MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Paired testes Accessory ducts Accessory glands External genitalia

VIJAYABHERI Primary sex
organ.
(conducts sperms)

Rete testis
(secretes seminal
plasma)
(Penis)
- Copulatory organ Female Reproductive System Structure of ovary
Produce sperms
& androgens Prostate (1)
Vasa efferentia GAMETOGENESIS (SPERMATOGENESIS & OOGENESIS)
(testosterone).
Prepared by: Seminal
Epididymis SPERMATOGENESIS (Formation of sperms)
MALAPPURAM DISTRICT PANCHAYATH EDUCATIONAL vesicles (2)

PROJECT 2023-24 MUHAMMED ALI KANDANCHIRA Vas deferens

Bulbo-urethral Structure of sperm
GHSS PERUVALLUR (11134) Ejaculatory glands (Cowper’s
duct glands) -2
SAMSHAD V
DUHSS PANAKKAD (11232)

NAVAS CHEEMADAN

LEAP - 24 SULLAMUSSALAM ORIENTAL HSS AREEKODE (11242)

SHIHABUDHEEN PANTHAPPULAN
PPTMYHSS CHERUR (11059)

ZOOLOGY - FIRST YEAR MUHAMMED JIRSHAD P.K

CRESCENT HSS OZHUKUR (11250)
Acrosome: Releases lytic enzymes to
penetrate the layers of ovum.
(Exam Sure Pass Study Material) Testes are situated in the scrotum. The low temperature of scrotum helps for proper functioning
of testes and for sperm production. Mitochondria: Provides energy for tail
movement.
Seminal plasma + sperms → Semen After spermiogenesis, sperm heads are
embedded in Sertoli cells to get
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM nourishment. Then they are released to
lumen of seminiferous tubules. It is called
External genitalia Sectional view of a seminiferous tubule spermiation.
Accessory ducts
Paired ovaries (Vulva)
Primary sex Oogenesis (Formation of ovum) Structure of ovum (egg)
organ. Produce Fallopian tubes Mons pubis
Uterus Vagina
ovum and (Oviducts)
Labia majora
estrogen &
progesterone) Infundibulum Fundus
Labia minora
Ampulla Body
Hymen
Isthmus Cervix Clitoris

Sequence of milk conduction in mammary glands:

3 membranes: Plasma membrane, Zona
Mammary alveoli → mammary tubules → mammary duct → mammary ampulla →
pellucida & Corona radiata.
lactiferous duct.

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MENSTRUAL CYCLE (REPRODUCTIVE CYCLE) PREGNANCY AND EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT • Importance: To avoid unwanted pregnancies (casual intercourse or rapes) and harmful
pregnancies.
Phases Days Main events Placenta: A structural & functional unit b/w foetus & uterine wall formed by interdigitation of • Problems: Performed illegally. Female foeticide. Misuse of amniocentesis.
Reproductive & Child Health Care Programme (RCH): To give awareness about
1. Menstrual phase 1-5th day Menstrual flow (bleeding). chorionic villi & uterine tissue. • Amniocentesis: Analysis of foetal cells from amniotic fluid. It is used to test genetic
2. Proliferative o Primary follicles → Graafian follicles. reproduction related aspects.
5-13th day Functions of placenta:
disorders, survivability of foetus etc. it is misused for foetal sex determination.
(Follicular) phase o Proliferation of ruptured uterine endometrium. MMR: Maternal Mortality Rate.
LH surge → rupture of Graafian follicle → • Supply O2, nutrients etc. from mother to foetus.
3. Ovulatory phase 14th day
ovulation. IMR: Infant Mortality Rate. SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES (STD) OR SEXUALLY
• Remove CO2 and excretory wastes from foetus.
4. Luteal (Secretory) Corpus luteum forms → progesterone → TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS (STI)
th
15-28 day • Acts as an endocrine gland. It secretes Human chorionic
phase endometrium maximum vascular, thick and soft. • E.g. Gonorrhoea, syphilis, genital herpes, chlamydiasis, genital warts, trichomoniasis,
gonadotropin (hCG), human placental lactogen (hPL),
• Menarche: The first menstruation during puberty. oestrogens, progesterone & relaxin. hepatitis-B & HIV leading to AIDS.
• Menopause: Permanent stopping of menstrual cycle at the age of 50. • Early symptoms: Itching, fluid discharge, slight pain, swellings, etc. in the genital region.
• If not consult a doctor, it leads to PID (Pelvic Inflammatory Disease), infertility, ectopic
Changes in embryo during pregnancy pregnancies, abortions, still births, genital cancer etc.
After one month Heart • Prevention: Avoid sex with unknown/multiple partners, Use condoms, Consult doctor.
End of second month Limbs and digits
End of 12 weeks (first trimester) Major organs (limbs, external genital organs etc.) INFERTILITY AND ASSISTED REPRODUCTIVE TECHNOLOGIES
th
5 month Hair on the head. First movement of foetus.
nd ART Assisted Reproductive Technologies: To correct infertility problems.
End of 24 weeks (2 trimester) Fine body hair, eyelids separate, eye lashes.
End of 9 months Ready for delivery. In Vitro Fertilization: Test tube baby programme. Fertilization of ovum with
IVF
sperm in laboratory. This is followed by Embryo transfer (ET).
PARTURITION AND LACTATION ▪ Periodic abstinence: Avoid coitus during fertile period of the menstrual cycle. ET Embryo Transfer. 2 types: ZIFT & IUT.
▪ Coitus interruptus (withdrawal): Withdraw penis from the vagina before ejaculation.
- Signals from foetus & placenta → mild uterine contractions (fetal ejection reflex) → oxytocin Zygote Intra Fallopian Transfer: Transfer of zygote or early embryo (up to 8
▪ Lactational amenorrhea: It is the absence of menstrual cycle & ovulation due to lactation ZIFT
from pituitary → stronger uterine muscle contractions → further secretion of oxytocin → blastomeres) into fallopian tube.
after parturition. Breastfeeding increases lactation. This helps to prevent conception. This is
Parturition (giving birth). Intra Uterine Transfer: Transfer of embryo with more than 8 blastomeres into
effective up to 6 months following parturition. IUT
- Lactation: Production of milk from mammary glands. the uterus.
- Colostrum: Yellowish milk produced during the initial few days of lactation. It is rich in Gamete Intra Fallopian Transfer: Transfer of an ovum into the fallopian tube
FERTILIZATION AND IMPLANTATION antibodies essential to develop resistance for the new born babies. GIFT of another female who cannot produce ovum, but can provide suitable
environment for fertilization and development.
Sperms → Vagina → Cervical canal → Uterus → Isthmus Fertilization in
Intra Cytoplasmic Sperm Injection: A single sperm is injected directly into an
→ Zygote
   ICSI
egg. After fertilization, the embryo is implanted into the woman’s uterus.
Ampullary
Ovum (from ovary) → Fimbriae → Infundibulum region
VIDEO SLIDES OF QUESTION
CLASS THIS CHAPTER BANK Artificial Insemination: Semen is artificially introduced into the vagina or the
uterus of the female.
Zygote → cleavage → morula (8-16 blastomeres) → blastocyst → embryo AI
Useful for male partner having inability to inseminate female or low sperm
Blastocyst: counts.
A. Inner cell mass: Becomes embryo. IUI Intra Uterine Insemination: Artificial insemination into the uterus.
B. Trophoblast: Gives nourishment to inner cell mass. Also, it is attached
to endometrium.
  
After attachment, blastocyst is embedded in endometrium. It is called implantation. VIDEO SLIDES OF QUESTION
CLASS THIS CHAPTER BANK

CDRI (Central Drug Research Institute): Developed Saheli (Once a week, non-steroidal,
oral pill).

MEDICAL TERMINATION OF PREGNANCY (MTP) OR INDUCED

ABORTION
• Safe during first trimester.

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 MENDEL’S LAWS OF INHERITANCE ▪ Homologous pair segregates during gamete formation. MUTATION
▪ Independent pairs segregate independently.
First Law (Law of Dominance) Genes (factors) are present on chromosomes. Hence genes and chromosomes show similar Sudden heritable change in DNA. 2 types:
Gregor Mendel conducted experiments on garden peas (Pisum sativum).
▪ Characters are controlled by factors. behaviours. ✓ Point mutation: Change in a single base pair. E.g. sickle cell anaemia.
He selected 7 pairs of true breeding pea varieties.
▪ Factors occur in pairs. T.H Morgan proved chromosomal theory of inheritance using fruit flies (Drosophila ✓ Frame-shift mutation: Deletion or insertion of base pairs resulting in the shifting of DNA
7 Characters Dominant Recessive ▪ In a dissimilar factor pair, one factor dominates the other. sequences.
melanogaster).
1. Stem height Tall Dwarf Mutagens: Agents which induce mutation. 2 types.
2. Flower colour Violet White Second Law (Law of Segregation) Morgan’s experiment to study sex linked genes: - Physical mutagens: UV radiation, α, β, γ rays, X-ray etc.
3. Flower position Axial Terminal
“During gamete formation, factors (alleles) of a character pair segregate each other such Linkage: Physical association of two genes on a chromosome. - Chemical mutagens: Mustard gas, phenol, formalin etc.
4. Pod shape Inflated Constricted
that a gamete receives only one of the 2 factors”.
5. Pod colour Green Yellow Recombination: Generation of non-parental gene combination. PEDIGREE ANALYSIS
6. Seed shape Round Wrinkled 3rd Law: Law of Independent Assortment Drosophila is suitable material for genetic study because,
7. Seed colour Yellow Green “When two pairs of traits are combined in a hybrid, segregation of one pair of characters is Analysis of genetic traits in several generations of a family. It helps to understand whether a
• They can grow on simple synthetic medium.
independent of the other pair of characters”. trait is dominant or recessive.
INHERITANCE OF ONE GENE • Short generation time (life cycle: 12-14 days).
• Incomplete Dominance: It is an inheritance in which • Breeding can be done throughout the year. Representation of family genetic history is called family tree (pedigree).
Monohybrid cross: A cross involving 2 plants differing in a heterozygous offspring shows intermediate character b/w • Hundreds of progenies per mating.
character pair. two parental characteristics. E.g. Flower colour in 4’O Male: Female: Sex unspecified: Affected individual:
• Male and female flies are easily distinguishable.
Monohybrid phenotypic ratio = 3:1 clock plant and snapdragon (Antirrhinum). Cross 1: Yellow-bodied, white-eyed female X Brown-bodied, red-eyed male (wild type) Mating: Mating b/w relatives (consanguineous mating):
Monohybrid genotypic ratio = 1:2:1 Phenotypic ratio= 1: 2: 1 Cross 2: White-eyed, miniature winged female X Red eyed, large winged male (wild type)
▪ Testcross: Cross b/w an organism with dominant Genotypic ratio= 1: 2: 1 Morgan intercrossed their F1 progeny. He found that Parents above & children below
phenotype & a recessive individual.
• Co-dominance: The inheritance in which both alleles of ▪ The two genes did not segregate independently.
a gene are expressed in a hybrid. E.g. ABO blood ▪ Parental gene combinations were much higher than non-parental type. This is due to
Parents with affected male child Five unaffected offspring
grouping in human. ABO blood groups are controlled by linkage.
the gene I. ▪ Genes of eye colour & body colour were tightly linked (only 1.3% recombination). Genes of
The gene I has three alleles IA, IB & i. eye colour & wing size were loosely linked (37.2% recombination).
▪ Tightly linked genes show low recombination. Loosely linked genes show high
recombination.
Hence monohybrid test cross ratio= 1:1
Test cross is used to find out the unknown genotype of a character. MECHANISMS OF SEX DETERMINATION Pedigree analysis of (A) Autosomal dominant trait (E.g. Myotonic dystrophy)
(B) Autosomal recessive trait (E.g. Sickle-cell anaemia)
INHERITANCE OF TWO GENES Sex chromosomes include X & Y.
Autosomes are chromosomes other than sex chromosomes.
Dihybrid cross: Cross b/w two parents differing in 2 pairs of characters. E.g. Cross b/w pea GENETIC DISORDERS
a. XX-XO mechanism: Male heterogametic, i.e. XO (Gametes with X and without X) and
plant with round & yellow seeds (RRYY) and wrinkled & green seeds (rryy). female homogametic, i.e. XX (gametes with X-chromosomes). E.g. grasshopper. 1. Mendelian disorders: Due to change in gene.
b. XX-XY mechanism: Male heterogametic (X & Y) & female homogametic (X only). E.g.
• Haemophilia (Royal disease): Sex linked recessive disease. A blood clotting protein is
When IA and IB are present together, they both express (AB group). Human & Drosophila.
affected.
• Multiple allelism: More than two alleles of a gene govern same character. E.g. ABO c. ZZ-ZW mechanism: Male homogametic (ZZ) and female heterogametic (Z & W). E.g.
The disease is controlled by 2 alleles, H (normal) & h (haemophilic).
blood grouping (3 alleles: IA, IB & i). Birds.
In females, haemophilia is very rare because it happens only when mother is at least
• Pleiotropy: A single gene exhibits multiple phenotypic expressions. E.g. Starch synthesis carrier and father haemophilic.
Sex Determination in Humans (XX-XY)
F2: in pea, phenylketonuria. • Sickle-cell anaemia: Autosome linked recessive disease.
Starch synthesis in pea plant: RBC becomes sickle shape.
BB gene: Effective starch synthesis, produce large starch grains. Homozygous dominant (HbAHbA):
bb gene: Lesser starch synthesis, produce small starch grains. normal
Starch grain size also shows incomplete dominance. Heterozygous (HbAHbS): carrier;
sickle cell trait
CHROMOSOMAL THEORY OF INHERITANCE (Sutton & Boveri)
Homozygous recessive (HbSHbS):
▪ Chromosomes are vehicles of heredity. Thus the sperm determines whether the offspring male or female. affected
Dihybrid Phenotypic ratio= 9:3:3:1 ▪ Two identical chromosomes form a homologous pair.
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It is due to substitution of Glutamic acid by Valine at the 6th position of β-globin chain 3. Hershey-Chase Experiment (Blender Experiment): Process of Replication:
of haemoglobin. •
- Bacteriophage viruses + radioactive phosphorus (P32) → radioactive DNA → Infected with DNA replication starts at a point called origin.
This is due to the single base substitution at the sixth codon of the β-globin gene from • DNA replicates in the 5’→3’ direction.
GAG to GUG.
THE DNA E. coli.
• Deoxyribonucleoside triphosphates act as substrate.
- Bacteriophage viruses + radioactive sulphur (S35) → radioactive protein → Infected with E.
• Colour blindness: Sex-linked recessive disorder due to defect in red or green cone of • DNA & RNA are polynucleotides (polymer • 2 strands unwind and separate to form replication fork.
coli. • In presence of DNA polymerase, nucleotides join to form new
eye. Fail to discriminate red & green colour. It is rare in females because the genes are X- of nucleotides).
- Blending to remove virus particles from bacteria. strand.
linked. • Nucleoside= A nitrogen base + pentose sugar
- Centrifugation to separate lighter virus particles from heavier bacterial cells. • One strand undergoes Continuous synthesis.
• Phenylketonuria: Inborn error of metabolism. Autosomal recessive disease. Due to (by N-glycosidic bond).
- Bacteria infected with viruses having radioactive DNA were radioactive. i.e., DNA had • Other strand undergoes discontinuous synthesis as fragments.
mutation of a gene coding for phenyl alanine hydroxylase enzyme (it converts • Nucleotide= A nitrogen base + A pentose
passed from the virus to bacteria. They join to form a new strand by DNA ligase. Replication fork
phenylalanine to tyrosine). sugar (ribose in RNA & deoxyribose in
- Bacteria infected with viruses having radioactive proteins were not radioactive. i.e., proteins
Affected individual lacks this enzyme. So, phenylalanine becomes phenyl pyruvic acid. DNA) + a phosphate group.
did not enter the bacteria from the viruses. This proves that DNA is the genetic material. TRANSCRIPTION
They accumulate in brain causing mental retardation. These are also excreted through • Nitrogen bases are 2 types:

urine.
2. Chromosomal disorders: Due to change in number or structure of chromosome.
Disorders
Down’s syndrome:
Presence of an additional
chromosome number 21 (21
trisomy).
Klinefelter’s Syndrome:
Presence of an additional X-
chromosome in male.
Turner’s syndrome:
Absence of an X
chromosome in female.
 
VIDEO
CLASS
 Purines: Adenine (A) & Guanine (G). PROPERTIES OF GENETIC MATERIAL (DNA v/s RNA) - Formation of RNA from one strand of the DNA.
 Pyrimidines: Cytosine (C), Thymine
Reasons for stability Reasons for mutability 3’-ATGCATGCATGCATGCATGCATGC-5’ template strand.
(T) & Uracil (U). Properties 5’-TACGTACGTACGTACGTACGTACG-3’ coding strand.
• A=T (2 hydrogen bonds) C≡G (3 hydrogen bonds). (less reactivity) of DNA (high reactivity) of RNA
Genetic • Replication. - In transcription, both strands are not copied because
Features • Phosphodiester bond= Bond b/w sugar & phosphate. • Double stranded • Single stranded
constitution • ◦ The code for proteins is different in both strands.
Erwin Chargaff’s rule: In DNA, the proportion of A is equal to T and the proportion of G is Stability.
• Presence of thymine • Presence of Uracil
▪ Short stature, small round head. Broad flat • Show mutations for evolution. ◦ 2 RNA molecules form double stranded RNA.
face.
equal to C. • Absence of 2’-OH in • Presence of 2’-OH in
45 A + XX ∴ [A] + [G] = [T] + [C] or [A] + [G] / [T] + [C] =1 • Express as Mendelian 3 regions of a Transcription Unit
▪ Furrowed big tongue and partially open sugar sugar
or Characters. ◦ A promoter: Binding site for RNA polymerase.
mouth. PACKAGING OF DNA HELIX ◦ Structural gene: Region b/w promoter
45 A + XY To store genetic information, DNA is better due to its stability. But for transmission of
▪ Retarded physical, psychomotor & mental and terminator.
development. ▪ DNA (-ve charge) is wrapped around histone octamer (+ve charge) genetic information, RNA is better.
to give nucleosome. ◦ A terminator: The site where
CENTRAL DOGMA OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY transcription stops.
▪ Development of breast (Gynaecomastia). ▪ Nucleosomes condense → chromatin → chromosome.
44 A + XXY Structural gene in a transcription unit is 2 types:
▪ Sterile. ▪ Higher level packaging of chromatin needs non-histone It is proposed by Francis Crick.
 Monocistronic structural genes (split genes): Seen in eukaryotes. It contains exons and
chromosomal (NHC) proteins.
▪ Sterile, Ovaries are rudimentary.
▪ Chromatin has 2 forms: introns.
▪ Lack of other secondary sexual  Polycistronic structural genes: Seen in prokaryotes. Here, there are no split genes.
44 A + X0 • Euchromatin: Loosely packed, light stained and transcriptionally active region.
characters.
• Heterochromatin: Densely packed, dark stained and inactive region. Transcription in prokaryotes (bacteria):
▪ Dwarf.
 Initiation: RNA polymerase binds at
THE SEARCH FOR GENETIC MATERIAL DNA REPLICATION promoter site → unwinding of DNA. An
1. Griffith’s Transforming Principle experiment: initiation factor (σ factor) in RNA polymerase
• Replication is the copying of DNA from parental DNA.
 • S-strain → Inject into mice → Mice die • Watson & Crick proposed Semi-conservative model of replication. initiates RNA synthesis.
SLIDES OF THIS QUESTION  Elongation: RNA chain is synthesized in 5’-
CHAPTER BANK • R-strain → Inject into mice → Mice live Messelson & Stahl’s Experiment:
3’ direction. Activated ribonucleoside
• S-strain (Heat killed) → Inject into mice → Mice live  They grew E. coli in 15NH4Cl triphosphates are added.
• S-strain (Hk) + R-strain (live) → Inject into mice → Mice die medium (15N = heavy isotope). As a  Termination: A termination factor (ρ
result, new heavy DNA (15N DNA) factor) binds to the RNA polymerase and terminates the transcription.
Conclusion: Some transforming principle transferred from hk S-strain to R-strain. Thus R-
formed.
strain transformed to S strain.
 Heavy DNA can be distinguished Transcription in eukaryotes: There are 2 additional complexities:
2. Biochemical characterization of transforming principle: from normal DNA (light DNA or 1. There are 3 RNA polymerases: RNA polymerase I, II & III.
14
N DNA) by centrifugation in
- By Avery, MacLeod & McCarty.
cesium chloride density gradient.
- They purified biochemicals from heat killed S cells using suitable enzymes.
 E. coli cells from 15N medium were transferred to 14N medium. In next generation, density
- Digestion of DNA with DNase inhibited transformation. It proves that DNA was the
of DNA was intermediate b/w 15N DNA & 14N DNA. i.e., one strand is old (15N) and one
transforming principle. strand is new (14N).
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2. Primary transcripts (hnRNA) contain exons a) A regulatory or inhibitor (i) gene: Codes for repressor protein. e. 1.4 million locations have single-base DNA differences. They are called SNPs (Single
& introns. To remove introns, it undergoes the b) 3 structural genes: nucleotide polymorphism or ‘snips’).
following processes and become mRNA: • z gene: Codes for  galactosidase. It hydrolyses lactose to galactose and glucose.
• Splicing: Introns are removed and exons are • y gene: Codes for permease. It increases permeability of the cell to lactose.
DNA FINGERPRINTING (DNA PROFILING) THEORIES OF ORIGIN OF LIFE
joined. • a gene: Codes for a transacetylase. • Technique to identify similarities & differences of the DNA fragments of 2 individuals. 1. Spontaneous generation: Life came out of decaying &
• Capping: Methyl guanosine triphosphate • It is developed by Alec Jeffreys. rotting matter like straw, mud etc. Louis Pasteur
(cap) is added to the 5’ end of hnRNA. disproved this theory.
• Tailing (Polyadenylation): Adenylate Basis of DNA fingerprinting
2. Biogenesis: Life originates from pre-existing life.
residues (200-300) are added at 3’-end. • DNA carries non-coding repeated sequences called variable number tandem repeats
(VNTR). 3. Panspermia: Units of life spores were transferred to
GENETIC CODE • VNTR is specific in each person.
planets including earth.
4. Chemical evolution: By Oparin & Haldane. Life was
▪ It is the sequence of nucleotides (nitrogen bases) in mRNA that contains information for Steps (Southern Blotting Technique) originated from inorganic & organic molecules.
protein synthesis.
a. Isolation of DNA.
Salient features of genetic code: Miller experiment to prove Chemical evolution. As a result, some amino acids are formed.
b. Digestion of DNA by restriction endonucleases.
• Triplet code. 61 codons code for amino acids. UAA, UAG & UGA are stop codons
c. Separation of DNA fragments by gel electrophoresis. EVIDENCES FOR EVOLUTION
(Termination codons).
d. Transferring (blotting) DNA fragments to nitrocellulose or nylon membrane.
• Genetic code is universal. Paleontological evidences: Study of extinct animals and geological period.
e. Hybridization by radioactive VNTR probe.
• No punctuations b/w adjacent codons.
f. Detection of hybridized DNA by autoradiography. Morphological & Anatomical evidences
• An amino acid is coded by many codons. So the code is degenerate.
Application of DNA fingerprinting: a. Homologous organs: The organs having fundamentally similar structure and origin but
• AUG has dual functions: Codes for Methionine + initiator codon.
• Forensic tool to solve paternity, rape, murder etc.
different functions. This phenomenon is called Homology.
TYPES OF RNA • For the diagnosis of genetic diseases. E.g. 1. Human hand, Whale’s flippers, Bat’s wing & Cheetah’s foot.
• To determine phylogenetic status of animals.
• mRNA (messenger RNA): Provide template for translation (protein synthesis). 2. Thorns of Bougainvillea and tendrils of Cucurbita.
• rRNA (ribosomal RNA): catalytic role during translation. HUMAN GENOME PROJECT (HGP) Origin of homologous organs is due to Divergent evolution (related species become less
• tRNA (transfer RNA): Adapter molecule. Brings amino acids for protein synthesis and
First mega project for sequencing of nucleotides and mapping of all genes in human genome.    similar in different environmental condition).
reads the genetic code. It has an Anticodon loop & an amino acid acceptor end. VIDEO SLIDES OF THIS QUESTION
Goals of HGP CLASS CHAPTER BANK b. Analogous organs: The organs having similar function but different structure & origin.
TRANSLATION (PROTEIN SYNTHESIS) a. Identify all the genes in DNA. This phenomenon is called Analogy. E.g. Wings of insects & wings of birds, Sweet potato
1. Charging (aminoacylation) of tRNA: Amino acids are activated (amino acid + ATP) + b. Sequencing of 3 billion base pairs of human DNA. & Potato, Eye of the octopus & of mammals.
tRNA. c. Store this information in databases.
Origin of analogous organs is due to Convergent evolution (unrelated species become
2. Initiation: Ribosome binds to mRNA at the start codon (AUG). So the initiator tRNA d. Improve tools for data analysis.
more similar in similar environmental condition).
(with methionine) binds. Its anticodon (UAC) recognises start codon AUG. e. Transfer related technologies to other sectors.
f. Address the ELSI. Adaptive radiation
3. Elongation: Second aminoacyl tRNA binds to ribosome. Its anticodon binds to second
Methodologies of HGP: 2 approaches. It is the evolution of different species in a geographical area.
codon. A peptide bond is formed between first and second amino acids. This process
 Expressed Sequence Tags (ESTs): Focused on identifying all the genes that are expressed E.g. Darwin’s finches, Australian marsupials (Marsupial
continues.
as RNA. radiation), Placental mammals in Australia.
4. Termination: It occurs when a release factor binds to stop codon.
 Sequence annotation: Sequencing whole genome. Natural selection
mRNA has sequences that are not translated (untranslated regions or UTR). They are required It is the process in which the organisms with better,
for efficient translation. Procedure of sequencing:
Isolate DNA from a cell → Convert into random fragments → Clone in a host using vectors favourable & heritable variation are survived and
REGULATION OF GENE EXPRESSION → Sequencing of fragments using Automated DNA sequencers (Frederick Sanger method) → reproduced. E.g.
Arrange the sequences based on overlapping regions→ Alignment of sequences using  In England, before industrialization (1850s): More white-winged moths than dark winged
Levels of gene expression in eukaryotes: (melanised) moths.
computer programs.
Transcriptional level, Processing level, Transport of mRNA from nucleus to the cytoplasm Salient features of Human Genome After industrialization (1920): More dark-winged and less white winged.
and Translational level. a. Contains 3164.7 million bases & 30,000 genes. Reason:
Lac Operon: b. 99.9% nucleotide bases are same in all people. Before industrialization: Due to covering of white lichens on the trees, white winged moths
c. Chromosome I has most genes (2968) and Y has the fewest (231). survived but dark winged moths were picked out by predators.
All the genes regulating lactose metabolism in E. coli. It consists of d. Major portion of genome is made of Repeated (repetitive) sequences.
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After industrialization: No lichens. Tree trunks became dark due to smoke and soot. So, 2 types: Primary & Secondary. Autoimmunity
predators identified white winged moths easily. Dark winged moths survived. a) Primary lymphoid organs: Here, immature lymphocytes differentiate into antigen- Due to genetic and other unknown reasons, the body attacks self-cells resulting in damage to
▪ Development of resistant varieties against herbicides, pesticides, antibiotics or drugs etc. sensitive lymphocytes. E.g. Bone marrow & thymus. the body. It is called auto-immune disease. E.g. Rheumatoid arthritis.
COMMON INFECTIOUS DISEASES IN HUMAN
b) Secondary lymphoid organs: The organs, to which matured lymphocytes migrate, interact Allergies
These are the examples for natural selection by anthropogenic action (evolution due to human
Disease Pathogen Transmission Symptoms with antigens and proliferate to effector cells. E.g. Spleen, lymph nodes, tonsils, Peyer’s ▪ Exaggerated response of the immune system to some antigens found in the environment.
activities).
Salmonella typhi High fever, weakness, stomach patches, Mucosa associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) & appendix. ▪ Allergens: E.g. mites in dust, pollens, animal dander etc.
Group: Bacterium Food & water → small pain, constipation, headache &
THEORIES OF BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION Typhoid ▪ Symptoms: Sneezing, watery eyes, running nose, difficult breathing, wheezing etc.
Widal test: To intestine. loss of appetite. Intestinal IMMUNITY
▪ Antibodies produced against the allergens are IgE type.
Theory of Inheritance of Acquired characters: Proposed by Lamarck. It states that confirm the disease. perforation. 2 types: Innate and Acquired. ▪ Asthma is a respiratory disease due to allergy.
evolution occurred by the inheritance of acquired characters. E.g. Long neck of giraffe. Streptococcus
Respiratory problems, fever, 1. Innate immunity: Non-specific inborn immunity. It includes 4 types of Barriers: ▪ Treatment: Drugs like anti-histamine, adrenaline and steroids quickly reduce the symptoms.
pneumoniae & Inhaling droplets from
Theory of Natural selection: Proposed by Charles Darwin. chills, cough, headache. In severe a. Physical barriers: E.g. Skin, Mucus. ▪ Modern-day life style & protected environment provided early in life results in low immunity
Pneumonia Haemophilus patients, Sharing
Key concepts: Branching descent & Natural selection. cases, lips and finger nails turn b. Physiological barriers: E.g. gastric HCl, saliva, tear etc. and more sensitivity to allergens. So children in metro cities suffer from allergies and asthma.
influenzae contaminated objects.
Natural selection is based on these facts: Heritable minor variations, Overproduction, gray to bluish colour. c. Cellular barriers: Phagocytes like WBC, macrophages etc.
Group: Bacterium
Limited natural resources, Struggle for existence & Survival of the fittest. Inhaling droplets from Nasal congestion & discharge, d. Cytokine barriers: Virus infected cells → interferon → protect non-infected cells AIDS (Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome)
Rhinovirus
Common cold cough or sneezes. sore throat, cough, hoarseness, from viral infection. • It is caused by HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus), a retrovirus having RNA
Group: Virus
MECHANISM OF EVOLUTION Contaminated objects. headache, tiredness. 2. Acquired immunity genome.
Haemozoin toxin causes chill and
- Hugo de Vries conducted experiments on evening primrose and proposed that evolution takes Plasmodium sp. Female Anopheles Pathogen specific immunity developed during lifetime. • Transmission: Sexual contact with infected person, Transfusion of contaminated blood,
Malaria high fever recurring every 3-4
place through mutation. Group: Protozoa mosquito.
days. First encounter of a pathogen → primary response in low Sharing of infected needles, From mother to child through placenta.
- Mutation is the origin of variation for evolution. intensity. • Diagnosis: ELISA test (Enzyme-linked immuno-sorbent Assay).
Amoebiasis Houseflies transmit Constipation, abdominal pain &
- Darwinian variation is minor, slow and directional. It results in gradual evolution. (Amoebic
Entamoeba histolytica
parasites from faeces cramps, stools with mucus and Second encounter → strong secondary (anamnestic) • Treatment: Anti-retroviral drugs.
Group: Protozoa • Prevention: Educate people about AIDS, Make blood safe from HIV, Use disposable
- Mutational variation is sudden, random & directionless. Here, speciation is by saltation dysentery) to food & water. blood clots. response.
(single step, large mutation). Soil, water, vegetables, Internal bleeding, muscular pain, These responses are carried out by needles and syringes, Condoms, Control drug abuse.
Ascaris
Ascariasis fruits etc. contaminated fever, anaemia, blockage of Replication of retrovirus:
Group: Helminth • B-lymphocytes (B-cells): Produce antibodies.
HARDY-WEINBERG PRINCIPLE with faeces. intestinal passage.
• T-lymphocytes (T-cells): Help B-cells to produce Structure of antibody
It states that allele frequencies in a population are stable and is constant from generation to Wuchereria (Filarial Chronic inflammation and
Filariasis Female Culex antibodies.
worms) deformity of limbs & genital
generation. (Elephantiasis) mosquito.
Group: Helminth organs.
Factors affecting Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium: Types of Acquired immune responses:
Microsporum,
• Gene migration 1. Humoral immune response/ Antibody mediated immunity (AMI): It is mediated by
Trichophyton & From soil or towels, Dry, scaly lesions on skin, nails,
• Genetic drift Ringworm
Epidermophyton cloths, comb etc. scalp etc. Itching. antibodies.
• Mutation Group: Fungus 2. Cell-mediated response / cell-mediated immunity (CMI): It is mediated by T-
• Genetic recombination lymphocytes.
• Natural selection. Types of Acquired immunity:
Gene migration: Gene flow from one population • Active immunity: Here, antibodies are produced in host body. It is developed during natural
to another. infection by microbes or by injecting microbes during immunization.
Genetic drift: Gene flow by chance. Original • Passive immunity: Here, readymade antibodies are given to the body. E.g. Foetus gets
drifted population becomes founders (founder antibodies from mother through Placenta, infants gets antibodies (IgA) in colostrum.
effect). Types of Immunization:
Natural selection: It is 3 types.
1. Active Immunization (Vaccination)
▪ Stabilizing selection: Here, more individuals acquire mean character value.
▪ Vaccine (inactivated pathogen or its antigenic proteins) is introduced into body for the
▪ Directional selection: Individuals of one extreme are more favoured.
development of antibodies.
▪ Disruptive selection: Individuals of both extremes are more favoured.
▪ E.g. Polio vaccine, Hepatitis B vaccine, DPT vaccine etc. Life cycle of HIV:
Life cycle of Plasmodium
ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF MAN 2. Passive Immunization
HIV enters body → To macrophages (acts as HIV factory) → RNA becomes viral DNA in
IMMUNE SYSTEM ▪ It is the direct injection of pre-formed antibodies or antitoxin. It requires for quick immune
Dryopithecus → Ramapithecus → Australopithecus → Homo habilis → Homo erectus → presence of Reverse transcriptase → Viral DNA incorporates into host DNA→ produce virus
response.
Homo neanderthalensis → Homo sapiens. LYMPHOID ORGANS particles → HIV enters helper T-cells (TH lymphocytes) → Replicates & produce progeny
▪ E.g. Immunization against Tetanus, snake venom etc.
The organs where origin/ maturation & proliferation of lymphocytes occur. viruses → Attack other TH cells → TH cells decrease → Weaken immunity.
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 CANCER Need for adventure and excitement.
-
Stress from pressure to excel in academics or examination.
-
• It is an abnormal and uncontrolled multiplication of cells to form tumour. Television, movies, newspapers, internet etc.
-
Microbes Group Uses
• Normal cells show contact inhibition (contact with other cells inhibits their uncontrolled - Peer pressure. 1. Lactobacillus (LAB) Bacterium Lactic acid, milk to curd
growth). Cancer cells do not have this property. • Addiction: Psychological attachment with drugs & alcohol. 2. Acetobacter aceti Bacterium Acetic acid
Types of Tumours: • Dependence: Body manifests unpleasant withdrawal syndrome if drugs/alcohol is abruptly 3. Aspergillus niger Fungus Citric acid
discontinued. This results in anxiety, shakiness, nausea and sweating. 4. Clostridium butyilicum Bacterium Butyric acid Technology of biogas production in India was developed
o Benign tumours: Confined to the place of its origin. Cause little damage.
Effects of Drug/alcohol abuse 5. Propionibacterium by:
o Malignant tumours: Tumour cells (neoplastic cells) invade and damage surrounding tissues. Bacterium In Swiss cheese formation
• Reckless behaviour, vandalism and violence. shermanii • IARI: Indian Agricultural Research Institute
Cells from tumours reach other sites via blood and form a new tumour. It is called metastasis.
• Coma and death. 6. Saccharomyces cerevisie
Production of beverages, bread by • KVIC: Khadi & Village Industries Commission.
(Baker’s yeast or Brewer’s Fungus
Causes of cancer (Carcinogens): • Damage of nervous system and liver cirrhosis. fermenting dough, ethanol etc.
yeast)
▪ Physical agents: Radiations like X-rays, gamma rays, UV etc. • Causes mental & social distress to family and friends.
Statins (blood cholesterol lowering
▪ Chemical agents: Tobacco smoke, vinyl chloride, nicotine, etc. • Social problems like stealing and spread of diseases. 7. Monascus purpureus Fungus (a yeast)
agents)
▪ Biological agents: Oncogenic viruses, c-onc (cellular oncogenes or proto oncogenes) etc. Warning signs of drug/alcohol abuse in Adolescence period Penicillin (First antibiotic discovered
8. Penicillium notatum Fungus (mould)
Cancer detection and diagnosis: • Drop in academic performance and absence from school. by Alexander Fleming).   
• Lack of interest in personal hygiene. 9. Streptococcus Bacterium Streptokinase (a clot buster) VIDEO SLIDES OF QUESTION
o Biopsy: Histopathological studies of suspected tissue. CLASS THIS CHAPTER BANK
• Withdrawal and isolation. 10. Trichoderma polysporum Fungus
Cyclosporine A (immunosuppressive
o Imaging techniques: Radiography, CT scan & MRI. agent)
• Depression, fatigue, aggressive and rebellious behaviour.
o Molecular biology technique: To detect cancer related genes. 11. Methanobacterium Biogas (CH4) production i.e., source
• Loss of interest in hobbies. Bacterium
Treatment of cancer: Radiotherapy, Chemotherapy, Immunotherapy & Surgery. (methanogens) of energy
Side effects of anabolic steroid abuse 12. Azospirillum Bacterium Nitrogen fixation, biofertilizer
DRUGS, SMOKING AND ALCOHOL ABUSE In males: 13. Azotobacter Bacterium Nitrogen fixation, biofertilizer
▪ Acne, premature baldness. 14. Rhizobium Bacterium Nitrogen fixation, biofertilizer
DRUGS ▪ Mood swings & depression, aggressiveness. 15. Cyanobacteria (blue green
Bacteria Nitrogen fixation, biofertilizer
1. Opioids: E.g. morphine, heroin, brown sugar. ▪ Reduced testicles & decreased sperms. algae)
Morphine is extracted from latex of Papaver somniferum (poppy plant). It is a sedative ▪ Enlargement of Breast & prostate gland. Fungi (E.g.
16. Mycorrhiza Biofertilizer
& painkiller. Used in surgery. Glomus) + plant
In females:
17. Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) Bacterium Biocontrol of butterfly caterpillar
Heroin (smack or diacetylmorphine) is obtained by acetylation of morphine. It is a ▪ Masculinisation, excessive hair growth
Biocontrol of insects and other
depressant. ▪ Mood swings & depression, aggressiveness. 18. Baculoviruses (mainly
Virus arthropods. Used in Integrated Pest
2. Cannabinoids: ▪ Abnormal menstrual cycle, deepening of voice. nucleopolyhedrovirus)
Management (IPM).
Obtained from Cannabis sativa (Hemp plant). ▪ Enlargement of clitoris. 19. Trichoderma sp Fungus Biocontrol
Includes marijuana, hashish, charas & ganja. Prevention and control • Lipases: Used in detergent to remove oily stains from the laundry.
They affect cardiovascular system. • Avoid undue peer pressure. • Pectinases & Proteases: To clarify bottled juices.
3. Coca alkaloid or cocaine (coke or crack): • Education and counselling.
It is obtained from coca plant Erythroxylum coca. Steps of Sewage treatment:
• Seeking help from parents and peers.
It interferes with transport of neurotransmitter dopamine. • Looking for danger signs. Primary treatment Secondary (Biological) treatment
It stimulates CNS producing euphoria & increased energy. • Seeking professional and medical help.
Filtration & Primary Aeration Action of BOD Settling Effluent to
SMOKING Sewage
sedimentation effluent tank flocs decreases tank water bodies
• Tobacco contains nicotine etc.
• Smoking causes cancers of lung, urinary bladder and throat, bronchitis, emphysema, coronary
Primary sludge Sedimentation of flocs
heart disease, gastric ulcer etc. Tobacco chewing causes oral cancer.
(activated sludge)
• Smoking increases CO content in blood and reduces oxyhaemoglobin. This causes O2
deficiency in the body.   
VIDEO SLIDES OF QUESTION • STP: Sewage Treatment Plant. Anaerobic sludge
ADOLESCENCE & DRUG/ALCOHOL ABUSE CLASS THIS CHAPTER BANK • BOD: Biochemical Oxygen Demand (amount of O2 needed to digesters
oxidize all organic compounds in 1 litre of water.
Causes of drug/alcohol use in Adolescence
Biogas
- Curiosity and Experimentation.

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LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY
IUCN Red List (2004): E.g. Dodo, Quagga, Thylacine, Stellar’s sea cow etc.
Edward Wilson popularized the term biodiversity.
Causes of Biodiversity losses (‘The Evil Quartet’)
LEVELS OF BIODIVERSITY 1. Habitat loss & fragmentation: Most important cause.
2. Over-exploitation: Stellar’s sea cow, Passenger pigeon etc. extinct due to over
1. Genetic diversity: Diversity shown by a single species at genetic level. E.g. Rauwolfia
exploitation.
vomitoria shows genetic variation in reserpine.
3. Alien species invasions: Cause extinction of indigenous species. E.g. Nile Perch
2. Species diversity: Diversity at species level. E.g. Western Ghats have greater amphibian species
introduced in Lake Victoria caused extinction of cichlid fish, African Catfish is a threat to
than Eastern Ghats.
indigenous catfishes in our rivers.
3. Ecological diversity: Diversity at ecosystem level. E.g. deserts, rain forests, mangroves etc.
4. Co-extinction: When a species extinct, the species associated with it also extinct. E.g.
Parasites – host, Plant – pollinator.
TOTAL NUMBER OF SPECIES ON EARTH (GLOBAL SPECIES
DIVERSITY)
BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION
There are 3 categories of reasons for conservation.
a. Narrowly utilitarian arguments: Human derive economic benefits from nature.
b. Broadly utilitarian arguments: Biodiversity has ecosystem services. E.g. production of
O2, Pollination, Aesthetic pleasures.
b. Ethical arguments: Every species has an intrinsic value. We have to care them.
Types of Biodiversity conservation:
Biologists are not sure about number of prokaryotic species because
a. In situ conservation (on site): Conservation of organisms within natural or human-made
• Conventional taxonomic methods are not suitable to identify microbial species.
ecosystems. E.g.
• In laboratory, many species cannot be cultured.
• National Park: Reserved for the welfare of wildlife where private ownership, cultivation,

PATTERNS OF BIODIVERSITY grazing etc. are prohibited. E.g. Eravikulam National Park.
• Sanctuary: Protection only to the animals. Collection of timbers, minor forest products and
i. Latitudinal gradients: Species diversity decreases from the equator to the poles. private ownership are allowed. E.g. Periyar wildlife sanctuary.
Biodiversity (species richness) is highest in tropics because • Biosphere Reserves: Areas of land or coastal ecosystems for conservation and sustainable
o It had more evolutionary time. use.
o Relatively constant environment. • Sacred forests (Sacred groves): Forest fragments which are communally protected based
o It receives more solar energy. on religious beliefs.
ii. Species- Area relationship: Study of Alexander von Humboldt: Within a region, species b. Ex situ conservation (off site): Conservation of organisms outside their habitats. E.g.
richness increases with increasing explored area, but only up genetic resource centres, zoological parks, wildlife safari parks, botanical gardens, gene banks,
to a limit. cryopreservation etc.
S= CAz Hotspots: The regions with very high species richness, high endemism but most threatened.
S= Species richness A= Area There are 34 hotspots in the world. 3 hotspots cover India’s biodiversity regions- Western Ghats
C= Y-intercept Z= slope of the line (regression co- & Sri Lanka, Indo-Burma and Himalaya.
efficient)
For small areas, Z value= 0.1 to 0.2.
For large areas (e.g. entire continents), Z value= 0.6 to 1.2.
  
IMPORTANCE OF SPECIES DIVERSITY VIDEO
SLIDES OF
QUESTION
THIS
CLASS BANK
Rivet popper hypothesis: Proposed by Paul Ehrlich. In an airplane (ecosystem), if passengers CHAPTER
pop a rivet (extinction of a species), it may not affect flight safety (functioning of ecosystem).
But as more rivets are removed, plane becomes dangerously weak.

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