parts of the lathe have changed over the years - and are still not completely
standardized.
1. BED
The bed of the lathe provides the foundation for the whole machine and holds the headstock, tailstock and
carriage in alignment. The surfaces of the bed that are finely machined and upon which the carriage and tailstock
slide - are known as "ways".
Some beds have a gap near the headstock to allow extra-large diameters to be turned. Sometimes the gap is
formed by the machined ways stopping short of the headstock, sometimes by a piece of bed that can be unbolted,
removed and lost. Such beds are known as Gap Beds. Some very large lathes have a "sliding bed" where the upper
part, on which the carriage and tailstock sit, can be slid along a lower separate part - and so make the gap
correspondingly larger or smaller.

On the top of the bed, there are two sets of guide ways—outer ways and inner ways. Outer ways is for the
carriage and the inner ways for the tailstock. The guide ways are of two types wide flat guide ways and inverted V-
guide ways. With flat guide ways, chip accumulation is a problem but life is more but for V-guide ways life is less.
So combinations of both the flat and inverted V-guide ways are used.

Rib
Flat -Guide ways

V-Guide ways

Fig.-8 Lathe Bed

The bed of a lathe acts as the base on which the different fixed and moving parts of a lathe are mounted. This
facilitates the correct relative location of the fixed parts and at the same time provides ways for a well guided and
controlled movement of the operating part (carriage).Also it has to withstand various forces exerted on the cutting
tool during the operation. It must therefore be of a very rigid and robust construction. Lathe beds are usually made
as single piece casting of semi steel (i.e. Toughened Cast Iron) with the addition of small quantity of steel scrap to
the cast iron during melting; the material ‘Cast Iron’ facilitating an easy sliding action. However, in case of
extremely large machines, the bed may be in two or more pieces, bolted together to form the desired length. Bed
castings are usually made to have a box section incorporating cross ribs as shown in fig .8

2. TAILSTOCK (Fig-9 )

The Tailstock was once known in England as the "Loose headstock",” Poppet head" or "Loose head" - the
latter old-fashioned term being used by Harrison and other English firms in some of their advertising literature until
the early 1970s. The unit is arranged to slide along the bed and can be locked to it at any convenient point; the upper
portion of the unit is fitted with what is variously called a "barrel", "spindle" "ram" or "shoot" that can be moved in
and out of the main casting by hand, lever or screw feed and carries a "Dead Centre" that supports the other end of
work held (by various means) in the headstock.

Special centres, which rotate with the work, can be used in the tailstock ; these are known as "Rotating
Centres" and should not be referred to as "live centres" - that term being reserved for the centre carried in the
headstock spindle. Long ago centres were referred to by turners as "Poppets" - presumably from "pop it in" - and
they carried their own with them, secured in cotton waste and jealously guarded in the top pocket of their overalls.

Barrel or Spindle Tailstock

Centre

Lathe
Bed

Lead Screw
Lead screw
hanger bearing
b)

Fig 9(a, b- Tailstock

3. HEADSTOCK.
The lathe Headstock used, at one time, to be called the "Fixed Headstock" or "Fixed Head", and the
rotating shaft within it the "Mandrel". Today the mandrel is usually called the "Spindle", but this can cause
confusion with the tailstock, where the sliding bar is known variously as the "ram", "barrel" - and "spindle".

The headstock is normally mounted rigidly to the bed (exceptions exist in some production and CNC
lathes) and holds all the mechanisms, including various kinds and combinations of pulleys or gears, so that the
spindle can be made to turn at different speeds.
4. HEADSTOCK SPINDLE
The end of the headstock spindle is usually machined so that it can carry a faceplate, chuck, drive-plate,
internal or external collets - or even special attachments designed for particular jobs. In turn, these attachments hold
the work piece that is going to be machined.

5. CARRIAGE (Fig-10)
The whole assembly of Saddle, Apron, Top and Cross Slide is known as the "Carriage". Some American
publications (even makers' handbooks) have been known to casually refer to the "Saddle" as the "Carriage" - but this
is incorrect.

a) Saddle
The casting that fits onto the top of the bed and slides along it is known, almost universally, as the "Saddle"
- a self-explanatory and very suitable term.
 b) Apron
The vertical, often flat and rectangular "plate" fastened to the front of the "Saddle" is known as the
"Apron" and carries a selection of gears and controls that allow the carriage to be power driven up and down the bed
- and also engage the screw cutting feed and various powered tool feeds, should they be fitted. The leadscrew, and
sometimes a power shaft, usually pass through the apron and provide it with a drive for the various functions ithas to
perform. Apron design can be roughly divided into "single-wall" and "double-wall" types.

The "single-wall" apron has just one thickness of metal and, protruding from it (and unsupported on their
outer ends) are studs that carry gears. The "double-wall" apron is a much more robust structure, rather like a narrow,
open-topped box with the gear-carrying studs fitted between the two walls - and hence rigidly supported at both
ends.

Fig-10 Carriage: Tool post, Levers and hand wheels

This type of construction produces a very stiff structure - and one that is far less likely to deflect under heavy-duty
work; another advantage is that the closed base of the "box" can be used to house an oil reservoir the lubricant from
which can be pumped to supply the spindles, gears and even, on some lathes, the sliding surfaces of the bed and
cross slide.

COMPUND
REST

CROSS
SLIDE

Fig- 11 Carriage

c) Cross Slide and Top slide

Sitting on top of the "Saddle" is the "Cross Slide" - that, as its name implies, moves across the bed - and on
top of that there is often a "Top Slide" or "Tool Slide" that is invariably arranged so that it can be swivelled and
locked into a new position.
Very early lathes had a simple T-shaped piece of metal against which the turner "rested" his tool (all
turning being done by hand) but when it became possible to move this "Rest" across the bed by a screw feed it
became known, appropriately enough, as a "Slide-rest". The earliest known example of a "Slide-rest" is illustrated in
Mittelalterliche Hausbuch, a German publication of about 1480.

After the "Top Slide" became a more common fitting the term "Slide-rest" was not so frequently used - and
the different functions of the two slides led to their specific names being more widely adopted. When two slides are
provided (or sometimes, on watchmaker's lathes, three) the complete assembly is known as a "Compound" or
"Compound Slide" or even "Compound Slide-rest". Some makers label the "Top Slide" as the "Compound Rest" or
even the "Compound Slide" - but as "to compound" means the 'joining of two or more' - not 'one' - so this is not a
correct use of the term.

d) Tool post: The tool post is mounted on the compound rest and slides in a T-slot, Cutting tool/tool holder is
firmly held in it. The tool can be swivelled as well as tilted by means of a rocker and a concave ring collar, (Fig12).
Fig-12 Tool Post

.
8.) CHANGEWHEELS

These are the gears that take the drive from the headstock spindle down to the leadscrew. They are
normally contained within a cover at the extreme left-hand side of the lathe - but many older lathes, built in times
when manufacturers were not concerned with saving people from themselves, left them exposed. The gears are
called "change wheels" because of the necessity to change them every time a different thread, or rate of tool feed,
was required and the expression goes back to the earliest time that gears were used for this purpose.

Lathe Accessories:

The devices, which are used, for holding and supporting the work and the tool on the lathE are called the lathe accessories. The
various lathe accessories are as follows

1. Chucks: These are used for holding and rotating the workpiece in a lathe. It is attached to the workpiece in a lathe. It is attached to
the lathe spindle by means of two bolts with the back plate screwed on to the spindle nose. There are many types of the chucks, but
the following two areas commonly used:

(a) Three Jaw Universal Chuck: This chuck is also called the self centering chuck or scroll chuck. If we are tightening or
loosening any jaw, all the three jaws come towards the centre or away from the centres respectively with equal distances that’s why
it is called the self centered chuck. It is used for holding round and hexagonal work because centering is not needed.
(a) Three Jaw Universal Chuck (Self Centering)

(b) Four Jaw Independent Chuck

Fig- 13 – Chucks

(b) Four Jaw Independent Chuck: It has four reversible jaws, each of which may be independently adjusted to accommodate the
work. Since movement of all the jaws is independent, so it can be used for prismatic parts (i.e. square, round or irregular shape)
and the work can be done in either a concentric or eccentric position but centering is needed.

The other types of chucks are combination chuck, magnetic chuck, collet chuck etc.

2. Centres: The lathe centre is hardened steel devices with a taper shank on one end a sixty degree point at the other end. The taper
shank fits the taper spindle hole in the headstock and tailstock. The centre, which fits in the headstock spindle and revolves with
the work, is called live centre while the centre, which is used in a tailstock spindle and does not revolve is called dead centre.
Fig. 14 Centres.

4. Drive Plate (Catch Plate): It is a plain disc of Cast iron or steel, which is bored out and threaded so that it can be attached to the
spindle nose. It also carries the hole for the pin, which is used only when the work is held in a lathe dog having straight nail. When
bent tail dog is used, this pin is taken out and the bent portion of the tail is inserted into the hole.

Fig. 15 Drive Plate. Fig. 16 Face Plate.

4. Face Plate The face plate as shown in Fig. 16 is similar to drive plate except that it is larger in diameter. It contains open slots or
T-slots so that bolt can be used to clamp the work of complicated shape and size, which cannot be held in a chuck.

5. Lathe Dog or Carrier: It is attached to the workpiece to be turned between centres or placed on a mandrel. The work is gripped
by a setscrew and is engaged with a pin attached to the drive plate or faceplate. These are straight tail type and bent tail type as
shown in Fig. 17
 (a) Straight Tail Type (b) Bent Tail Type

Fig. 17 Lathe Dog or Carriers.

6. Mandrel: Mandrel is a hardened and tempered steel shaft, which is used to hold the hollow workpieces to machine their external
surface. It is having a centre hole at each end. The work revolves with the mandrel, which is mounted between the centres of the
lathe. Various types are shown in Fig. 18 below.

(a) Plain Mandrel

(b) Collar Mandrel (c) Gang Mandrel

(d) Cone Mandrel

(e) Expansion Mandrel (f) Screwed Mandrel

(g) Step Mandrel

Fig- 18 Mandrel

7. Rests: When a very long job is to be turned between centres on a lathe, due to its own weight, it provides a springing action and
carries a lot of bending moment In order to decrease these, the workpiece is supported at some intermediate point. This support is
provided with the help of rests. There are two types of rests.

1. Fixed steady or steady rest.

2. Traveling steady or follower rest.

These are shown in Fig. 19 below.

. (a) Steady Rest

b) Follower Rest

Fig-19 – Indexing Heads

Fig- 20 Cutting tools

The most common operations which can be performed on a lathe are centering, facing, plain turning, step turning, taper turning,
drilling, reaming, boring, undercutting, threading and knurling. These operations are described below

1. Centering: If the chuck is three jaws type, then centering is not required because it is self-centered chuck. But for four jaws chuck,
centering is needed. Centre is located by means of using a combination set or using a bell centre punch. After locating the centre,
centre holes are produced by using a countersunk tool or drill. (Fig.- 21)

2. Facing: Facing is the operation of machining the ends of a piece of work to produce the flat surface. The facing tool is fed from the
centre of the workpiece towards the outer surface or from the outer surface to the centre, with the help of a cross slide. (Fig. 22)

3. Plain Turning: It is an operation of removing excess amount of material from the surface (cylindrical surface or circumference) of
the cylindrical workpiece. This operation is done to reduce the diameter of the work piece. (Fig-23)

Fig. 21 -Centering. Fig. 22 - Facing.

Fig. 23 - Plain Turning. Fig. 24- Step Turning.

4. Step Turning: It is an operation of producing various steps of different diameters in the workpiece as shown in Fig. 24
5. Taper Turning: It is an operation of producing an external conical surface on a workpiece. Taper turning can be performed by the
tail stock set over method, by swiveling the compound rest, or using the taper turning attachment. Most commonly used is by
swiveling the compound rest. (Fig.- 25)

Fig. 25 Taper Turning.

Tan (angle of swivel of compound rest) = (D-d) / L

where, D = Larger dia. of workpiece

d = Smaller dia. of workpiece

L = Axial length of the workpiece on which taper is to be performed.

Taper = (D— d) / L

6. Drilling: It is an operation of making a hole in the workpiece with the help of a drill. The workpiece is held in a chuck and the drill
is held in the tailstock. The drill is fed manually, into the rotating workpiece, by rotating the tailstock hand wheel.

Fig. 26- Drilling. Fig. 27- Reaming.

7. Reaming It is an operation of finishing the previously drilled role. In this case, reamer is held in the tailstock and is fed into the
hole by rotating the tailstock hand wheel..( Fig-27)
8. Boring It is an operation of enlarging a hole already made in a workpiece. In this, boring tool is held in the tool post and is fed into
the work similarly as in plain turning.

Fig. 28 - Boring. Fig. 29 - Undercutting or Grooving

9. Undercutting or Grooving It is an operation of reducing over a very narrow surface. In this case, the proper cutting work up to
the

desired depth at right angle to the workpiece.

10. Threading both external and internal threads can be cut on lathe. For this operation some lathes are provided with quick change
gear box, which enables the establishment of the required speed ratio very quickly. A chart is provided on the gearbox, which
carries the complete information of speed and recommended feed. With the help of gear change lever, required speed and feed
can be obtained.

Fig. 30 - Threading. Fig. 31 - Knurling.

11. Knurling: The knurling tool’s lateral displacement produces a regularly shaped, roughened surface on a workpiece pressed
against the workpiece, which causes the slight outward and of the metal so as to form the knurl, a raised diamond pattern.

Lathe Operations:

Engine lathes are capable of many different machining operations. Turning cylindrical surfaces,
facing flat surfaces, cutting threads, drilling, and boring are some of the typical operations that are
done on the engine lathe.
The engine lathe operates on the
principle of work being rotated
against a cutting tool (Figure

Figure In turning, the cutting tool is fed into the revolving workpiece.

Figure Typical machining operations

performed on the

engine lathe

MILLING
Milling is the process of cutting away material by feeding a workpiece past a rotating multiple tooth cutter.
The cutting action of the many teeth around the milling cutter provides a fast method of machining. The
machined surface may be flat, angular, or curved. The surface may also be milled to any combination of
shapes. The machine for holding the workpiece, rotating the cutter, and feeding it is known as the Milling
machine.

MILLING MACHINE

The milling machine is one of the most versatile machine tools in existence. In addition to straight milling of flat and
irregularly shaped surfaces, it can perform gear and thread cutting, drilling, boring and slotting operations which
are normally handled on machine tools designed specifically for these specific operations.

A milling machine is a machine tool used for the shaping of metal and other solid materials. Its basic form is that of
a rotating cutter which rotates about the spindle axis (similar to a drill), and a table to which the workpiece is
affixed. In contrast to drilling, where the drill is moved exclusively along its axis, the milling operation involves
movement of the rotating cutter sideways as well as 'in and out'. The cutter and workpiece move relative to each
other, generating a tool path along which material is removed. The movement is precisely controlled, usually with
slides and lead screws or analogous technology. Often the movement is achieved by moving the table while the
cutter rotates in one place, but regardless of how the parts of the machine slide, the result that matters is the relative
motion between cutter and workpiece. Milling machines may be operated manually or by CNC (computer numerical
control).

Milling machines can perform a vast number of operations, some of them with quite complex tool paths, such as slot
cutting, planning, drilling, rebating, routing, etc.

CLASSIFICATION OF MILLING

 Peripheral Milling

In peripheral (or slab) milling, the milled surface is generated by teeth located on the periphery of the cutter
body. The axis of cutter rotation is generally in a plane parallel to the workpiece surface to be machined.

 Face Milling

In face milling, the cutter is mounted on a spindle having an axis of rotation perpendicular to the workpiece
surface. The milled surface results from the action of cutting edges located on the periphery and face of the
cutter.

 End Milling
The cutter in end milling generally rotates on an axis vertical to the workpiece. It can be tilted to machine tapered
surfaces. Cutting teeth are located on both the end face of the cutter and the periphery of the cutter body.

METHODS OF MILLING

 Up Milling

Up milling is also referred to as conventional milling. The direction of the cutter rotation opposes the feed motion.
For example, if the cutter rotates clockwise , the workpiece is fed to the right in up milling.

UP MILLIMG
 Down Milling

Down milling is also referred to as climb milling. The direction of cutter rotation is same as the feed motion. For
example, if the cutter rotates counter clockwise , the workpiece is fed to the right in down milling.

DOWN MILLING

The chip formation in down milling is opposite to the chip formation in up milling. The figure for down milling
shows that the cutter tooth is almost parallel to the top surface of the workpiece. The cutter tooth begins to mill the
full chip thickness. Then the chip thickness gradually decreases.

Other milling operations are shown in the figure.

Milling Cutters
A milling cutter is a cutting tool that is used on a milling machine. Milling cutters are available in many standard
and special types, forms, diameters, and widths.The teeth maybe straight (parallel to the axis of rotation) or at a
helix angle. The helix angle helps a slow engagement of the tool distributing the forces .The cutter may be right-
hand (to turn clockwise) or left-hand (to turn counterclockwise).The figure shows a typical end milling cutter.

Types of Milling Machines

Milling machines can be broadly classified into the following types:
 Column and knee type of milling machines
 Bed type
 Rotary table
 Tracer controlled

A miniature hobbyist mill plainly showing the basic parts of a mill.

Other milling machine variants and terminology

 Box or column mills are very basic hobbyist bench-mounted milling machines that feature a head riding up
and down on a column or box way.
 Turret or vertical ram mills are more commonly referred to as Bridgeport-type milling machines. The
spindle can be aligned in many different positions for a very versatile, if somewhat less rigid machine.

 Knee mill or knee-and-column mill refers to any milling machine whose x-y table rides up and down the
column on a vertically adjustable knee. This includes Bridgeports.
 C-Frame mills are larger, industrial production mills. They feature a knee and fixed spindle head that is
only mobile vertically. They are typically much more powerful than a turret mill, featuring a separate
hydraulic motor for integral hydraulic power feeds in all directions, and a twenty to fifty horsepower motor.
Backlash eliminators are almost always standard equipment. They use large NMTB 40 or 50 tooling. The
tables on C-frame mills are usually 18" by 68" or larger, to allow multiple parts to be machined at the same
time.

 Planer-style mills are large mills built in the same configuration as planers except with a milling spindle
instead of a planing head. This term is growing dated as planers themselves are largely a thing of the past.

 Bed mill refers to any milling machine where the spindle is on a pendant that moves up and down to move
the cutter into the work. These are generally more rigid than a knee mill.

 Ram type mill refers to a mill that has a swiveling cutting head mounted on a sliding ram. The spindle can
be oriented either vertically or horizontally, or anywhere in between. Van Norman specialized in ram type
mills through most of the 20th century, but since the advent of CNC machines ram type mills are no longer
made.

 Jig borers are vertical mills that are built to bore holes, and very light slot or face milling. They are
typically bed mills with a long spindle throw. The beds are more accurate, and the handwheels are
graduated down to .0001" for precise hole placement.

 Horizontal boring mills are large, accurate bed horizontal mills that incorporate many features from
various machine tools. They are predominantly used to create large manufacturing jigs, or to modify large,
high precision parts. They have a spindle stroke of several (usually between four and six) feet, and many
are equipped with a tailstock to perform very long boring operations without losing accuracy as the bore
increases in depth. A typical bed would have X and Y travel, and be between three and four feet square
with a rotary table or a larger rectangle without said table. The pendant usually has between four and eight
feet in vertical movement. Some mills have a large (30" or more) integral facing head. Right angle rotary
tables and vertical milling attachments are available to further increase productivity.

 Floor mills have a row of rotary tables, and a horizontal pendant spindle mounted on a set of tracks that
runs parallel to the table row. These mills have predominantly been converted to CNC, but some can still
be found (if one can even find a used machine available) under manual control. The spindle carriage moves
to each individual table, performs the machining operations, and moves to the next table while the previous
table is being set up for the next operation. Unlike any other kind of mill, floor mills have floor units that
are entirely movable. A crane will drop massive rotary tables , X-Y tables , and the like into position for
machining, allowing the largest and most complex custom milling operations to take place.

 Portical mills It has the spindle mounted in a T structure

 The milling tool has a screw thread at one
end. This is turned into the chuck. A cloth is
wrapped around the tool before this is done as
it can easily cut through flesh. Care must be
taken when setting up a cutting tool.

PLANNER

A planer is a type of metalworking machine tool that is analogous to a shaper, but larger, and with the entire
workpiece moving beneath the cutter, instead of the cutter moving above a stationary workpiece. The work table is
moved back and forth on the bed beneath the cutting head either by mechanical means, such as a rack and pinion
gear, or by a hydraulic cylinder.

Planers and shapers were used generally for two types of work: generating accurate flat surfaces and cutting slots
(such as keyways). Planers and shapers are now obsolescent, because milling machines have eclipsed them as the
machine tools of choice for doing such work. However, they have not yet entirely disappeared from the
metalworking world.
Modern planers are used by smaller tool and die shops within larger production facilities to maintain and repair large
stamping dies and plastic injection molds. Additional uses include any other task where an abnormally large (usually
in the range of 4'×8' or more) block of metal must be squared when a (quite massive) horizontal grinder or floor mill
is not available, too expensive, or unpractical for the situation. While not as precise as grinding, a planer can remove
a tremendous amount of material in one pass and still maintain a high degree of accuracy. Metal planers come in two
kinds: double-housing and open-side. The double-housing variety has vertical supports on both sides of its long bed;
the open-side variety has a vertical support on only one side, allowing the workpiece to extend beyond the bed.
Metal planers can vary in size from a table size of 30"×72" to 20'×62', and in weight from around 20,000 lbs to over
1,000,000 lbs.

SHAPER

A shaper is a machine tool used for shaping or surfacing metal and other materials.

A shaping machine is used to machine surfaces. It can cut curves, angles and many other shapes. It is a popular
machine in a workshop because its movement is very simple although it can produce a variety of work.Shaping
machines come in a range of sizes but the most common size is seen opposite.

Types

Shapers are mainly classified as

- standard,
- draw-cut,

- horizontal,

- universal,

- vertical,

- geared,

- crank,

- hydraulic,

- contour and travelling head.

The horizontal arrangement is the most common. Vertical shapers are generally fitted with a rotary table to enable
curved surfaces to be machined. The vertical shaper differs from a slotter (slotting machine), as the slide can be
moved from the vertical. A slotter is fixed in the vertical plane.

Operation

Shaper linkage. Note the drive arm revolves less for the return stroke than for the cutting stroke, resulting in a
quicker return stroke and more powerful cutting stroke.

A shaper operates by moving a hardened cutting tool backwards and forwards across the workpiece. On the return
stroke of the ram the tool is lifted clear of the workpiece, reducing the cutting action to one direction only.

The workpiece mounts on a rigid, box shaped table in front of the machine. The height of the table can be adjusted
to suit this workpiece, and the table can traverse sideways underneath the reciprocating tool which is mounted on the
ram, the table motion is usually under the control of an automatic feed mechanism which acts on the feed screw. The
ram slides back and forth above the work, at the front end of the ram is a vertical tool-slide that may be adjusted to
either side of the vertical plane. This tool-slide holds the clapper box and toolpost from where the tool can be
positioned to cut the straight, flat surface on the top of the workpiece. The tool-slide permits feeding the tool
downwards to put on a cut it or may be set away from the vertical plane, as required.

The ram is adjustable for stroke and, due to the geometry of the linkage, it moves faster on the return (non-cutting)
stroke than on the forward, cutting stroke. This action is via a slotted link or whitworth link.

Cutting fluid may be employed to improve the finish and prolong the tool's life.

Uses

The most common use is to machine straight, flat surfaces but with ingenuity and some accessories a wide range of
work can be done. Other examples of its use are:

 Keyways in the boss of a pulley or gear can be machined without resorting to a dedicated broaching setup.
 Dovetail slides

 Internal splines

 Keyway cutting in blind holes

DRILLING MACHINE

The drilling machine is one of the most important machine tools in a workshop. As regards its importance it is
second only to the lathe. Although it was primarily designed to originate a hole, it can perform a number of
similar operations. In a drilling machine holes may be drilled quickly and at a low cost. The hole is generated by the
rotating edge of a cutting tool known as the drill which exerts large force on the work clamped on the table. As
the machine tool exerts vertical pressure to originate a hole it is loosely called a "drill press".

Holes were drilled by the Egyptians in 1200 B.C. about 3000 years ago by bow drills. The bow drill is the mother of
present day metal cutting drilling machine.

TYPES OF DRILLING MACHINE

Drilling machines are made in many different types and sizes, each designed to handle a class of work or
specific job to the best advantage. The different types of drilling machines are :

1. Portable drilling machine.

2. Sensitive drilling machine.
(a) Bench mounting, (b) Flour mounting
3. Upright drilling machine.
(a) Round column section, (b) Box column section
4. Radial drilling machine.
(a) Plain (b) Semi universal (c) Universal
5. Gang drilling machine.
6. Multiple spindle drilling machine.
7. Automatic drilling machine.
8. Deep hole drilling machine.
(a) Vertical (b) Horizontal
(c)
Fig. Various parts of a drilling machine

Aim. To study different types of fitting tools and marking tools used in fitting practice.
File

Filing is a material removal process in manufacturing. Similar, depending on use, to both sawing
and grinding in effect, it is functionally versatile, but used mostly for finishing operations,
namely in deburring operations. Filing operations can be used on a wide range of materials as a
finishing operation. Filing helps achieve workpiece function by removing some excess material
and deburring the surface.

HAND FILES
Hand files are used in the workshop to smooth rough edges. They can be used to smooth a range
of materials including metals such as brass and steel to wood based materials such as MDF. They
are made from high carbon steel and they are heat treated so that they are tougher than the steel
or other materials that they are to be applied to.
Parts of file

Hand files are normally held in both hands. The file is held flat against the surface it is to cut /
smooth. The file is then pushed forward and it cuts on the forward stroke. It is then lifted away
from the metal and returned to the starting point for the next push forward. This is called
‘through filing’

tYPES
Relative tooth sizes for smooth, 2nd cut and bastard files

Files come in a wide variety of sizes, shapes, and tooth configurations. The cross-section of a file
can be flat, round, half-round, triangular, square, knife edge or of a more specialized shape.
There is no unitary international standard for file nomenclature; however, there are many
generally accepted names for certain kinds of files.

A file's teeth can range from rough, coarse and bastard (meaning intermediate) to second-cut,
smooth and dead smooth. A single-cut or mill file has one set of parallel teeth, while a cross-cut
or double-cut file has a second set at an angle to the first. In Swiss-pattern files the teeth are cut
at a shallower angle, and are graded by number, with a number 1 file being coarser than a
number 2, etc. Most files have teeth on all faces, but some specialty flat files have teeth only on
the face or only on the edge, so that the user can come right up to another edge without damaging
the finish on it.

Some of the common shapes and their uses:

 Hand files are parallel in width and tapered in thickness; they are used for general work.
 Joint round edge files are parallel in width and thickness, with rounded edges. The flats are safe
(no teeth) and cut on the rounded edges only. Used for making joints and hinges.

 Half round ring files taper in width and thickness, coming to a point, and are narrower than a
standard half round. Used for filing inside of rings.

 Barrette files are tapered in width and thickness, coming to a rounded point at the end. Only
the flat side is cut, and the other sides are all safe. For doing flat work.

 Checkering files are parallel in width and gently tapered in thickness. They have teeth cut in a
precise grid pattern, and are used for making serrations and doing checkering work, as on
gunstocks.

 Crossing files are half round on two sides with one side having a larger radius than the other.
Tapered in width and thickness. For filing interior curved surfaces. The double radius makes
possible filing at the junction of two curved surfaces or a straight and curved surface.

 Crochet files are tapered in width and gradually tapered in thickness, with two flats and
radiused edges, cut all around. Used in filing junctions between flat and curved surface, and
slots with rounded edges.

 Knife files are tapered in width and thickness, but the knife edge has the same thickness the
whole length, with the knife edge having an arc to it. Used for slotting or wedging operations.

 Pippin files are tapered in width and thickness, generally of a teardrop cross section and having
the edge of a knife file. Used for filing the junction of two curved surfaces and making V-shaped
slots.

 Square files are gradually tapered and cut on all four sides. Used for a wide variety of things.

 Triangle files, also called three square files, are gradually tapered and come to a point. Used for
many things, cutting angles less than 90 degrees, etc. It has been pointed out that there's no
such thing as a "three square". Triangle files are 60 degree angles, and "square" is 90 degrees.
All this is true, but triangle files are often called the term simply as a matter of slang.

 Round files, also called rat-tail files, are gradually tapered and are used for many tasks that
require a round tool, such as enlarging round holes or cutting a scalloped edge.

 Round parallel files are similar to round files, except that they do not taper. Shaped like a
toothed cylinder.

 Equalling files are parallel in width and thickness. Used for filing slots and corners.

 Slitting files are parallel in width with a diamond shaped cross section. Thinner than knife files
and use for filing slots.
  Pillar files are parallel in width and tapered in thickness for perfectly flat filing. Double cut top
and bottom with both sides safe, these a long, narrow files for precision work.

 Warding files are parallel in thickness, tapered in width, and thin. Like a hand or flat file that
comes to a point on the end. Used for flat work and slotting.

 Dreadnought (curved teeth) and millenicut (straight teeth) files both have heavily undercut,
sharp but coarse teeth. Both can be used for rapidly removing large quantities of material from
thick aluminum alloy, copper or brass. Today, the millenicut and dreadnought have found a new
use in removing plastic filler materials such as two-part epoxies or styrenes such as those
commonly used in automobile body repair.

Use

Files have forward-facing cutting teeth, and cuts most effectively when pushed over the
workpiece. Drawfiling involves laying the file sideways on the work, and carefully pushing or
pulling it across the work. This catches the teeth of the file sideways instead of head on, and a
very fine shaving action is produced. There are also varying strokes that produce a combination
of the straight ahead stroke and the drawfiling stroke, and very fine work can be attained in this
fashion. Using a combination of strokes, and progressively finer files, a skilled operator can
attain a surface that is perfectly flat and near mirror finish. The grooves in a file may became
clogged during use, causing the file to lose its cutting ability and trapped shavings can scratch
the work surface. A file card can be used to clean the file.

Files should always be used with a handle, otherwise the naked tang can injure the operator.

Hammer

A hammer is a tool meant to deliver an impact to an object. The most common uses are for
driving nails, fitting parts, and breaking up objects. Hammers are often designed for a specific
purpose, and vary widely in their shape and structure. Usual features are a handle and a head,
with most of the weight in the head. The basic design is hand-operated, but there are also many
mechanically operated models for heavier uses.

The hammer is a basic tool of many professions, and can also be used as a weapon. By analogy,
the name hammer has also been used for devices that are designed to deliver blows, e.g. in the
caplock mechanism of firearms.

PARTS OF A HAMMER

The essential part of a hammer is the head, a compact solid mass that is able to deliver the blow
to the intended target without itself deforming.

The opposite side of a ball as in the ball-peen hammer and the cow hammer. Some upholstery
hammers have a magnetized appendage, to pick up tacks. In the hatchet the hammer head is
secondary to the cutting edge of the tool.
In recent years the handles have been made of durable plastic or rubber. The hammer varies at
the top, some are larger than others giving a larger surface area to hit different sized nails and
such,

Popular hand-powered HAMMERS:

 Carpenter's hammers (used for nailing), such as the framing hammer and the claw hammer
 upholstery hammer

 construction hammers, including the sledgehammer

 Drilling hammer - a lightweight, short handled sledgehammer

 Ball-peen hammer, or mechanic's hammer

 Cross-Peen hammer, or Warrington hammer

 Mallets, including the rubber hammer and dead blow hammer.

 Stonemason's Hammer

 Geologist's hammer or rock pick

 lump hammer, or club hammer

 gavel, used by judges and presiding authorities in general

 Tinner's Hammer

Claw hammer Geologist's Upholstery hammer

Framing hammer
hammer

Ball-peen hammer Rubber mallet Wooden mallet

Cross-peen hammer

Sledgehammer
Twist hammerDog-head hammer Straight pane
(blacksmithing) Ball pane hammer sledgehammer
(blacksmithing)

Mechanically-powered hammers often look quite different from the hand tools, but nevertheless
most of them work on the same principle. They include:

 jackhammer
 steam hammer

 trip hammer

 hammer drill, that combines a jackhammer-like mechanism with a drill

Punch

A punch is a hard metal rod with a shaped tip at one end and a blunt butt end at the other that is
usually struck by a hammer. A variety of punches are used in engineering, but often the purpose
is to form an impression of the tip on a workpiece.

Center Punch

A center punch is typically used as an aid to drilling operations; a drill, when brought into
contact with a flat surface, will have a tendency to wander on the surface until it gains sufficient
purchase to start cutting a hole. A center punch forms a small dimple in which the tip of the drill
(if it is small enough) will fit. When drilling larger holes and the web of the drill is wider than
the indentation produced by a center punch, the drilling of a pilot hole is usually needed. A
center punch usually has a tip, that when viewed on a profile, has sides at a 90 degree angle to
one another.
center punch

An automatic center punch operates without the need for a hammer.

Prick punch

A prick punch, while easily confused with the similar looking center punch, serves an entirely
different purpose. A prick punch is primarily used for the purposes of layout. By design it
produces a smaller indentation than a center punch, which acts as a useful datum point in layout
operations. When layout is complete, the indentation made with a prick punch can be enlarged
with a center punch to allow for drilling. A prick punch usually has a tip, that when viewed on a
profile, has sides at a 30-60 degree angle to one another.

Prick punch

Transfer Punch

A transfer punch is a punch (usually in an index set) of a specific outer diameter that is non-
tapered and extends the entire length of the punch (except for the tip). It is used to tightly fit the
tolerances of an existing hole and, when struck, precisely transfer the center of that hole to
another surface. It can be used, for example, to duplicate the hole patterns in a part, or precisely
set locations for threaded holes (created by drilling and tapping) to bolt an object to a surface.

Transfer Punch

PIN PUNCH

Pin punch
The purpose served by pin punches is somewhat different from the center or prick punches. A
pin punch is used as a driving tool, typically, as the name implies, to drive pins that are used to
affix a fixture to a rotating shaft. Pin punches are typically characterized by a hexagonal body,
with a long, flat ended cylindrical section.
Doming punches

A doming punch is used in conjunction with a doming block to make spheres or hemispheres
out of sheets of metal. The punch is generally made of tool steel, but can be made of wood. They
come in a number of different sizes, the punch size determining what size the finished product
will be.

drift punch

A drift "punch" is misleadingly named; it is not used as a punch in the traditional sense of the
term. A drift punch, or drift pin, is used as an aid in aligning bolt or rivet holes prior to inserting
a fastener. A drift punch is constructed as a tapered rod, with the hammer acting on the large end
of the taper. The tapered end of a drift punch is placed into the semi-aligned bolt holes of two
separate components, and then driven into the hole. As it is driven in, the taper forces the two
components into alignment, allowing for easy insertion of the fastener. Unlike most punches,
force is never (and should never be) applied to the tip, or end of a drift pin.

Letter PUNCH

Letter stamps

Also known as letter stamps or number stamps. These are used to emboss the impression of a
letter or number into a workpiece. They are most common in the reverse image, this allows the
end result to be immediately readable, however they may be made as a positive image. This is
essential in the case of die or mold making and ensures that the finished product will in fact be
readable, a die is in fact a negative image already.
TRY-SQUARE

The engineers try-square is

composed of two parts, the stock
and the blade. They are usually
made from bright mild steel with
the blade being hardened and
tempered so that it resists damage.
It is normally used during
engineering / metalworking
projects

A typical use of an engineers try-

square is to mark out material for
cutting/shaping.

The try square is pushed against a

straight side of the material (eg.
steel). An engineers scriber is then
used to scratch a line onto the
surface of the metal. Sometimes
engineers blue (a dye/ink) is wiped
onto the surface first so that the
scratched line can be seen easily.
The material is then cut down to this
straight line.
 Look closely at an engineers try-
square, you should see an interesting
feature. There should be a small slot
that has been cut into the stock. This
prevents small burrs caused by filing
from altering the try-squares
accuracy. Dirt can also collect on
metal surfaces, again the slot helps
prevent measuring angles
inaccurately.
In the example seen opposite, the
try-square is used to test that a 90
degree angle exists across the edge
of the steel. Although a burr exists
on the edge of the steel it fits into the
slot and does not affect the way the
try-square is used.

Draw an engineers try-square and label each part.

Sketch one typical use of an engineers try-square.

SURFACE GAUGE

A surface gauge is very useful

when finding the centre of a
piece of round section material.
It is normally used to ‘scribe’
parallel lines. Its base is heavy
and this means it is stable when
in used. Surface gauges
sometimes have magnetic bases
and this means they can be
locked onto metal surfaces
making it easier to use.

The diagram above shows the round section steel held in a vee block. The
surface gauge is then moved across the surface of the steel, scribing a line.
The steel is then rotated through 90 degrees and another line is scribed.
This is repeated until a square is produced in the centre (see diagrams
below). Diagonal lines are then drawn from each corner of the square to
locate the exact centre of the circle.
 To study various types of carpentry tools and prepare simple types of at least two
wooden joints.

CARPENTARY

THE WOODWORKERS TRY-SQUARE

The woodworkers try-square is

composed of two main parts -
the stock and the blade. The
blade is made from hardened
and tempered steel which
makes is resistant to damage.
The stock is usually made from
rosewood although cheaper
 versions can be made from
plastic or cheap woods.
A brass face is added to the
stock to ensure a straight edge.

A typical use of a woodworkers

try-square can be seen opposite.

The try-square is pushed against

the straight edge of a piece of
wood and a marking knife is
then used to mark a straight line
across the material. The line is
continued all the way round the
wood (all four sides are marked).
This type of marking materials
helps if a joint is to be cut or the
end of the material is simply to
be sawn away.

An alternative use of a try-

square is to test the edge of a
piece of wood to check how
square it is (has it got a 90
degree angle along its length?).
The try-square and material are
held up to the light and the try-
square is moved along the length
of the wood. If light shines
through any gaps between the
blade and the wood, then the
edge is not square.

Draw a woodworkers try-square and label each part.

Sketch one typical use of a woodworkers try-square.

THE MARKING GAUGE

A marking gauge is used to mark a line parallel to a straight edge. The stem and
stock are made from beech and the thumbscrew from clear yellow plastic. The
better quality gauges have brass inserts at the front of the stock. These help reduce
the wear on the stock as it is pushed against the surface of the wood - to be
marked. The marking gauge is an extremely important tool for marking parallel
lines and preparing for cutting joints.
The gauge has a sharp point called a spur.
This is made from hardened steel and is the
part that ‘scribes’ the line into the surface of
the wood. The distance between the stock and
the spur can be adjusted by loosening the
thumbscrew which allows the stock to slide
along the stem. The thumbscrew can then be
tightened once the correct distance has been
ALTERING THE DISTANCE BETWEEN THE SPUR
reached. A ruler is used to set the distance AND STOCK
(see diagram opposite).
If the spur is replaced with a small knife it is
now called a cutting gauge and is used for
cutting lines into solid wood surfaces in
preparation for veneering or inlaying.

MARKING WITH THE GAUGE

The wood is held firmly to the bench by a G cramp or bench hook. The stock of
the marking gauge is pressed firmly against a straight edge of the wood and
pushed carefully along it. A little pressure is applied to the spur, too much
pressure and the spur digs into the wood marking an ugly line on the surface.
It is a good idea to lightly scribe a line along the surface first and then repeat the
process two or three times until an accurate scribed line can be seen.
THE MORTISE GAUGE
The mortise gauge is a special type of marking gauge
and it is used to mark wood so that a mortise can be cut
into it. The diagram to the right represents a typical
mortise and tenon joint. The mortise is marked out
using the mortise gauge although it must be set to the
correct size of mortise chisel very carefully. A mortise
chisel is then used to remove the waste wood.
The mortise gauge is normally made from a hardwood
such as rose wood with brass being used for the parts
that slide along the stem.

MARKING WITH THE MORTISE GAUGE


2. A try square and a marking knife are used mark the
lines at the top and bottom of the mortise.
4. The mortise chisel is then used to break
the surface of the waste wood by gently
tapping the handle with a mallet.
1. The distance between the fixed
spur and the adjustable spur is set
so that it matches the width of the
mortise chisel. This done by
turning the brass thumb screw.
The width of the mortise chisel
should match the width of the
mortise to be cut in the wood.
3. The stock of the mortise gauge
is pressed against the side of the
wood. It is then pushed along the
wood until the mortise is marked
out correctly.
5. The waste wood is then slowly
removed, this time, by applying more
force to the handle of the chisel with
the mallet. The waste is removed until
the entire mortise hole has been cut.
PLANES
A large range of planes are available and they are used for different purposes. The body of a
plane is made from high grade cast iron with the cutters being tungsten made from vanadium
steel. The earliest known examples of planes are from the Roman era but even today they are
used for the same purposes - to smooth rough surfaces or the plane down the thickness of a piece
of wood to the required size.

Types of PLANES

WOOD BLOCK PLANE: Although this is a very old design they are still used today to remove
a large amount of wood. This is due to the fact that they are lighter than steel planes and
therefore they can be used comfortably for longer periods.
JACK PLANE: This is the steel equivalent of the wooden block plane. It has a steel body and
because it is heavier than the wood block plane it is easier to hold down on the surface of the
wood being planed. It is used to plane longer pieces of wood.

SMALL BLOCK PLANE: This is a small version of a wood block plane and it is used for light
work such as producing 'chamfers'. It is normally held and used in one hand.

SMOOTHING PLANE: A shorter version of the steel jack plane. It is used for general work
such as smoothing short pieces of wood. It is lighter and smaller than the jack plane
BULLNOSE PLANE: This is used to plain right into corners. The blade can be seen to go
almost up to the end of the plane's body and consequently very little material is missed in a
corner.

REBATE PLANE: Used for producing shoulders or rebates. A good example is a base to a
jewellery box which is rebated into the sides.

COMBINATION PLANE: Used in a similar way to a rebate plane. It can be used for creating a
shoulder/rebate on the edge of a piece of wood. This plane has an advantage over the rebate
plane as it is adjustable for different widths.
MACHINE PLANE: This is favoured by DIY enthusiasts as it saves time. A blade revolves at
high speed and as the machine plane is pushed across the surface of the wood - it is planed. A big
disadvantage of these planes is that they are potentially very dangerous if misused. Also,
sometimes the finish to the surface is not as smooth or precise as a hand held plane being
carefully used.

A JACK OR SMOOTHING PLANE

When a pupil uses a smoothing or jack plane for the first time it is difficult to plane a
surface accurately or smoothly. The plane tends to stick or to dig into the wood surface
with the result being a damaged surface. If a few basic rules are followed this technique
can be mastered.

BASIC GUIDANCE ON THE USE OF THE PLANE

1. The wood must be placed level and firmly in the vice.

2. Always plane in the direction of the grain. Examine the wood carefully, it may be
obvious which way the grain is flowing.
3. If the plane sticks whilst in use, turn the wood the opposite way round in the vice.
Now the grain may be pointing in the right direction.
4. Rub a little candle wax on the bottom of the plane. This will help the plane glide
across the surface of the wood.
5. Make sure that little of the blade is sticking out off the bottom of the plane. Too
much of the blade will make using the plane very difficult and it may damage the
surface of the wood.
6. Always place the plane at the end of the piece of wood and push it firmly across the
entire length, without it lifting off the surface. Lift the plane back to the starting
 position. Pulling the plane back along the wood surface will 'blunt' the blade quickly.
7. Always use a sharp blade.

SawS

A rip saw

In woodworking, a cut made parallel to the direction of the grain of the workpiece is known as a
rip cut. If one were to cut a tree trunk in half from top to bottom, this would be a rip cut — but
the term also applies to cutting free lumber.

A rip saw is a saw that is specially designed for making rip cuts. The cutting edge of each tooth
has a flat front edge and it is not angled forward or backward. This design allows each tooth to
act like a chisel (as opposed to a crosscut saw), which prevents the saw from following grain
lines. By acting like a chisel, the saw can more easily cut across grain lines, which is necessary if
a straight cut is to be achieved.

On the vast majority of saws throughout the world, the teeth are designed to cut when the saw is
being pushed through the wood (on the push stroke). However, some saws (such as Japanese
saws and the saws used by Ancient Egyptians) are designed to cut on the pull stroke.

Crosscut saw

A crosscut saw

A crosscut saw is a saw that is specially designed for making crosscuts. A crosscut is a cut made
horizontally through the trunk of a standing tree, but the term also applies to cutting free lumber.

Crosscut saws have teeth that are designed to cut wood at a right angle to the direction of the
wood grain. The cutting edge of each tooth is angled back and has a beveled edge. This design
allows each tooth to act like a knife edge and slice through the wood, in contrast to a rip saw,
which tears along the grain, acting like a miniature chisel. Some crosscut saws use alternating
patterns of the cutting teeth along with others, called "rakers", designed to scrape out the cut
strips of wood. Cross saws have much smaller teeth than rip saws, which are used to make
straight cuts going along with the grain. Some saws, such as Japanese saws, are designed to cut
only on the pull stroke. Western saws, on the other hand, are designed and sharpened to also cut
on the push stroke. Many crosscut saws have a wooden handle with return edge at right angles to
the un-toothed edge of the saw blade, allowing the saw to serve as a square for marking material
to be cut at a right angle.

Common tooth patterns found on crosscut saws.

As described above, saws will have cutters, rakers, and gullets. As the saw is pulled toward the
operator, the cutters along the saw's surface scores the wood to the left and right of the width of
the blade, cutting a channel downward into the wood. In many saws there are four cutters, one
which cuts left, another which cuts right, then another pair of left and right cutters.

After the cutters there is generally a raker followed by a gullet. A raker is what does the actual
removal of the wood that is being cut. The raker follows the cutters, scraping the bottom of the
kerf being cut. As the raker scrapes the bottom of the channel being cut, the wood is peeled back
and stored in the gullet which follows the raker.

As the saw is drawn out of the log, the accumulated wood being stored in the gullets in the saw
are allowed to fall out onto the ground. A way to determine whether a saw is working well is to
examine the noodle shaped wood that gets scraped out of the log being cut. Fairly long strings of
wood coming out of the log being cut indicates that the side cutters are doing their job and that
the raker is slicing out the wood cleanly.

BACK SAWS - TENON SAWS

 Back Saws get their name from the steel or
brass back (labelled on the diagram). The
heavy back gives the saw its weight which
is useful when sawing wood. The weight
of the saw along with the forward sawing
motion allows the saw to cut through
woods relatively easily. The two main
types are the tenon saw and the dovetail
saw.
TENON SAW : for general sawing and
cutting mortise and tenon joints.
DOVETAIL SAW : for cutting joints such
as dovetails

The saw has to be held in the hand carefully. The index finger must point in the
direction of sawing and it also helps to support the whole saw as it moves forward. The
saw must not move from side to side or it will jam in the wood making sawing difficult.

PROCEDURE FOR USING THE TENON SAW

1. The wood to be cut is marked out

carefully using a try square and marking
knife (see try-square information sheet).

2. When sawing a piece of wood, it is

usually placed on a bench hook. The wood
is held in position by the left hand whilst the
right hand guides the saw so that the saw
groove is straight (for left handed people -
the other way round)
 Concentration is very important. The saw must always be held straight and the first few
cuts with the saw must be made slowly. Once an initial groove has been cut sawing
should be easier. However, slow down the cutting motion when the wood is almost
sawn through - this will prevent the wood splitting as the saw finally cuts the wood into
two pieces.

Keyhole saw

A keyhole saw (also called a pad saw, alligator saw, jab saw or drywall saw) is a long, narrow
saw used for cutting small, often awkward features in various building materials. There are
typically two varieties of keyhole saw: the fixed blade type and retractable blade type.

The retractable blade variety is usually found to have either a cast iron handle or, less commonly,
a wooden handle. The facility to retract the blade to an optimum length serves to prevent
unwanted flex to the blade should the full length of the blade be obstructed in some way. In both
types the blade is typically secured by one or two holding/thumb screws.

The fixed blade type, often being cheaper to manufacture and purchase (due to fewer parts) is
therefore more commonly used in the modern construction trade. With the advance of certain
building methods and materials, designs specific to these trades have been developed. One such
modification being a sharpened point at the tip of the blade which can be pushed or ‘jabbed’
through soft materials such as drywall without pre-drilling a hole for the blade.

 Two power tools serving largely the same function but which work more quickly and with less
effort are the jigsaw and spiral saw.

Coping saw

A coping saw is a type of hand saw used to cut intricate external shapes and interior cutouts in
woodworking or carpentry. Coping saw blades are always thicker and much coarser cutting than
typical fretsaw blades.
A coping saw consists of a thin, hardened steel blade, stretched between the ends of a square, C-
shaped, spring-steel frame to which a handle is attached. The blade is easily removed from the
frame so that the blade can be passed through a drilled hole in the middle of a piece of wood.
The frame is then re-attached to the blade and the cut started from the middle of the piece.

The coping saw blade is removable by partially unscrewing the handle. The blade is prevented
from rotating by means of the short, steady bar provided where the blade is attached. Loosening
the handle also allows the blade to be rotated relative to the frame as desired. Carefully aligning
the finger steady bars at the top and bottom of the blade ensures that the thin blade is straight and
not twisted along its length. Retightening the handle tensions the blade and locks it at the desired
angle relative to the frame. The short steady bar nearest the handle is held securely between
finger and thumb while the handle is tightened to ensure the blade remains at the desired angle.
Unlike the fretsaw the coping saw blade has holding pins which lock securely into the angled
slots of the rotatable blade holders.

The direction of the cut is relatively easy to change because of the thinness of the blade. Gentle
curves are achieved by slowly turning the whole frame by means of the handle while continuing
to cut steadily. When necessary the blade can also be rotated with respect to the frame to make
sharper curves in the material being cut. The teeth on a coping saw blade should normally face
the handle. (i.e."backwards" as compared with most other Western saws); the action of pulling
the coping saw allows the frame to remain in tension (and thus reduces blade breakages). This is
the opposite to most other saws which only cut in the "push" direction. Normally the coping saw
is used in the vertical position and reciprocated by hand power for the maximum stroke possible
without striking the material with the frame. This takes much practice. It may also be used in all
other attitudes when the work requires it but even greater skill is required. Blade breakage is
fortunately much rarer than with a fretsaw.
Bow saw

A modern bow saw resting on some firewood it was used to cut

A bow saw is a metal-framed saw in the shape of a bow with a coarse wide blade. This type of
saw is also known as a swede saw. It is a rough tool used for cutting tree trunks and the like. The
traditional meaning of a bow saw is a woodworking tool used for straight or curved cuts. In
European vocabulary it is synonymous with frame saw. In English and American vocabulary it
denotes a toothed blade suspended between two long narrow handles called "cheeks" that are
supported and separated by a narrow stretcher in the center of the handles, making an H shape. In
this context it is known also as a buck saw and has a wide blade for roughly cutting wood. A
finer version of the saw uses a narrow blade (1/4" or less) with handles that allow you to hold the
saw and rotate the blade. In this context it is also known as a turning saw. The blade is kept in
tension with a turnbuckle or a twisted cord that is attached to the opposite ends of the handles. If
a cord is used, the cord is twisted with a toggle attached to one loop of the cord, adding tension.
The toggle hits the center rod, which keeps the cord from untwisting.
Adze
.

An adze or adz (pronounced /ædz/) is a tool used for smoothing rough-cut wood in hand
woodworking. Generally, the user stands astride a board or log and swings the adze downwards
towards their feet, chipping off pieces of wood, moving backwards as they go and leaving a
relatively smooth surface behind. Adzes are most often used for squaring up logs, or for
hollowing out timber.

The blade of an adze is set at right angles to the tool's shaft (like a hoe or plane), unlike the blade
of an axe which is set in line with the shaft.
A claw hammer can be said to look roughly like the letter "T" with the handle being the long
part, and the head being the line across the top which looks like a "t". In actuality, the head of the
hammer does not form a straight line, yet curves down into the claw of the hammer. One side of
the head is flat with either a smooth or textured surface and is used for impacting another
surface. The other side of the head curves down and splits in the middle forming a "V" shape.
This part is the claw of the hammer and is most commonly used for extracting nails from wood.
The rounded end of the claw, in conjunction with the handle, is used to gain leverage when
extracting a nail.

Fiberglass handle claw hammer

 A claw hammer is a tool primarily used for pounding nails into, or extricating nails from, some
other object. Generally, a hammer is associated with woodworking but is not limited to use with
wood products.

Types of claw hammers

Claw hammers can be constructed many ways but generally come in one of two forms. The first,
and most popular, type of hammer is the two piece hammer. This hammer is constructed from a
metal hammer head with a hole in the middle and a wooden handle. The wooden handle has one
end made to fit perfectly into hole in the hammer head. Once the handle has been inserted, a steel
wedge is driven into the wood in the head of the hammer. This forces the wood to expand and
secures the hammer head to the handle. Another type of claw hammer is a single piece claw
hammer. These hammers are usually cast out of some sort of metal. These hammers often have
rubber grips to add to their ergonomics and decrease vibrations when the hammer is used.
Another type of claw hammer is the framing hammer. This is an oversized claw hammer used in
framing carpentry. The larger and heavier head can increase the user accuracy while decreasing
the number of blows required to fully insert the nail. Framing hammers commonly have a
"checkered" face, which reduces skip-off of the head if the blow is not precisely struck on the
nail. The slight indentations left on the wood by the checkered face are considered unimportant
in rough carpentry. Framing hammers also have a much straighter claw than regular claw
hammers, as the claw is designed more for prying nailed boards apart, rather than removing nails
(though it's claw can also be used in that capacity).
A mallet is a type of hammer with a head made of softer materials than the steel normally used
in hammerheads, so as to avoid damaging a delicate surface.

A wooden mallet.

Chisel

Steel woodworking chisel.

A chisel is a tool with a characteristically shaped cutting edge (such that wood chisels have lent
part of their name to a particular grind) of blade on its end, for carving and/or cutting a hard
material such as wood, stone, or metal. The handle and blade of some types of chisel are made of
metal or wood with a sharp edge in it.

 In use, the chisel is forced into the material to cut the material. The driving force may be
manually applied or applied using a mallet or hammer. In industrial use, a hydraulic ram or falling
weight ('trip hammer') drives the chisel into the material to be cut.

Types OF CHISEL

Chisels have a wide variety of uses. Many types of chisels have been devised, each specially
suited to its intended use. Different types of chisels may be constructed quite differently, in terms
of blade width or length, as well as shape and hardness of blade. They may have wooden handles
attached or may be made entirely of one piece of metal.

Woodworking chisels

A sharp wood chisel in combination with a forstner wood drill bit is used to form this mortise for a half-
lap joint in a timber frame.

Woodworking chisels range from quite small hand tools for tiny details, to large chisels used
remove big sections of wood, in 'roughing out' the shape of a pattern or design. Typically, in
woodcarving, one starts with a larger tool, and gradually progresses to smaller tools to finish the
detail. One of the largest types of chisel is the slick, used in timber frame construction and
wooden shipbuilding. According to their function there are many names given to woodworking
chisels, such as:

 butt chisel: short chisel with beveled sides and straight edge for creating joints.
 carving chisels: used for intricate designs and sculpting; cutting edges are many; such as gouge,
skew, parting, straight, paring, and V-groove.

 corner chisel: resembles a punch and has an L-shaped cutting edge. Cleans out square holes,
mortises and corners with 90 degree angles.

 flooring chisel: cuts and lifts flooring materials for removal and repair; ideal for tongue-and-
groove flooring.

 framing chisel: usually used with mallet; similar to a butt chisel, except it has a longer, slightly
flexible blade.

 slick: a large chisel driven by manual pressure, never struck.

 mortise chisel: thick, rigid blade with straight cutting edge and square sides to make mortises
and similar joints.

 paring chisel: has a long blade which is ideal for cleaning grooves and accessing tight spaces.

 skew chisel: has a 60 degree cutting angle and is used for trimming and finishing.
Woodworking joints
Joinery is that part of woodworking that involves joining together pieces of wood, to create furniture,
structures, toys, and other items. Some wood joints employ fasteners, bindings, or adhesives, while
others use only wood elements. The characteristics of wooden joints - strength, flexibility, toughness,
etc. - derive from the properties of the joining materials and from how they are used in the joints.
Therefore, different joinery techniques are used to meet differing requirements. For example, the
joinery used to build a house is different from that used to make puzzle toys, although some concepts
overlap.

Materials used for joining

 Joints can be designed to hold without the use of glue or fasteners.
 Glue is highly effective for joining wood when both surfaces of the joint are edge grain. A
properly glued joint may be as strong as a single piece of wood. However, glue is ineffective on
end-grain surfaces. Compared to a mortise and tenon, a dowel joint is a poor joint because it
does not address these properties. Much of the surface of the hole of a dowel joint is end-grain,
to which glue adheres poorly. In a mortise and tenon, most of the surface of the joint is
longitudinal-grain. Animal glue is soluble in water, producing joints that can be disassembled
using steam to soften the glue.

 Various mechanical fasteners are used, the simplest being nails and screws. Glue and fasteners
can be added together.

Types of joints
different types of joints

Dowel joint

Bridle joint

Dovetail joint Finger joint or box combing Lap joints

Mortise and tenon joint
 WELDING

“Welding is the process of joining two or more similar or dissimilar materials

with/without the application of heat, with or without the application of pressure and with
or without the use of filler material.”

Few different types of welding processes are described below.

1. Fusion Welding: Welding is the most common joining process for metals. In fusion
welding, the joint is made by melting the metal at the interface, so that upon
solidification, the components are fused, or joined together. In many cases, extra metal is
melted along the joint, to completely fill the joint region.

a) Oxy-Acetylene Welding (in general, Oxy-Fuel gas-Welding, OFW). A mixture of

acetylene gas (C2H2) and oxygen gas are mixed; acetylene is highly flammable, so the
mixture can be lighted and burns generates very high temperatures of up to 3000°C. The
flame is used to melt the metal at the joint, along with a filler rod to provide some extra
material to fill the gap. The filler rod is coated with flux. The flux is a chemical with two
uses: part of it evaporates, and the vapor surrounds the region around the molten metal,
preventing oxidation. Another part of the flux melts, and dissolves impurities and metal
oxides; since these are lighter than the molten metal, they float to the surface and can be
removed by a finishing process later.

b) Arc Welding. Here, the metal is heated by maintaining a very high voltage between the
electrode and the metal. This results in dielectric breakdown of the air gap, causing a
discharging arc. The temperature at the arc can reach up to 30,000°C (almost ten times
oxy-fuel torches). Notice from Figure 2 (b) that the metal is used as one electrode, and
the filler rod as the other electrode; either DC or AC can be used, with typical current
ranging between 50A ~300A and typical power of 10kW or more. Typically, DC welders are
used for sheet metal, while high power requirements of thick members need AC supply.
Figure 2 (a) Gas welding (b) Schematic of Arc welding

(c) Arc welding is easier to automate using Robots (why?)

c.) Gas Shielded Arc Welding. The most common form is MIG Welding (Metal Inert Gas
Welding). Here, and inert gas such as Argon or an Argon/Helium mixture is injected to
surround the region of the weld. This ensures that the molten metals are shielded from
the atmospheric oxygen, and therefore do not oxidize. The electrode may be consumable
(i.e. made from the filler material) or non-consumable. Another common form is Tungsten
Inert-Gas Arc welding (TIG Welding). Here, the arc is formed between a non-consumable
tungsten electrode and the metal being welded. Gas is fed through the torch to shield the
electrode and molten weld pool. If filler wire is used, it is added to the weld pool
separately. TIG welding can yield better quality and more precise welds. Welding Aluminum
almost always requires TIG or MIG welding, since Al oxidizes easily, and molten Al must
not be exposed to oxygen. TIG is also commonly used for welding Titanium, Magnesium,
especially thin section welding.
Figure 3 (a) MIG welding (b) TIG welding

d.) Plasma Arc Welding. Plasma is high temperature ionized gas composed of electrons
and ions. Plasma arcs are formed by creating the plasma gas by using an arc, and forcing it
out as a focused beam through a tiny nozzle. It is useful for deep, narrow welds.

e.) Electron Beam Welding. An electron beam gun creates a stream of electrons (by
causing a heated cathode to discharge in a near-vacuum tube.) The beam is focused
electro-magnetically, and hits upon the metal, where the kinetic energy of the electrons is
converted to heat, causing melting. The process is useful for narrow, deep welds, but is
expensive.

f.) Laser-beam Welding. A high power laser can be used to melt metal, and therefore can
be used to cut, weld, etc. Typical high power lasers include Nd:Nag and CO2 lasers, with
power levels up to 100kW. This is a very versatile welding process, and can be used for
high speed, narrow, deep, welds; it is also useful for high precision, low distortion welds.

2. Solid State Welding If two parts with very clean surfaces are brought together, the
atoms in the lattices at the interface tend to create new bonds across the surfaces –
creating a weld. This type of weld does not melt the material, so it is called a solid state
weld. Two important properties that facilitate solid state welding are (a) surfaces must be
very clean, and (b) high pressure and temperature improve the diffusion process.

a) Cold welding. This process is useful for joining two dissimilar metals. A common
example is seen in rolled sheets are used to make coins in some countries; another example
is construction of bi-metal strips.

b) Ultrasonic welding. The two components are held together with a static normal force,
and a
high frequency, low amplitude orthogonal (i.e. shearing) vibration is applied. The vibration
causes the surfaces to rub against each other, breaking up all contaminants and oxide
layers, and the resulting clean surfaces weld together. The interface temperature in this
process reaches maximum of 0.3~0.5Tm – in other words, there is no melting/fusion.

Figure 4 (a) Plasma arc welding (b) Electron Beam Gun making a lap weld (c) Laser
welding of a gear

c) Resistance welding. Here, metal strips are welded by holding them together by a force,
and raising their temperature by passing a current through the interface. Resistance
welding is commonly used in several applications, to make butt joints, lap joints, seam joints
etc. Examples include pan-handle welding, automobile mufflers, band-saw blades, seam-
joints in automobile bodies and automobile components, etc. Some examples are shown in
Figure 5 and Figure 6 below. Spot welds on a pan Spot welding Robotic Spot welding on
auto body Spot body
Figure 5.Spot welding

Electrode Wheel

Weld Nuggets

Figure 6. Seam welding

3. Solid/Liquid state welding: In solid/Liquid state welding processes base metal in

general remains in solid state but the filler metal is in liquid state Joining occurs after the
solidification of filler material at the interface

a) Brazing: In brazing, the filler material is a metal with Tm lower than that of the metals
being joint. The filler is placed in the joint (or near it), and the metals are heated till the
filler melts (but not the components). The melted filler material fills the joint and, on
cooling, creates a brazed joint. In some cases, oxy-acetylene gas welding may be used for
this process, with the filler made of a low Tm metal rod. Fluxes are used in brazing, for the
same reasons as in welding. In some cases, capillary forces cause the brazing material to
flow evenly into the joining interface (see example below).
b) Soldering Solder is a very low Tm metal alloy (Lead + Tin), melting at around 200°C. This
is very useful to create joints in electronic circuits, which need not withstand large forces,
but should be made with low energy, low temperature processes (why?).

Figure 7. (a) Brazing (b) Furnace brazing

OXY-ACETYLENE WELDING AND CUTTING

Gas Welding Defined

“A group of welding processes wherein coalescence* is produced by heating with a gas

flame or flames with or without the application of pressure and with or without the
use of filler material. “

* “Coalescence” means the union of different things into one body or form or group; the
growing together of parts. This word is used very often in the welding world.

ACETYLENE

Acetylene is a ”hydrocarbon”, just as are propane, methane, and virtually all the
components which make up gasoline and fuel oils. However, it differs from those
hydrocarbons in this respect: in the acetylene molecule, made up of two carbon atoms and
two hydrogen atoms, the carbon atoms are joined by what chemists call a ”triple bond”.
When acetylene reaches its kindling temperature (and under some other conditions as well,
which we’ll cover shortly) the bond breaks and releases energy. In other hydrocarbons,
the breaking of the bonds between the carbon atoms absorbs energy. The triple bond is
the reason why the oxy-acetylene flame is hotter than the flame produced by burning any
other hydrocarbon gas with oxygen. Acetylene is almost unknown in the natural world.
There are ways to produce acetylene from natural gas, but they are economical only on a
large scale. Virtually all the acetylene distributed for welding and cutting use is created by
allowing calcium carbide, an electric furnace product, to react with water.

Properties of Acetylene:

1. It is highly unstable & inflammable gas.

2. Flammability range for Acetylene is larger then any other fuel gas.

3. It is colorless,

4. Commercial acetylene has a pungent smell just like garlic.

5. It is lighter than air.

6. Readily dissolves in liquids.

7. Acetylene flame has highest flame temperature amongst all fuel gases.

8. Acetylene is self-explosive if stored in the Free State under a pressure of 29.4 pounds

per square inch (psi). Even a slight shock or tapping is likely to cause it to explode.

THE OXY-ACETYLENE FLAME

In oxy-acetylene welding, the ”tool” used is not really the torch; it’s the flame. The torch

should never touch the material being welded. The only purpose of the torch is to provide

a gas mixture which will produce the flame best suited to the work to be done. There are

three distinct types of oxy-acetylene flames, usually termed: Neutral Excess Acetylene

(or ”carburizing”) Oxidizing (or ”excess oxygen” ) The type of flame produced depends

upon the ratio of oxygen to acetylene in the gas mixture which leaves the torch tip.

Types of Flames:
There are three basic flame types: neutral (balanced), excess acetylene (carburizing), and

excess oxygen (oxidizing).

Neutral flame

(a) The welding flame should be adjusted to neutral before either the carburizing or

oxidizing flame mixture is set. There are two clearly defined zones in the neutral flame.

The inner zone consists of a luminous cone that is bluish-white. Surrounding this is a light

blue flame envelope or sheath. This neutral flame is obtained by starting with an excess

acetylene flame in which there is a "feather" extension of the inner cone. When the flow

of acetylene is decreased or the flow of oxygen increased the feather will tend to

disappear. The neutral flame begins when the feather disappears.

(b) The neutral or balanced flame is obtained when the mixed torch gas consists of

approximately one volume of oxygen and one volume of acetylene. It is obtained by

gradually opening the oxygen valve to shorten the acetylene flame until a clearly defined

inner cone is visible. For a strictly neutral flame, no whitish streamers should be present

at the end of the cone. In some cases, it is desirable to leave a slight acetylene streamer

or "feather" 1/16 to 1/8 in. (1.6 to 3.2 mm) long at the end of the cone to ensure that the

flame is not oxidizing. This flame adjustment is used for most welding operations and for

preheating during cutting operations. When welding steel with this flame, the molten metal

puddle is quiet and clear. The metal flows easily without boiling, foaming, or sparking.

(c) In the neutral flame, the temperature at the inner cone tip is approximately 5850°F

(3232°C), while at the end of the outer sheath or envelope the temperature drops to

approximately 2300°F (1260°C). This variation within the flame permits some temperature

control when making a weld. The position of the flame to the molten puddle can be

changed, and the heat controlled in this manner.

Reducing or carburizing flame.

(a) The reducing or carburizing flame is obtained when slightly less than one volume of

oxygen is mixed with one volume of acetylene. This flame is obtained by first adjusting to

neutral and then slowly opening the acetylene valve until an acetylene streamer or
"feather" is at the end of the inner cone. The length of this excess streamer indicates the

degree of flame carburization. For most welding operations, this streamer should be no

more than half the length of the inner cone.

(b) The reducing or carburizing flame can always be recognized by the presence of three

distinct flame zones. There is a clearly defined bluish-white inner cone, white intermediate

cone indicating the amount of excess acetylene, and a light blue outer flare envelope. This

type of flare burns with a coarse rushing sound. It has a temperature of approximately

5700°F (3149°C) at the inner cone tips.

(c) When a strongly carburizing flame is used for welding, the metal boils and is not clear.

The steel, which is absorbing carbon from the flame, gives off heat. This causes the metal

to boil. When cold, the weld has the properties of high carbon steel, being brittle and

subject to cracking.

(d) A slight feather flame of acetylene is sometimes used for back-hand welding. A

carburizing flame is advantageous for welding high carbon steel and hard facing such

nonferrous alloys as nickel and Monel. When used in silver solder and soft solder

operations, only the intermediate and outer flame cones are used. They impart a low

temperature soaking heat to the parts being soldered.

Oxidizing flame

(a) The oxidizing flame is produced when slightly more than one volume of oxygen is mixed

with one volume of acetylene. To obtain this type of flame, the torch should first be

adjusted to a neutral flame. The flow of oxygen is then increased until the inner cone is

shortened to about one-tenth of its original length. When the flame is properly adjusted,

the inner cone is pointed and slightly purple. An oxidizing flame can also be recognized by

its distinct hissing sound. The temperature of this flame is approximately 6300°F

(3482°C) at the inner cone tip.

(b) When applied to steel, an oxidizing flame causes the molten metal to foam and give off

sparks. This indicates that the excess oxygen is combining with the steel and burning it.

An oxidizing flame should not be used for welding steel because the deposited metal will
be porous, oxidized, and brittle. This flame will ruin most metals and should be avoided,

except as noted in (c) below.

(c) A slightly oxidizing flame is used in torch brazing of steel and cast iron. A stronger

oxidizing flame is used in the welding of brass or bronze.

(d) In most cases, the amount of excess oxygen used in this flame must be determined by

observing the action of the flame on the molten metal.

CHEMISTRY OF THE FLAME

When acetylene is burned in air, the end products are carbon dioxide (carbon plus oxygen)

and water vapor (hydrogen plus oxygen). A chemical equation covering complete combustion

reads like this:

2 C2H2 + 5 O2 = 4 CO2 + 2 H2O

In everyday terms, this means that to burn two cubic feet of acetylene you must use five

cubic feet of oxygen, or 2½ time as much oxygen as acetylene. Yet we have just said that

the neutral flame is produced by burning a one- to-one mixture of oxygen and acetylene,

and that the neutral flame does not contain an excess of either gas. This might seem to be

a bit of a contradiction, but it is not, since the equation given above represents an over-

simplification of the combustion process. Actually, combustion in the oxy-acetylene flame

takes place in two distinct stages; for the first, the oxygen is supplied by the mixture

leaving the torch; for the second, the oxygen is supplied by the air around the flame. In

the first stage of combustion, the acetylene breaks down into carbon and hydrogen, and

the carbon reacts with the oxygen to form carbon monoxide. In chemical terms:

C2H2 + O2 = 2 CO + H2

In words, this means that you need one molecule of oxygen for each molecule of acetylene.

A cubic foot of acetylene contains the same number of molecules as a cubic foot of

oxygen. In the second stage of combustion, the carbon monoxide (CO) reacts with oxygen

from the air to form carbon dioxide (CO2). The hydrogen reacts with oxygen from the air

to form water (H2O). The chemical equations are these:

2 CO+O2= 2 CO2

2 H2 + O2 = 2 H2O (or, H2 + O = H2O)

It is this two-stage combustion process which produces the well-defined inner cone in the

oxy-acetylene flame. The first stage of reaction takes place at the boundary between the

inner cone and the pale blue outer flame. The second stage takes place in the outer flame.

If the proportion of acetylene supplied to the tip is increased, a white ”feather” appears

around the inner cone. This feather contains white-hot particles of carbon which, for lack

of sufficient oxygen in the original mixture, cannot be oxidized to carbon monoxide at the

inner cone boundary. On the other hand, if the proportion of oxygen fed to the tip is

increased, the inner cone will shorten noticeably and the noise of the flame will increase.
 Fig 4-2. The neutral flame, which
results from burning a mixture containing
approximately equal volumes of oxygen
and acetylene. The well-defined core of
the flame (extremely bright pale blue) is
known as the “inner cone”

Fig. 4-3. The excess acetylene

flame, which has a whitish feather
around and beyond the inner cone

Fig. 4-4. The oxidizing flame,

which results from an excess of
oxygen in the gas mixture, has a
shorter, more sharply-pointed inner
cone than the neutral flame

In OAW, there are two techniques commonly used, called as Leftward and Rightward

techniques. The choice of either technique will depend upon the metal to be welded, its

thickness, any test requirements, and total cost. To compare the two techniques, the blow

pipe is held in the right hand and the filler rod in the left hand (with a right handed
person). The filler rod is carried to the left of the blowpipe.

Filler material and Fluxes.

The welding wire or rod used a filler material in gas welding should have a chemical

composition similar to that of the base metal. The diameter of the welding rod is selected

to ui the thickness of the base metal. The welding rod diameter d can be approximately

determined by the following empirical relation

(a) LIFTWARD TECHNIQUE (b) RIGHT WARD TECHNIQUE

FIG. 5.9. OAW Techniques.

EQUIPMENT FOR THE OXY-ACETYLENE PROCESS

As we said in the preceding chapter, the real “tool” of the oxy-acetylene welding process

is the flame, not the torch. When we come to oxygen cutting, we must consider the pure

oxygen jet as a second ”tool”, working hand-in-hand with the flame. To produce only the

flame, we use a welding torch, fitted with the appropriate size welding head or tip. To

produce both flames and the oxygen jet, we use a cutting torch or cutting attachment,

equipped with the appropriate cutting nozzle or tip. The equipment needed for oxy-

acetylene welding and oxygen cutting is relatively simple and inexpensive. If the gases are

to be supplied in cylinders, these are the minimum requirements:

A cylinder of oxygen A cutting attachment, with one or more cutting

nozzles
A cylinder of acetylene A length of oxygen hose, with fittings

A cylinder pressure regulator for oxygen A length of acetylene hose, with fittings

A cylinder pressure regulator for acetylene Goggles and gloves for the operator

A welding torch, with one or more welding heads A friction lighter for igniting the flame

Mount the cylinders on a suitable truck, as shown in Fig. 5-1, and you have an outfit that

will go almost anywhere and need no further power of any kind except a bit of muscle

power.

*Industry terminology is not fully standardized. Generally, the term welding head applies
to a unit which includes a device for mixing the oxygen and acetylene, as well as a copper
tip. Sometimes the tip, or even the complete head, is called a nozzle. In this book, the
term welding head will always refer to a replaceable assembly which includes a mixer, and
the term welding tip will refer to the one-piece replaceable flame-producing section of
the head. We shall always refer to the replaceable front end part of the cutting torch or
cutting attachment as a nozzle.

Fig. 5-1. A portable welding outfit, with oxygen and

acetylene cylinders chained to an easy-rolling cylinder
truck.

The mixer is perhaps misnamed, since it doesn’t actually mix

the gases, but merely meters them into the mixing chamber.

Two types of ”mixers” are widely used: the medium-pressure

type, to which the gases are usually supplied at

approximately equal pressures, and the injector type, to

which the oxygen is supplied at relatively high pressure (up

to 55 psi or more) and the acetylene is supplied at rather low pressure (down to less than 1

psi). In the injector type, the oxygen passes through a very small orifice in the injector,

and the expansion of the oxygen as it leaves that orifice pulls the acetylene into the

mixing chamber. An advantage of the injector is that minor fluctuations in oxygen

pressure and flow cause changes in the amount of acetylene drawn into the mixing chamber

and maintain the normal ratio of the gas mixture. This is especially helpful when oxygen is

supplied to the torch from a plant piping system, where changes in demand placed on the

system may cause pressure fluctuations. As already stated, the mixer, whether medium-

pressure or injector type, is normally a part of the welding head. The reason is this: There

must be a relationship between the sizes of the orifices in the mixer and the size of the

orifice in the welding tip. A single mixer cannot serve a wide range of tip sizes. Further, all

the passages in the welding head must be designed so that if the flame is forced back into

the head, as by momentary contact of the torch tip against the work, it will not continue

to burn just ahead of the mixer, but will be extinguished without damage to head or torch.

HEAD NUT HANDLE

Oxygen
Acetylene
TIP

MIXING THROAT MIXER OR THROTTLE VALVES Fig. 5-2. Simplified sketch

INJECTOR
Oxygen of a typical welding torch,
Acetylene
Oxygen PACKING NUT with details showing the
Mixer
PACKING WASHER
Injector VALVE STEM construction of a throttle
Acetylene
Oxygen BALL SEAT valve and the flow of gases
Acetylene

through a ”mixer” and an

”injector”.

Cutting Attachments: A cutting attachment is a scaled-down version of a cutting torch,

for direct connection to a welding torch handle in place of a welding head. It’s a real

convenience to the operator who wants to be able to switch back and forth from welding

or heating to cutting, or vice versa. It takes only seconds to remove a welding head and
install the cutting attachment, whereas it may take a couple of minutes to disconnect

hoses from the welding torch handle and reconnect them to a full-sized cutting torch.

Most cutting at attachments are capable of cutting 2-in. steel, or thicker, with ease. A

cutting attachment does not need its own throttle valve for controlling acetylene flow,

since the valve on the welding torch handle serves that purpose. It always has two valves

for oxygen, however: a throttle valve to control flow of oxygen to the mixer, and a lever-

operated valve to control the flow of cutting oxygen.

Regulators: The pressure in a full cylinder of oxygen is about 2200 psi at 70 0F (15200 kPa

at 200C); in a full cylinder of acetylene, pressure is about 250 psi at 70 0F (1725 kPa at

200C). Oxygen must be supplied to welding and cutting torches at pressures ranging

downward from about 100 psi to 5 psi (69 to 35 kPa) and acetylene at pressure of 15 psi

(103 kPa) or less. To reduce cylinder pressures to desired working pressures, we use

adjustable pressure- reducing regulators. They are designed so that they will maintain a

steady working pressure as cylinder pressure drops. Fig. 5-9 presents the basic elements

of a typical regulator. The high-pressure gas passes through a valve which is actuated by a

flexible diaphragm. On one side of the diaphragm there is gas at the pressure to which it

has been reduced by passing through the valve. On the other side, there is a spring. The

loading on the spring can be varied by means of the pressure-adjusting screw. When

demand for gas reduces the force applied by the gas against the diaphragm until it is less

than the force applied by the spring, the diaphragm moves left and the valve opens wider.

When gas pressure against the diaphragm increases, due to a decrease in demand, or the

closing of a torch valve, the diaphragm moves to the right, and the valve opening is

reduced, or the valve closes completely.

FLEXIBLE DIAPHRAGM

PRESSURE ADJUSTING
Fig. 5-9. Simplified sketch of a one-stage gas pressure
SCREW regulator
Gas in

VALVE STEM
(ATTACHED TO
DIAPHRAGM PRESSURE ADJUSTING SPRING
GAS OUT
To make a regulator that works well, and is truly useful for welding or cutting, we must add

a few refinements to the basic design. Fig. 5-11 is a literal cross-sectional view of a type

of regulator that has proved itself in service for nearly 50 years. All the parts are named.

A valve spring on the high-pressure side of the diaphragm, and a valve stem guide which

slides in the valve seat clamping screw, smooth out the movement of the valve stem so that

the regulator won’t ”chatter” (due to rapid opening and closing of the valve). There’s a

pressure gauge which shows how much pressure there is in the cylinder, and another (not

shown) which registers the pressure of the gas on the delivery side of the regulator. The

inlet nipple which makes up to the cylinder valve contains a porous-metal filter to remove

particles or dirt which might otherwise enter the regulator and be harmful. Every

regulator contains such a filter, and it is most important that the filter always be in place.

Should it become clogged, do not merely remove it. Lack of a filter can lead to trouble.

Always REPLACE it with a clean filter.

Fig. 5-10. Three regulators for use on

oxygen cylinders: one-stage with gauges

(upper left), gaugeless (upper right) and

two-stage (lower).

Regulator Pressure Gauges: The pressure gauges used on regulators are almost always of

the ”Bourdon-tube” type. Gas is admitted to a closed-end, bent tube made of phosphor

bronze alloy. Internal pressure tends to straighten that tube. The end of the tube is
connected to a curved rack which rotates a shaft upon which the gauge pin is mounted.

Treated right, Bourdon tubes are tough, and will maintain their original properties for

years. What do we mean by ”treated right”? The big thing is this: Avoid subjecting them

to a rush of gas pressure which will make the tube jump from its static position to its

fully-stretched position in ”nothing flat”. Always open cylinder valves slowly. Before

opening a cylinder valve, always be sure that the pressure-adjusting screw on the regulator

has been backed off so that there is no spring pressure against the regulator diaphragm

and the regulator valve is therefore closed. By opening the cylinder valve slowly, you

protect the cylinder pressure gauge. By making sure that the regulator valve is closed, you

protect the delivery-pressure gauge against the sudden rush of pressure through an open

valve. There’s another very good reason for opening cylinder valves, especially on full

oxygen cylinders, as slowly as possible. The gas which is ”dead-ended” in the Bourdon tube

is recompressed and heats up significantly if there is a sudden jump in pressure. This

doesn’t do the tube any good, although it will not, in itself, cause the tube to rupture.

However, if there has been any accumulation of combustible particles in the tube – and it

is chiefly to prevent such particles from getting into the tube that it’s so essential to

keep a filter in the regulator inlet – the heat may start a reaction between oxygen and

those particles. And then you have a regulator ”burn-out”, which will at least ruin the

regulator, and perhaps do even more damage or cause personal injury. Don’t think that

oxygen regulator ”burnouts” are an everyday occurrence. They are not. There are

hundreds of thousands of oxygen regulators in use on cylinders in INDIA and only a few

burn out every year. But evidence accumulated over the years shows that most of the

burnouts have occurred in regulators from which the inlet filter was missing. While filters

are necessary in all uses and all environments, clean filters are especially important in auto

body shops, garages, foundries, coal mines and other environments where metal and

hydrocarbon particles may be present. If you always check to make sure that the

regulator has a filter (it is often mounted in the inlet nipple so that you can see it), and

”take it easy” when you open the oxygen cylinder valve, you should never experience a

burnout.
 Fig. 5-12. A Bourdon tube gauge movement. Pressure in
the semi- circular closed-end tube causes the free end of
the tube to move (dashed line). This movement is
transmitted through a fixed pivot point (black dot) to a
curved rack which engages a pinion gear on the pointer
shaft

Cylinder-to-Regulator Connections: Standards for the connections covers the size and

form of thread to be used on the cylinder connection, the size and form of thread to be

used on the mating regulator nut, and the configuration of the regulator inlet nipple and

the mating seat in the cylinder outlet. One final point: All standard connections for oxygen

and for oil- free inert gases carry right-hand threads; all standard connections for

acetylene, other fuel gases, and for gases which may have been compressed through oil-

lubricated compressors carry left-hand threads except for the two cylinder/regulator

connections used with small acetylene cylinders. Left-hand threads are always indicated

by a groove cut in the middle of the connection nut or in the hex section adjacent to the

connection thread.

Fig. 5-13. Cross-sections of

three cylinder-to- regulator
connections, each represented as
only partially tightened.
Connections for oxygen (left) for
acetylene (center) and (right)
Goggles: When welding or cutting, safety goggles with approved filter lenses must always

be used to protect the eyes from the glare of the flames, from heat, and from flying

particles of metal or slag. Goggles should fit snugly and be equipped with ventilating ports.

They must have cover lenses (glass or plastic) and hardened glass filter lenses, which are

supplied in several shades. Shade 4 is adequate for light cutting or sheet metal welding.

Darker shades 5 or 6 should be used when welding plate or castings, or during heavy

cutting. ”Coverall” goggles which can be worn over prescription eyeglasses are readily

available.

Gloves: It’s a serious mistake not to wear gloves when welding or cutting. For light work,

flame-resistant cotton gloves are often satisfactory. For most purposes, however, all-

leather gloves, or gloves with leather palm and fingers, will prove more serviceable. Gloves

should always have gauntlets long enough to cover the ends of your sleeves.

Piping System Station Equipment: When oxygen and acetylene (or another fuel gas) are

supplied to torches through plant piping systems, three types of equipment not mentioned

previously in this chapter are used. At each station on a piping system, there must be a

shutoff valve, and a check valve which will prevent backflow of gas into the system. On

the fuel gas system, there must also be another device which will prevent a flashback

from reaching the fuel gas supply. A hydraulic back-pressure valve is usually employed

for that purpose. One such valve may serve the complete system, if branch lines are

smaller than 2-in. diameter. In some systems, hydraulic back-pressure valves are installed

at each station. When so used, they eliminate the requirement for a separate check valve

at each station. Each hydraulic back-pressure valve (or any other device which will fulfill

the anti-flashback requirement) must be equipped with a relief valve set to open at a

pressure not greater than 150% of the normal line pressure. The relief valve must be

fitted with a vent line which will discharge any vented gas to a safe location outside the

building. Any pressure regulator in good condition will act as a check valve in the event of a

jump in pressure downstream from the regulator.

Hose and Hose Fittings: Only hose made to standards established jointly by the

Compressed Gas Association and the Rubber Manufacturers Association (RMA) should be

used for welding and cutting purposes. Such hose is always labelled (at least once every 25

feet) with ”grade” and ”type” letter designations. Oxygen hose has a green cover, smooth

or corrugated; acetylene hose has a red cover, smooth or corrugated. Double hose – an

oxygen line with green cover joined by a rubber web to an acetylene line with a red cover –

is extremely popular.

Clothing: The chief point to make about clothing is this: Protect yourself. Wear long

sleeves, so that your wrists will be covered. Wear high-top work shoes if possible,

especially when cutting, to keep sparks from your ankles. Wear cuffless trousers. Stay

away from flammable synthetic materials if you can; cotton and wool are less susceptible

to damage by sparks.

Fig.5-15. Oxy-acetylene welding goggles (left) and gauntlet-style leather welding gloves

(right).

Friction Lighters: ALWAYS use some type of friction lighter to light your torch. NEVER

use matches. Don’t even have them on your person when welding or cutting. Friction

lighters are cheap and easy to use. A three flint lighter, which carries two reserve flints

all mounted and ready for use, makes a lot of sense.

Mechanical Accessories: Good workmanship is difficult without a suitable place to work.

For welding, you need some kind of a sensibly- designed, 100% fireproof work table. A

table with a slotted cast iron top, as illustrated in Fig. 5-16, is ideal for many purposes.

The slots allow you to position C-clamps at almost any work-holding position desired. You

can make up a somewhat similar table from steel angles and strips with the top framed and

fitted with supports for holding loosely-set fire bricks. For lining up parts, you’ll normally

need a couple of heavy steel straight- edges, and some V-blocks, which can be supplied by

any dealer in machinist supplies, or machined from steel 1-1/2-in. or 2-in. thick. For

bevelling the edges of parts to be welded, anything from a course file to a power grinder

may be needed. When steel 1/4-in. or more in thickness is to be welded, you can often

bevel it with the cutting torch or attachment. Wire brushes are always needed

Fig. 5-16. Friction lighter (above) and welding table with slotted cast iron top (right).