──── ❛ notes ni rai ‧₊˚✧ [ STEM 11 - A ]

Lesson 1 :Random Variables, Probability Distribution, Standard Deviation

⤻ calculate P(x > 2)
I. RANDOM VARIABLE ○ it is not a pmf, therefore we don’t need to
● variable that assigns a numerical value to each compute the P(x > 2).
outcome of a random event. ■ binomial distribution
● dependent to the outcome of a well-defined random ⤻ a probability distribution with only two possible
event or experiment. outcomes: success and failure
● X = {x1 , x2 , x3 , … , xn}
● can be classified as discrete or continuous
i. Discrete Variable III. Mean, Variance, Standard Deviation
○ a variable whose value is obtained through counting. ● mean — average value of all the outcomes.
○ takes on countable numbers of distinct values which ⤻ mean of a random variable weighs each outcome (X)
are whole numbers such as, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, … according to the probability (P).
○ example : number or children in a family, number of ⤻ the mean is computed using the formula
students in a classroom. E(x) = Ʃ [x f(x)] or μ = ƩxP(x)
xES
ii. Continuous Variable
○ variable whose value is obtained through measurement. ● E(x) — expected value
○ assumes an infinite number of possible values including ● x — random variable
the decimals between two counting numbers. ● f(x) — probability of x
○ decimals, fractions, etc. ● μ — average
○ example : area of a rice field, weight, height, volume. ● P(x) — probability of x

■ sample space ● variance — escribes the average square deviation of

⤻ is the set of all possible outcomes in an experiment. the variable from the mean.
⤻ example : 3 coins tossed once ⤻ formula for the variance 𝜎2 & the standard deviation 𝜎.
○ sample space : ⤻ standard deviation is the square root of the variance.
{HHH, TTT, HHT, HTT, THH, TTH, HTH, THT}
○ range space :
X = {0, 1, 2, 3}
⤻ X — values of possible outcomes —> EXAMPLE :
⤻ P(x) — probability of x
1. f(x) = { x/12, where xES = {2, 4, 6}
■ possible values of a random variable { 0, otherwise
⤻ values obtained from functions that assign real number ● Ʃ [f(x)] = 2(2/12) + 4(4/12) + 6(6/12)
to each point of a sample space. = 4/12 + 16/12 + 36/12 = 56/12
= 4/13 or 4 ⅔ or 4.33
II. PROBABILITY MASS FUNCTION (PMF)
2. compute the mean, variance, and standard deviation:
● also known as discrete probability distribution X 1 2 3 4
● consists of the values a random variable can assume
P(x) 0.10 0.20 0.45 0.25
● The Properties of a Probability Distribution :
○ Nonnegativity
● mean → μ = ƩxP(x)
○ Norming Property
● μ = 1(0.10) + 2(0.20) + 3(0.45) + 4(0.25)
i. Nonnegativity ● μ = 0.10 + 0.40 + 1.35 + 1 = 2.85
○ the probability of each value of the random variable ● compute the variance :
must be between or equal to 0 and 1 X P(x) x-μ (x-μ)2 (x-μ)2 P(x)
○ in symbol, we write it as 0≤P(X)≤1.
1 0.10 - 1.85 3.4225 0.34225
ii. Norming Property 2 0.20 - 0.85 0.7225 0.1445
○ sum of the probabilities of all values of the random 3 0.45 0.15 0.0225 0.010125
variable must be equal to 1.
4 0.25 1.15 1.3225 0.330625
○ in symbol, we write it as ƩP(X)=1.
■ example ● variance → add all (x-μ)2 P(x) and get the mean
⤻ show that it is a pmf ● 𝜎2 = Ʃ [ (x-μ)2 P(x) ]
X 1 2 3 4 ● 𝜎2 = 0.8275 → 0.83
● standard deviation → get the square root
P(x) 0.13 0.45 0.18 0.2
● 𝜎 = √8275 = 0.9096702699 → 0.91
⤻ property #1 : ✓
⤻ property #2 : X (sum of the probabilities of all values is
not equal to one)
⤻ therefore, it is not a pmf. — end of lesson 1 —
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 ────── ❛ notes ni rai ‧₊˚✧ [ STEM 11 - A ]
Lesson 2 : Normal and Standard Random Variable || Curve || Percentiles

I. NORMAL DISTRIBUTION III. FINDING THE AREAS OF A NORMAL CURVE

● also known as normal curve. GIVEN A Z – VALUE.
● provides a graphical representation of statistical values 1. Express the given z-value into a three digit form.
that are needed in describing the characteristics of 2. Using the z-table, find the first two digits on the left
populations as well in making decisions. column.
● mean, median, and mode are equal. 3. Match the third digit with the appropriate column on
● NORMAL CURVE — graph of normal distribution the right.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A NORMAL DISTRIBUTION 4. Read the area (or probability) at the intersection of the
row and the column. This is the required area.
1. The distribution curve is (the normal probability
distribution) bell –shaped. EXAMPLE #1 :
2. The curve is symmetrical about its center.
3. The mean, median and the mode coincide at the Find the area that corresponds to z = 1.36
center.
4. The width of the curve is determined by the standard 1. Express the given z into a three
Z = 1.36 (as is)
deviation of the distribution. digit form.
5. The tails of the curve flatten out indefinitely along the
horizontal axis, always approaching the axis but 2. In the table, find the Row z=1.3
never touching it. That is, the curve is asymptotic to
the base line. 3. In the table , find the Column with the heading .06
6. The area is under the curve is 1. Thus, it represents the
probability or proportion or the percentage associated 4. Read the area (or the This area is 0.4131.
with specific sets of measurement values. probability) at the intersection of This is the required
the Row 1.3 and the Column .06 area.
THE NORMAL PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION
EXAMPLE #2 :

Find the area that corresponds to z = -2.38.

1. Express the given z into a Z = 2.38 is the same as

three digit form. the area of z =-2.38)

2. In the table, find the Row z= 2.3

3. In the table , find the Column with the heading .08

4. Read the area (or the

probability) at the This area is 0.4913. This
intersection of the Row 1.3 is the required area.
and the Column .06

IV. EMPIRICAL RULE

II. STANDARD NORMAL CURVE
● a statistical rule which states that for a normal
● the standard normal curve is a : distribution, almost all observed data will fall within
○ mean μ = 0 three standard deviations of the mean or average.
○ standard deviation σ = 1 ● the 68–95–99.7 rule, 68%, 95%, and 99.7%
● the equation that describes a normal curve:

○ Y - height of the particular values of X

○ X = any score in the distribution
○ σ = standard deviation of the population
○ μ = mean of the population
○ π = 3.1416
○ e = 2.7183

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 REMINDERS :
● The are under normal curve is 1.
● The mean, median and mode of a normal curve
coincide at the center.
● The curve of a probability distribution is formed by a
bell-shaped.
● The curve of a normal distribution extends indefinitely
at the tails but does not touch.
● There are is 1 standard deviation unit at the baseline of
a normal curve.
● A normal curve is used in graphical representation of
its statistical values.
● The area under a normal curve may also be expressed
in terms of 1 or 100 %.
● About 0.3413 % of a score distribution is between z= 0
and z=1.
● The skewness of normal curve is 0 because it is a
symmetrical shape.
● It is a normal distribution that has a mean of 0 and
standard deviation of 1.
● There might be marginal differences in the proportion
of areas at the tails as a result of the rounding-off
process.
V. IDENTIFYING REGIONS UNDER THE NORMAL CURVE
● Using the z-table, we can determine specific regions
under the normal curve.
● For example, 50% of the region under the curve is
below the mean and 50% is above the mean.
● Specific regions can be determined in terms of their
usefulness in a situation.
● Z – TABLE — provides the proportion of the area (or
probability or percentage) between any two specific
values under the curve.
○ therefore, regions under the curve can be
described in terms of area.

VI. Z – SCORE
● number of standard deviation away from the mean.
● the following formula is used to convert any normal
variable to its corresponding z-value on a standard
normal distribution :

○ z is the standard normal distribution

○ x is the normal random variable
○ µ is the mean of the normal distribution
○ σ is the standard deviation of the normal
distribution

● The area of the region between z=0 and z=1 is given in

the z-table to be 0.3413. We can do the operations with
the areas to identify more regions under the curve. Find
the area of the region between z=1 and z=2, we
subtract 0.3413 from 0.4772 resulting in 0.1359.

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 EXAMPLE #1 :
● In a given normal distribution, an IQ score are normally
distributed with a mean of 90 and a standard deviation
of 10. Find the corresponding standard score ( z-score).
1. For an IQ of 130
VII. PERCENTILE
● a point in the distribution such that a given number of
cases is below it.
● a measure of relative standing.
● a descriptive measure of the relationship of a
measurement to the rest of data

2. For an IQ of 80

EXAMPLE #2 :
● A set of data is normally distributed with mean 25 and a
standard deviation of 4. If a normal variable x =15, what
is the z-score?
● DECILES — each of ten equal groups into which a
population can be divided according to the distribution
of values of a particular variable.
● QUARTILES — are three values that split sorted data
into four parts, each with an equal number of
observations.

II. Three important things to remember when we are

given probabilities and we want to know their
corresponding z-scores.
1. A probability value corresponds to an area of a normal
curve.
OTHER EXAMPLES :
2. In the table of areas under normal curve, the number in
→ FIND THE AREA USING THE Z - TABLE extreme left & across the top are z-scores, which are
the distances along the horizontal scale. The numbers
1. Z = - 3.01 in the body of the table are areas or probabilities.
● The area is 0.4987 or 49.87% 3. The z-scores to the left of the mean are negative
values.
2. Z = 2.16
● The area is 0.4846 or 48.46% ■ NOTE :
3. between Z = 1.06 and Z = 2.09 a. If the exact area is not available, we take the
● Z = 2.09 → 0.4817 nearest area.
● Z = 1.06 → 0.3554 b. If there are 2 nearest values, get their Z scores,
● 0.4817 - 0.3554 = 0.1263 add the both of them, and divide by 2.
● subtract since both Zs are on the same side EXAMPLE #1 :
(right side)
Find the 85th percentile of a normal curve.
● therefore, the area is 0.1263 or 12.63%
● 85 - 50 = 35
● 35 % = 0.3500
→ If the Zs are on the same side = subtract ● nearest area is = 0.3508
→ If the Zs are on different sides = add ● Therefore, Z = 1.04
EXAMPLE #2 :
4. left Z = -1.15
● Z = -1.15 → 0.3749 → Find the 95th percentile of a normal curve
● 0.5000 (50%) - 0.3749 = 0.1251 ● 95 - 50 = 45
● therefore, the area is 0.1251 or 12.51% ● 45 % = 0.4500
● find the area closest to 0.4500
5. right Z = 2.18 ● there are 2 areas closest to 0.4500; hence, we should
● Z = 2.18 → 0.4854 get their Z scores using the Z table, add the both of
● 0.5000 (50%) - 0.4854 = 0.1251 them, and divide by 2.
● therefore, the area is 1.46% ○ 0.4495 and 0.4505
○ 0.4495 = 1.64
○ 0.4505 = 1.65
● 1.64 + 1.65 = 3.29
● 3.29 / 2 = 1.645
● therefore, Z = 1.645

— end of lesson 2, good luck !! —

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 ────── ❛ notes ni rai ‧₊˚✧ [ STEM 11 - A ]
Lesson 3 :Random Sampling & Mean and Variance of Sampling Distribution

I. RANDOM SAMPLING ii. Purposive Sampling

● a part of the sampling technique in which each sample ○ samples are selected based on the needs of the study
has an equal probability of being chosen.
● several ways to take a random sample : iii. Snowball Sampling
○ simple random sampling ○ a researcher chooses a possible respondent. Then,
○ systematic random sampling each respondent is asked to give recommendations to
○ stratified random sampling other possible respondents
○ cluster sampling
iv. Quota Sampling
i. Simple Random Sampling ○ population is divided into predefined control categories.
○ a selection of a subset of a population where each ○ collect samples with same proportions.
element has an equal chance of being selected. ○ the researcher will choose the characteristics they wish
○ example : Suppose that a school has a total of 200 the respondents to have; for example, only sampling
students. A sample of 30 students is to be taken to males who are over 50 years old.
determine the average number of hours a student
spends playing computer games.
III. POPULATION AND SAMPLE
ii. Systematic Random Sampling
● population — the totality of observations, items,
○ random starting point is selected, and then every kth things, or people under consideration.
member of the population is selected. ⤻ represented by letter “N”
○ example : Listed below are the semi-finalists in the
100-meter dash event of the 2012 Olympics, arranged ● sample — a subset of the population.
alphabetically by their first name. Select a sample of ⤻ elements taken from a population
size 8. ⤻ represented by small letter “n”
iii. Stratified Random Sampling
IV. PARAMETER VS. STATISTICS
○ selection of a simple random sample from each of a
given number of a subpopulations, or strata. PARAMETER STATISTIC
○ strata — homogenous group / subpopulations.
○ example : Suppose a company would like to take a → any measurable → any measurable characteristic
stratified random sample of size 10 of their employees characteristic of a of a sample.
by employment status (full-time or parttime). If the population.
→ example : 50 out of 200
company has 40 full-time employees and 10 part-time
→ example : The average animals in the zoo were taken
employees (with ratio of 4:1).
grade of the whole class and checked on their weight.
iv. Cluster Sampling under study is 82.15 The variance of their weight is
○ a selection of clusters from the available clusters in the a. population : whole 12.5 kg.
population. class a. sample : 50 animals
○ each member of the selected clusters is then included b. parameter : average b. parameter : variance (12.5 kg)
in the sample. grade (82.15)
○ example : In an economic study where the desired
population consists of the residents of Iloilo province,
we might define the clusters as the 42 municipalities in V. SAMPLING DISTRIBUTION OF SAMPLE MEANS
Iloilo province.
● sampling distribution of sample means — is a
frequency distribution using the means computed from
II. NON-RANDOM SAMPLING all possible random samples of a specific size taken
from a population.
● a sampling technique where the sample selection is ● sampling error — difference between the sample mean
based on factors other than just random chance and the population mean.
● several ways to take a non-random sample : ● any mean based on the sample drawn from a
○ convenience sampling population is expected to assume different values for
○ purposive sampling the samples.
○ snowball sampling ● as we increase the sample size, the means of the
○ quota sampling samples are increasing and are approaching the
population mean.
i. Convenience Sampling
○ where units are selected for inclusion in the sample
because they are the easiest for the researcher to
access.
○ they are “convenient” for the researchers.

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 → 3.5 + 5.5 + 6 + 6 + 6.5 + 8.5 = 36
A population consists of the numbers 3, 4, 8, 9.
→ 36 = 6
N = {3, 4, 8, 9}
6
→ μx̄ = 6
→ find the following :
A. population mean F. Variance and Standard Deviation of the Sampling
B. population variance Distribution of Mean.
C. population standard deviation
● formula : 𝜎2x̄ = Ʃ (x̄ - μx̄)2
D. all possible samples of size 2
E. mean of sampling distribution of means n
F. variance and standard deviation of the sampling x̄ x̄ - μx̄ (x̄ - μx̄)2
distribution of means. 3.5 -2.5 6.25

A. Population Mean 5.5 -0.5 0.25

● to find the population mean : μ = Ʃx 6 0 0

N 6 0 0
6.5 0.5 0.25
μ=3+4+8+9 → 24 → μ=6 8.5 2.5 6.25
4 4

B. Population Variance → 𝜎2x̄ = 6.25+0.25+0+0+0.25+6.25

6
● to find the population variance : 𝜎2 = Ʃ (x-μ)2
N → 13 → 𝜎2x̄ = 2.166 → 2.17
6
X x-μ (x-μ)2
3 3 - 6 = -3 9 → 𝜎x̄ = √2.1666 → 1.4717 → 1.47
4 4 - 6 = -2 4
● variance : 𝜎2x̄ = 2.17
8 8-6=2 4
● standard deviation : 𝜎x̄ = 1.47
9 9-6=3 9

→9+4+4+9 = 26 → 𝜎2 = 6.5
ADDITIONAL NOTES :
4 4

C. Population Standard Deviation

● find the population standard deviation : 𝜎 = √Ʃ (x-μ)2
N
● 𝜎2 = 6.5
● 𝜎 = √6.5 → 2.55
● 𝜎 = 2.55

D. All Possible Samples of Size 2

● to find all possible samples : nCr = n! _
r! (n-r)!
● find all possible sample sizes of 2
→ 4! _ = 6
2! (4-2)!
● those 6 are :
→ 3, 4 → 3, 9
→ 4, 9 → 3, 8
→ 4, 8 → 8, 9
● meaning, 6 samples composed of 2

E. Mean of Sampling Distribution of Mean

● formula : μx̄= Ʃx̄
N
Observations Sample Mean x̄
1 3, 4 3+4 = 7/2 = 3.5
2 3, 8 3+8 = 11/2 = 5.5
3 3, 9 3+9 = 12/2 = 6
4 4, 8 4+8 = 12/2 = 6
5 4, 9 4+9 = 13/2 = 6.5 — end of statprob 3rd quarter —
6 8, 9 8+9 = 17/2 = 8.5

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