Solution Manual for Microeconomics An Intuitive Approach with

Calculus 2nd Edition Thomas Nechyba 1305650468 9781305650466

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C H A P T E R

2
Choice Sets and Budget Constraints

The even-numbered solutions to end-of-chapter exercises are provided for use by

instructors. (Solutions to odd-numbered end-of-chapter exercises are pro-vided here as well
as in the Study Guide that is available to students.)

Solutions may be shared by an instructor with his or her students at the in-structor’s
discretion.

They may not be made publicly available.

If posted on a course web-site, the site must be password protected and for use only by
the students in the course.

Reproduction and/or distribution of the solutions beyond classroom use is strictly

prohibited.

In most colleges, it is a violation of the student honor code for a student to share
solutions to problems with peers that take the same class at a later date.
• Each end-of-chapter exercise begins on a new page. This is to facilitate max-imum
flexibility for instructors who may wish to share answers to some but not all exercises
with their students.

• If you are assigning only the A-parts of exercises in Microeconomics: An In-tuitive

Approach with Calculus, you may wish to instead use the solution set created for the
companion book Microeconomics: An Intuitive Approach.

• Solutions to Within-Chapter Exercises are provided in the student Study Guide.

2 ChoiceChoice Sets
Sets and and Budget
Budget Constraints
Constraints 2

EXERCISE 2.1

Any good Southern breakfast includes grits (which my wife loves) and bacon (which I
love). Suppose we allocate $60 per week to consumption of grits and bacon, that grits cost $2
per box and bacon costs $3 per package.

A: Use a graph with boxes of grits on the horizontal axis and packages of bacon on the
vertical to answer the following:
(a) Illustrate my family’s weekly budget constraint and choice set.
Answer: The graph is drawn in panel (a) of Exercise Graph 2.1.

Exercise Graph 2.1 : (a) Answer to (a); (b) Answer to (c); (c) Answer to (d)

(b) Identify the opportunity cost of bacon and grits and relate these to concepts on
your graph.
Answer: The opportunity cost of grits is equal to 2/3 of a package of bacon (which
is equal to the negative slope of the budget since grits appear on the horizontal axis).
The opportunity cost of a package of bacon is 3/2 of a box of grits (which is equal
to the inverse of the negative slope of the budget since bacon appears on the vertical
axis).
(c) How would your graph change if a sudden appearance of a rare hog dis-ease caused
the price of bacon to rise to $6 per package, and how does this change the
opportunity cost of bacon and grits?
Answer: This change is illustrated in panel (b) of Exercise Graph 2.1. This
changes the opportunity cost of grits to 1/3 of a package of bacon, and it changes
the opportunity cost of bacon to 3 boxes of grits. This makes sense: Bacon is now
3 times as expensive as grits — so you have to give up 3 boxes of grits for one
package of bacon, or 1/3 of a package of bacon for 1 box of grits.

(d) What happens in your graph if (instead of the change in (c)) the loss of my job caused
us to decrease our weekly budget for Southern breakfasts from $60 to $30? How
does this change the opportunity cost of bacon and grits?
3 ChoiceChoice Sets
Sets and and Budget
Budget Constraints
Constraints 3

Answer: The change is illustrated in panel (c) of Exercise Graph 2.1. Since relative
prices have not changed, opportunity costs have not changed. This is reflected in
the fact that the slope stays unchanged.

B: In the following, compare a mathematical approach to the graphical ap-proach used

in part A, using x1 to represent boxes of grits and x2 to represent packages of bacon:

(a) Write down the mathematical formulation of the budget line and choice set and
identify elements in the budget equation that correspond to key
features of your graph from part 2.1A(a).
Answer: The budget equation is p1 x1 + p2 x2 = I can also be written as
p
1
x2 = I − x1 . (2.1.i)
p p
2 2

With I = 60, p1 = 2 and p2 = 3, this becomes x2 = 20 − (2/3)x1 — an equa-tion

with intercept of 20 and slope of −2/3 as drawn in Exercise Graph 2.1(a).

(b) How can you identify the opportunity cost of bacon and grits in your equa-
tion of a budget line, and how does this relate to your answer in 2.1A(b). Answer:
The opportunity cost of x1 (grits) is simply the negative of the slope term (in terms
of units of x2 ). The opportunity cost of x2 (bacon) is the inverse of that.

(c) Illustrate how the budget line equation changes under the scenario of 2.1A(c)
and identify the change in opportunity costs.
Answer: Substituting the new price p2 = 6 into equation (2.1.i), we get x2 = 10 −
(1/3)x1 — an equation with intercept of 10 and slope of −1/3 as depicted in panel
(b) of Exercise Graph 2.1.
(d) Repeat (c) for the scenario in 2.1A(d).
Answer: Substituting the new income I = 30 into equation (2.1.i) (hold-ing prices
at p1 = 2 and p2 = 3, we get x2 = 10 − (2/3)x1 — an equation with intercept of 10
and slope of −2/3 as depicted in panel (c) of Exercise Graph 2.1.
4 ChoiceChoice Sets
Sets and and Budget
Budget Constraints
Constraints 4

EXERCISE 2.2

Suppose the only two goods in the world are peanut butter and jelly.

A: You have no exogenous income but you do own 6 jars of peanut butter and 2 jars of
jelly. The price of peanut butter is $4 per jar, and the price of jelly is $6 per jar.

(a) On a graph with jars of peanut butter on the horizontal and jars of jelly on the
vertical axis, illustrate your budget constraint.
Answer: This is depicted in panel (a) of Exercise Graph 2.2. The point E is the
endowment point of 2 jars of jelly and 6 jars of peanut butter (PB). If you sold
your 2 jars of jelly (at a price of $6 per jar), you could make $12, and with that
you could buy an additional 3 jars of PB (at the price of $4 per jar). Thus, the most
PB you could have is 9, the intercept on the horizontal axis. Similarly, you could
sell your 6 jars of PB for $24, and with that you could buy 4 additional jars of jelly
to get you to a maximum total of 6 jars of jelly — the intercept on the vertical
axis. The resulting budget line has slope −2/3, which makes sense since the price
of PB ($4) divided by the price of jelly ($6) is in fact 2/3.

Exercise Graph 2.2 : (a) Answer to (a); (b) Answer to (b)

(b) How does your constraint change when the price of peanut butter increases to $6?
How does this change your opportunity cost of jelly?
Answer: The change is illustrated in panel (b) of Exercise Graph 2.2. Since you
can always still consume your endowment E , the new budget must contain E . But
the opportunity costs have now changed, with the ratio of the two prices now
equal to 1. Thus, the new budget constraint has slope −1 and runs through E . The
opportunity cost of jelly has now fallen from 3/2 to 1. This should make sense:
Before, PB was cheaper than jelly and so, for every jar of jelly you had to give up
more than a jar of peanut butter.
5 ChoiceChoice Sets
Sets and and Budget
Budget Constraints
Constraints 5

Now that they are the same price, you only have to give up one jar of PB to get 1
jar of jelly.
B: Consider the same economic circumstances described in 2.2A and use x1 to represent
jars of peanut butter and x2 to represent jars of jelly.
(a) Write down the equation representing the budget line and relate key com-ponents
to your graph from 2.2A(a).
Answer: The budget line has to equate your wealth to the cost of your con-
sumption. Your wealth is equal to the value of your endowment, which is p1 e1 +p2 e2
(where e1 is your endowment of PB and e2 is your endowment
of jelly). The cost of your consumption is just your spending on the two goods —
i.e. p1 x1 + p2 x2 . The resulting equation is

p1 e1 + p2 e2 = p1 x1 + p2 x2 . (2.2.i)

When the values given in the problem are plugged in, the left hand side becomes
4(6) + 6(2) = 36 and the right hand side becomes 4x1 + 6x2 — resulting in the
equation 36 = 4x1 + 6x2 . Taking x2 to one side, we then get

2
x2 = 6 − 3 x1 , (2.2.ii)

which is exactly what we graphed in panel (a) of Exercise Graph 2.2 — a line with
vertical intercept of 6 and slope of −2/3.
(b) Change your equation for your budget line to reflect the change in eco-nomic
circumstances described in 2.2A(b) and show how this new equation relates to
your graph in 2.2A(b).
Answer: Now the left hand side of equation (2.2.i) is 6(6) + 6(2) = 48 while the
right hand side is 6x1 +6x2 . The equation thus becomes 48 = 6x1 +6x2 or, when
x2 is taken to one side,

x2 = 8 − x1 . (2.2.iii)

This is an equation of a line with vertical intercept of 8 and slope of −1 — exactly

what we graphed in panel (b) of Exercise Graph 2.2.
6 ChoiceChoice Sets
Sets and and Budget
Budget Constraints
Constraints 6

EXERCISE 2.3

Consider a budget for good x1 (on the horizontal axis) and x2 (on the vertical axis) when
your economic circumstances are characterized by prices p1 and p2 and an exogenous
income level I .
A: Draw a budget line that represents these economic circumstances and care-fully label
the intercepts and slope.
Answer: The sketch of this budget line is given in Exercise Graph 2.3.

Exercise Graph 2.3 : A budget constraint with exogenous income I

The vertical intercept is equal to how much of x2 one could by with I if that is all one
bought — which is just I /p2 . The analogous is true for x1 on the horizontal intercept. One
way to verify the slope is to recognize it is the “rise” (I /p2 ) divided by the “run” (I
/p1 ) — which gives p1 /p2 — and that it is negative since the budget constraint is
downward sloping.
(a) Illustrate how this line can shift parallel to itself without a change in I .
Answer: In order for the line to shift in a parallel way, it must be that the slope
−p1 /p2 remains unchanged. Since we can’t change I , the only values we can
change are p1 and p2 — but since p1 /p2 can’t change, it means the only thing we
can do is to multiply both prices by the same
constant. So, for instance, if we multiply both prices by 2, the ratio of the new
prices is 2p1 /(2p2 ) = p1 /p2 since the 2’s cancel. We therefore have
not changed the slope. But we have changed the vertical intercept from I /p2 to I
/(2p2 ). We have therefore shifted in the line without changing its slope.
This should make intuitive sense: If our money income does not change but all prices
double, then I can by half as much of everything. This is equivalent to prices
staying the same and my money income dropping by half.

(b) Illustrate how this line can rotate clockwise on its horizontal intercept with-out a
change in p2 .
Answer: To keep the horizontal intercept constant, we need to keep I /p1
constant. But to rotate the line clockwise, we need to increase the verti-cal
intercept I /p2 . Since we can’t change p2 (which would be the easiest
7 ChoiceChoice Sets
Sets and and Budget
Budget Constraints
Constraints 7

way to do this), that leaves us only I and p1 to change. But since we can’t change I
/p1 , we can only change these by multiplying them by the same constant. For
instance, if we multiply both by 2, we don’t change the hor-izontal intercept since
2I /(2p1 ) = I /p1 . But we do increase the vertical intercept from I /p2 to 2I /p2 .
So, multiplying both I and p1 by the same constant (greater than 1) will
accomplish our goal.
This again should make intuitive sense: If you double my income and the price of
good 1, I can still afford exactly as much of good 1 if that is all I buy with my
income. ( Thus the unchanged horizontal intercept). But, if I only buy good 2, then
a doubling of my income without a change in the price of good 2 lets me buy twice
as much of good 2. The scenario is exactly the same as if p2 had fallen by half
(and I and p1 had remained unchanged.)

B: Write the equation of a budget line that corresponds to your graph in 2.3A.
Answer: p1 x1 + p2 x2 = I , which can also be written as

x2 = I − p1 x1 . (2.3.i)
p2 p2
(a) Use this equation to demonstrate how the change derived in 2.3A(a) can happen.

Answer: If I replace p1 with αp1 and p2 with αp2 (where α is just a con-stant), I
get
I α p1 (1/α )I p1

x2 = αp2 − αp2 x1 = p2 − p2 x1 . (2.3.ii)

Thus, multiplying both prices by α is equivalent to multiplying income by 1/α

(and leaving prices unchanged).
(b) Use the same equation to illustrate how the change derived in 2.3A(b) can
happen.
Answer: If I replace p1 with βp1 and I with βI , I get
x p
βI β p1 x = I 1
2 = − 1 − x1 . (2.3.iii)
p p
2 2 (1/β)p2 (1/β)p2

Thus, this is equivalent to multiplying p2 by 1/β. So long as β > 1, it is therefore

equivalent to reducing the price of good 2 (without changing the other price or
income).
8 ChoiceChoice Sets
Sets and and Budget
Budget Constraints
Constraints 8

EXERCISE 2.4

Suppose there are three goods in the world: x1 , x2 and x3 .

A: On a 3-dimensional graph, illustrate your budget constraint when your eco-nomic
circumstances are defined by p1 = 2, p2 = 6, p3 = 5 and I = 120. Carefully label
intercepts.
Answer: Panel (a) of Exercise Graph 2.4 illustrates this 3-dimensional budget with each
intercept given by I divided by the price of the good on that axis.

Exercise Graph 2.4 : Budgets over 3 goods: Answers to 2.4A,A(b) and A(c)

(a) What is your opportunity cost of x1 in terms of x2 ? What is your opportu-nity cost
of x2 in terms of x3 ?
Answer: On any slice of the graph that keeps x3 constant, the slope of the budget
is −p1 /p2 = −1/3. Just as in the 2-good case, this is then the op-portunity cost of
x1 in terms of x2 — since p1 is a third of p2 , one gives up 1/3 of a unit of x2 when
one chooses to consume 1 unit of x1 . On any verti-cal slice that holds x1 fixed, on
the other hand, the slope is −p3 /p2 = −5/6. Thus, the opportunity cost of x3 in terms
of x2 is 5/6, and the opportunity cost of x2 in terms of x3 is the inverse —
i.e. 6/5.
(b) Illustrate how your graph changes if I falls to $60. Does your answer to (a)
change?
Answer: Panel (b) of Exercise Graph 2.4 illustrates this change (with the dashed
plane equal to the budget constraint graphed in panel (a).) The answer to part (a)
does not change since no prices and thus no opportu-nity costs changed. The new
plane is parallel to the original.
(c) Illustrate how your graph changes if instead p1 rises to $4. Does your an-swer to
part (a) change?
Answer: Panel (c) of Exercise Graph 2.4 illustrates this change (with the dashed
plane again illustrating the budget constraint from part (a).) Since
9 ChoiceChoice Sets
Sets and and Budget
Budget Constraints
Constraints 9

only p1 changed, only the x1 intercept changes. This changes the slope on any
slice that holds x3 fixed from −1/3 to −2/3 — thus doubling the opportunity cost of
x1 in terms of x2 . Since the slope of any slice holding x1 fixed remains
unchanged, the opportunity cost of x2 in terms of x3 remains unchanged. This makes
sense since p2 and p3 did not change, leaving the tradeoff between x2 and x3
consumption unchanged.

B: Write down the equation that represents your picture in 2.4A. Then suppose that a
new good x4 is invented and priced at $1. How does your equation change? Why is it
difficult to represent this new set of economic circumstances graphi-cally?

Answer: The equation representing the graphs is p1 x1 + p2 x2 + p3 x3 = I or, plugging

in the initial prices and income relevant for panel (a), 2x1 +6x2 +5x3 =
120. With a new fourth good priced at 1, this equation would become 2x1 + 6x2 + 5x3
+ x4 = 120. It would be difficult to graph since we would need to add a fourth dimension
to our graphs.
10 ChoiceChoice Sets
Sets and and Budget
Budget Constraints
Constraints 10

EXERCISE 2.5

Everyday Application: Watching a Bad Movie: On one of my first dates with my wife, we
went to see the movie “Spaceballs” and paid $5 per ticket.

A: Halfway through the movie, my wife said: “What on earth were you thinking? This
movie sucks! I don’t know why I let you pick movies. Let’s leave.”
(a) In trying to decide whether to stay or leave, what is the opportunity cost of staying
to watch the rest of the movie?
Answer: The opportunity cost of any activity is what we give up by un-dertaking
that activity. The opportunity cost of staying in the movie is whatever we would
choose to do with our time if we were not there. The price of the movie tickets that
got us into the movie theater is NOT a part of this opportunity cost — because,
whether we stay or leave, we do not get that money back.

(b) Suppose we had read a sign on the way into theater stating “Satisfaction
Guaranteed! Don’t like the movie half way through — see the manager and get your
money back!” How does this change your answer to part (a)?
Answer: Now, in addition to giving up whatever it is we would be doing if we
weren’t watching the movie, we are also giving up the price of the movie tickets.
Put differently, by staying in the movie theater, we are giv-ing up the opportunity
to get a refund — and so the cost of the tickets is a real opportunity cost of
staying.
11 ChoiceChoice Sets
Sets and and Budget
Budget Constraints
Constraints 11

EXERCISE 2.6

Everyday Application: Renting a Car versus Taking Taxis: Suppose my brother and I
both go on a week-long vacation in Cayman and, when we arrive at the air-port on the island,
we have to choose between either renting a car or taking a taxi to our hotel. Renting a car
involves a fixed fee of $300 for the week, with each mile driven afterwards just costing 20
cents — the price of gasoline per mile. Taking a taxi involves no fixed fees, but each mile driven
on the island during the week now costs $1 per mile.

A: Suppose both my brother and I have brought $2,000 on our trip to spend on “miles
driven on the island” and “other goods”. On a graph with miles driven on the horizontal
and other consumption on the vertical axis, illustrate my budget constraint assuming I
chose to rent a car and my brother’s budget constraint assuming he chose to take taxis.

Answer: The two budget lines are drawn in Exercise Graph 2.6. My brother could spend
as much as $2,000 on other goods if he stays at the airport and does not rent any taxis,
but for every mile he takes a taxi, he gives up $1 in other good consumption. The most
he can drive on the island is 2,000 miles. As soon as I pay the $300 rental fee, I can at
most consume $1,700 in other goods, but each mile costs me only 20 cents. Thus, I can
drive as much as 1700/0.2=8,500 miles.

Exercise Graph 2.6 : Graphs of equations in exercise 2.6

(a) What is the opportunity cost for each mile driven that I faced?
Answer: I am renting a car — which means I give up 20 cents in other
consumption per mile driven. Thus, my opportunity cost is 20 cents. My opportunity
cost does not include the rental fee since I paid that before even getting into
the car.
(b) What is the opportunity cost for each mile driven that my brother faced?
Answer: My brother is taking taxis — so he has to give up $1 in other
consumption for every mile driven. His opportunity cost is therefore $1 per mile.
12 ChoiceChoice Sets
Sets and and Budget
Budget Constraints
Constraints 12

B:Derive the mathematical equations for my budget constraint and my brother’s

budget constraint, and relate elements of these equations to your graphs in part A. Use
x1 to denote miles driven and x2 to denote other consumption.
Answer: My budget constraint, once I pay the rental fee, is 0.2x1 + x2 = 1700 while my
brother’s budget constraint is x1 + x2 = 2000. These can be rewritten with x2 on the left
hand side as

x2 = 1700 − 0.2x1 for me, and (2.6.i)

x2 = 2000 − x1 for my brother. (2.6.ii)

The intercept terms (1700 for me and 2000 for my brother) as well as the slopes (−0.2
for me and −1 for my brother) are as in Exercise Graph 2.6.
(a) Where in your budget equation for me can you locate the opportunity cost of a
mile driven?
Answer: My opportunity cost of miles driven is simply the slope term in my
budget equation — i.e. 0.2. I give up $0.20 in other consumption for every mile
driven.
(b) Where in your budget equation for my brother can you locate the opportu-nity cost
of a mile driven?
Answer: My brother’s opportunity cost of miles driven is the slope term in his
budget equation — i.e. 1; he gives up $1 in other consumption for every mile driven.
13 ChoiceChoice Sets
Sets and and Budget
Budget Constraints
Constraints 13

EXERCISE 2.7

Everyday Application: Dieting and Nutrition: On a recent doctor’s visit, you have been
told that you must watch your calorie intake and must make sure you get enough vitamin E in
your diet.

A: You have decided that, to make life simple, you will from now on eat only steak and
carrots. A nice steak has 250 calories and 10 units of vitamins, and a serving of carrots
has 100 calories and 30 units of vitamins Your doctor’s instruc-tions are that you must eat
no more than 2000 calories and consume at least 150 units of vitamins per day.

(a) In a graph with “servings of carrots” on the horizontal and steak on the vertical
axis, illustrate all combinations of carrots and steaks that make up a 2000 calorie
a day diet.
Answer: This is illustrated as the “calorie constraint” in panel (a) of Ex-ercise
Graph 2.7. You can get 2000 calories only from steak if you eat 8 steaks and only
from carrots if you eat 20 servings of carrots. These form the intercepts of the calorie
constraint.

Exercise Graph 2.7 : (a) Calories and Vitamins; (b) Budget Constraint

(b) On the same graph, illustrate all the combinations of carrots and steaks that
provide exactly 150 units of vitamins.
Answer: This is also illustrated in panel (a) of Exercise Graph 2.7. You can get
150 units of vitamins from steak if you eat 15 steaks only or if you eat 5 servings
of carrots only. This results in the intercepts for the “vitamin constraint”.

(c) On this graph, shade in the bundles of carrots and steaks that satisfy both of your
doctor’s requirements.
Answer: Your doctor wants you to eat no more than 2000 calories — which means
you need to stay underneath the calorie constraint. Your doctor also wants you to
get at least 150 units of vitamin E — which means you must choose a bundle
above the vitamin constraint. This leaves you with
14 ChoiceChoice Sets
Sets and and Budget
Budget Constraints
Constraints 14

the shaded area to choose from if you are going to satisfy both require-ments.

(d) Now suppose you can buy a serving of carrots for $2 and a steak for $6. You have
$26 per day in your food budget. In your graph, illustrate your budget constraint.
If you love steak and don’t mind eating or not eating carrots, what bundle will you
choose (assuming you take your doctor’s instructions seriously)?

Answer: With $26 you can buy 13/3 steaks if that is all you buy, or you can
buy 13 servings of carrots if that is all you buy. This forms the two inter-cepts on
your budget constraint which has a slope of −p1/p2 = −1/3 and is depicted in panel
(b) of the graph. If you really like steak and don’t mind eating carrots one way or
another, you would want to get as much steak as possible given the constraints
your doctor gave you and given your budget constraint. This leads you to consume
the bundle at the inter-
section of the vitamin and the budget constraint in panel (b) — indicated by (x1 ,
x2 ) in the graph. It seems from the two panels that this bundle also satisfies the
calorie constraint and lies inside the shaded region.

B:Continue with the scenario as described in part A.

(a) Define the line you drew in A(a) mathematically.
Answer: This is given by 100x1 + 250x2 = 2000 which can be written as

x2 = 8 − 5 x1 . (2.7.i)
(b) Define the line you drew in A(b) mathematically.
Answer: This is given by 30x1 + 10x2 = 150 which can be written as

x2 = 15 − 3x1 . (2.7.ii)

(c) In formal set notation, write down the expression that is equivalent to the shaded
area in A(c).
Answer:

© 2 ª
(x1 , x2 )R + | 100x1 + 250x2 ≤ 2000 and 30x1 + 10x2 ≥ 150 (2.7.iii)

(d) Derive the exact bundle you indicated on your graph in A(d).
Answer: We would like to find the most amount of steak we can afford in the shaded
region. Our budget constraint is 2x1 +6x2 = 26. Our graph sug-gests that
this budget constraint intersects the vitamin constraint (from equation (2.7.ii))
within the shaded region (in which case that intersec-tion gives us the most steak
we can afford in the shaded region). To find
this intersection, we can plug equation (2.7.ii) into the budget constraint 2x1 + 6x2
= 26 to get
Another random document with
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firing, a pool of molten iron is formed by the thermit, which is very
penetrating and affords a good combustible surface for the oil, which
burns for an additional ten minutes.
It has an advantage over the Mark I dart in that it penetrates, and
over the Mark II bomb in that it is smaller and lighter in weight.

Incendiary Shell

Incendiary shell have been successfully used against aircraft and

to some extent in bombardments of inflammable ground targets.
Anti-aircraft shell are of small caliber and are usually tracer-
incendiary. Such shell are filled with pyrotechnic mixtures which
ignite at the moment of firing, or by time fuse, and are effective
against highly inflammable material. Shell filled with thermit which
explode and scatter the molten iron have been used against aircraft
and ground targets, but with rather poor results. Large shell, which
burst upon impact and scatter units of burning materials, have been
used with some success against ground targets.
Tracer shell contain such mixtures as barium nitrate, magnesium
and shellac, or red lead and magnesium.

Incendiary Bullets

Incendiary bullets are only effective against highly inflammable

material, and are therefore used principally in aerial warfare against
aircraft, either for the purpose of igniting the hydrogen of the gas
bag, or the gasoline. The present tendency is towards the use of the
large size (11 mm.) bullet, because of its greater incendiary action.
The incendiary material is either white phosphorus or a special
incendiary mixture consisting of an oxidizing agent and some
combustible or mixture of combustibles. The white tracer bullet
contains a mixture of barium peroxide and magnesium. A red bullet
contained in addition, strontium nitrate and chloride, or peroxide.

Incendiary Hand Grenade

 While the use of incendiary grenades and other small incendiary
devices is limited, such armament is considered very valuable in
trench warfare. They can be used to set fire to inflammable material,
either in offensive or defensive operations.
Phosphorus grenades, while used principally for producing
smoke (see page 302), have considerable value as an incendiary
weapon.
Thermit grenades are very useful in rendering unserviceable
guns and other metallic equipment which must be abandoned. They
permit aviators to destroy planes which motor troubles oblige to land
in enemy territory. They are also used to ignite inflammable liquids,
thrown into a dugout, or sprayed over an objective by a flame
projector.
The Mark I hand grenade was developed for burning enemy
ammunition dumps, for clearing away brush or other material in front
of trenches and for use in dugouts. The standard H.E. grenade body
was half-filled with thermit and half with a celluloid container filled
with a solidified fuel oil. The grenade is fired by the spit of the fuse of
the bouchon firing mechanism. This, through the booster, lights the
thermit igniter, which in turn fires the main charge of thermit. The
resulting molten iron readily penetrates the grenade case, at the
same time igniting the celluloid case and its contents. The oil burns
for about 3.5 minutes. This grenade was never used since it was
considered that an all thermit grenade would be of more value.

Trench Mortar Equipment

Special projectiles were designed for use with the Stokes mortar
and the Livens’ projector. Thermit was used only in Stokes’
projectiles. The Livens’ projectile was filled with inflammable units
(chlorated jute) immersed in a light oil mixture. Thrown from a
projector into the enemy’s trench, it explodes, giving a large flash
and scattering the burning units over an area of forty yards. The
Mark II projectile, designed for general incendiary effect against
readily inflammable material, consists of an altered 8-inch Livens’
gas projectile filled with chlorated jute units impregnated with solid oil
and immersed in a spontaneously inflammable oil. After a short
delay, these units burst into flame and burn vigorously for several
minutes. It is almost impossible to extinguish them without large
quantities of water. Such bombs have only a very limited use, so that
it is questionable if they are really worth while.
Fig. 111.—German 8"
Incendiary Bullet.
 Fig. 112.—German Incendiary
Blue Pencil.

German Blue Pencil

A very interesting and curious device was developed by the

Germans in the form of an incendiary pencil. Similar in appearance
to a common blue pencil, sharpened at one end, they are
distinguished only by a small, almost imperceptible, point placed on
the outside 11 mm. from the unsharpened end. They are 175 mm.
long, 11.1 mm. in diameter and weigh 12 to 13 grams. The interior of
the pencil contains a glass bulb, with two compartments filled with
sulfuric acid and a celluloid tube filled with potassium chlorate. The
glass bulb ends in a slender point; when this is broken the acid
comes into contact with the chlorate and causes an explosion. The
two materials are separated by a layer of clay, which causes a
delayed action of about 30 minutes. The operator breaks the point of
bulb, buries the pencil vertically in the inflammable material and then
has half an hour in which to get away, before any possibility of a fire.
He cuts the pencil with a knife 2 cm. from the point, so that if caught
he has the appearance of simply sharpening a pencil.

Flaming Gun

Among the unsuccessful weapons of the late war, the liquid fire
gun or Flammenwerfer, as the German called it, is probably the most
interesting. Its origin, according to a German story, was due to a
mere accident. A certain officer, during peace maneuvers, was
ordered to hold a fort at all cost. During the sham fight, having
employed all the means at his disposal, he finally called out the fire
brigade and directed streams of water upon the attacking force.
Afterwards, during the criticism of the operations in the presence of
the Kaiser, he claimed that he had subjected the attackers to
streams of burning oil. The Kaiser immediately inquired whether
such a thing would be possible, and was assured that it was entirely
feasible.

Copyright by Kadel and Herbert, N. Y.

Fig. 113.—Liquid Fire Attack.

Long series of experiments were necessary before a satisfactory

combination of oils was produced, which could be projected as a
flame on the enemy, but they were finally successful. Unlike the use
of poison gas, however, the flaming liquid gun did not prove to be a
successful weapon of warfare. True, at first they were rather
successful, but this was before the men learned their real nature. In
the first attack, the Allies were completely surprised and the troops
were routed by the flames. Auld tells of one of the early attacks (July
29, 1915) when, without warning, the front line troops were
enveloped in flames. Where the flames came from could not be
seen. All that the men knew was that they seemed surrounded by
fierce, curling flames, which were accompanied by a loud roaring
noise, and dense clouds of black smoke. Here and there a big blob
of burning oil would fall into a trench or saphead. Shouts and yells
rent the air as individual men, rising up in the trenches or attempting
to move in the open, felt the force of the flames. The only way to
safety appeared to be to the rear. This direction the men that were
left took. For a short space the flames pursued them and the local
retirement became a local rout. After the bombardment which
followed, only one man is known to have returned.
After a study of the pictures of the liquid fire gun in operation, it is
evident that the men could not be blamed for this retirement. One
has only to imagine being faced by a spread of flame similar to that
used for the oil burners under the largest boiler, but with a jet nearly
60 feet in length and capable of being sprayed round as one might
spray water with a fire hose.
Later, when the device was better known it was different, though
even then it was a pretty good test of a man’s nerve. It was found
that the flames could not follow one to the bottom of a trench as the
gas did, and that, if a man crouched to the bottom of his trench, his
head might be very warm for a minute or so but that the danger was
soon past and he then could pick off the man who had so recently
made things uncomfortable for him.
While it is said that Major R., who invented the Flammenwerfer,
enjoyed a great popularity among his men, and is familiarly known
as the Prince of Hades, there is no doubt that this was not shared by
the Allies. Their rule was: “Shoot the man carrying the apparatus
before he gets in his shot, if possible. If this cannot be done, take
cover from the flames and shoot him afterwards.”
The German had several types, which may be grouped into the
small or portable and the large Flammenwerfers.
The portable Flammenwerfer consisted of a sheet steel cylinder
of two compartments, one to hold compressed nitrogen, the other to
hold the oil. The nitrogen furnished the pressure which forces the oil
out through the flexible tube. Air cannot be used, because the
oxygen would form an explosive mixture with the vapors of the oil,
and any heating on compression, or back flash from the flame or
fuse might make things very unpleasant for the operator. A pressure
of about 23 atmospheres is reached when the cylinder is charged.
The nitrogen appeared to be carried on the field in large containers
and the flame projectors actually charged in the trenches.
The oil used in the flame projectors varied from time to time, but
always contained a mixture of light or easily volatile and heavy and
less volatile fractions of petroleum or mineral oil, very carefully
mixed. In some cases even ordinary commercial ether has been
found in the cylinders.

Fig. 114.—Small Flammenwerfer.

 The most interesting part about the flame projector is the lighting
device. This is so made that the oil ignites spontaneously the minute
the jet is turned on, and is kept alight by a fiercely burning mixture
which lasts throughout the discharge. This mixture is composed of
barium nitrate, potassium nitrate, metallic magnesium and charcoal,
with some resinous material. The priming consists of black powder
and metallic magnesium.
When the oil rushes out of the jet, it forces up the plunger of a
friction lighter and ignites this core of fiercely burning mixture.
The range of these small projectors is from 14 to 17 meters (17 to
20 yards) but the duration of the flame is rather less than a minute.
In a later pattern, it was designed that one nozzle should be
issued to three reservoirs. After the discharge of one, the jet is
attached to the others in succession. This is called the “Wx”
Flammenwerfer (interchangeable). In this way a squad of three men
could carry 58 pints of inflammable oil. It is a question, though,
whether the third man would live to use his reservoir.
 Fig. 115.—Boyd Flame Projector.

The fact that the trenches were often very close together during
the early part of the war, made possible the use of large or stationary
Flammenwerfer. These consisted of a steel reservoir 3⅓ feet in
height and 1⅔ feet in diameter, weighing about 250 pounds, which
could be connected to two steel cylinders, containing nitrogen under
pressure. These carried 180 liters (40 gallons) of liquid and operated
under a pressure of 15 atmospheres. The discharge nozzle was at
the end of a metal tube three feet long, and its orifice was about ⁵/₁₆
of an inch in diameter. The range of this apparatus was from 33 to 40
yards and the duration of the flame from one to two minutes.
Because of the comparatively short range of these guns and the
ease with which they could be destroyed, if located by the enemy,
their use was very limited.
Even with the portable flammenwerfer, the most difficult thing to
do is to get near enough the target to make the shoot effective.
Another serious disadvantage is its very short duration. It is
impossible to charge up again on the spot, and the result is that once
the flame stops, the whole game is finished and the operators are at
the mercy of the enemy.
With these facts in mind it is easy to see how service in the
flaming gun regiments is apparently a form of punishment. Men
convicted of offenses in other regiments were transferred either for a
time or permanently and were forced under threat of death in the
most hazardous enterprises and to carry out the most dangerous
work. Taken all in all the flame thrower was one of the greatest
failures among the many promising devices tried out on a large scale
in the war.
 CHAPTER XXI
THE PHARMACOLOGY OF WAR GASES

The pharmacology of war gases plays such an important part in chemical warfare that
a brief discussion may well be given of the methods used in the testing of gases for
toxicity and other pharmacological properties.
War gases may be divided into two groups: persistent and non-persistent, each of
which may include several classes:
I. Lethal
II. Lachrymatory
III. Sternutatory
IV. Special
Each class necessitates special tests in order to determine whether or not it is suitable
for further development.

Toxicity
One of the first points which must be carefully determined in investigating a substance
is its toxicity. It is important that this be determined for numerous reasons:
1. To determine what concentrations are dangerous in the field.
2. To ascertain how effective protective devices have to be to furnish sufficient
protection against the gas.
3. To furnish a basis for accurate experimental work on the treatment of gassed cases.
4. To decide whether or not the material is worthy of further development in the
laboratory or in the plant.
These considerations necessitate the determination of the toxicity in the form of a
vapor and not by the ordinary method of administration by mouth, through the skin
(subcutaneously) or through the blood (intravenously). The simplest method of
determining the toxicity of a substance as a vapor would be to place animals in a gas-tight
box and introduce a known amount of the substance in the form of vapor. But by this
method the concentration is not accurately known unless chemical analyses of the air are
made, and then it is found to be much less than that calculated from the amount of
substance introduced, because of condensation on the walls of the chamber, or
absorption of the substance by the skin and hair of the animal and in some cases, of
decomposition of the substance by moisture in the air. Moreover, it is found that the
concentration decreases markedly with time. Because of these factors, the figures used
for the concentration are more or less guess work. To overcome these difficulties, a
chamber is used through which a continuous current of air, containing a known and
constant amount of the poisonous vapor, is passed. Such an apparatus is shown in Fig.
116.

Fig. 116.—Continuous Flow Gassing Chamber for Animals.

The flask E is a 300 cc. Erlenmeyer flask, with a ground glass stopper. The liquid to be
tested is placed in this flask together with a sufficient quantity of glass wool to prevent
splashing and the carrying over mechanically of droplets of the liquid. Air is passed
through A and C (calcium chloride drying tubes) and the rate measured by the flow meter
D. The air and gas are mixed in F before passing into the chamber G. This chamber is
made of plate glass, is of about 100 liters capacity, and is air-tight. The entire flow of air
and gas through the box, kept constant at 250 liters per minute, is measured at H. The
gas is removed through K, which is filled with charcoal and soda-lime, in order that little
gas may pass into the pump.
By weighing the flask E, and its contents before and after passing air through it, and
knowing the total volume of the mixture passing through the chamber during the same
period, the concentration of the substance can readily be calculated. This concentration,
as determined by the “loss in weight” method, can be checked by chemical analysis
(samples taken at M—M). The method has been found to give accurate values.
The concentration in the chamber reaches its constant level within 30 to 40 seconds
after the apparatus is started.
With the flow of 250 liters per minute, the difficulties mentioned above are reduced to a
point where they are practically negligible.
All toxicity tests on mice were made with an exposure of ten minutes, while dogs were
exposed for thirty minutes. In case death did not occur during exposure, the animals were
kept under observation for several days. Toxicity and all other figures are expressed in
milligrams per liter of air, though parts per million (p.p.m.) was frequently used during the
early work.
Another point of difficulty is the great individual variation in the susceptibility of
animals. This is probably greater than when the poison is administered subcutaneously or
intravenously. It necessitates the use of a large number of animals in making a
determination of the toxicity of a gas. Again, the toxicity for different species may vary,
and as the ultimate aim is a knowledge of the toxicity for man, a great many different
species must be used. If the toxicity is widely different for different animal species, it is
hard to arrive at a definite conclusion as to the toxicity for man.
With longer exposures than thirty minutes the lethal concentration is usually less, there
being a cumulative effect. This is not true for hydrocyanic acid. If the concentration is not
enough to kill at once, an animal can stand it almost indefinitely. Whether the action is
cumulative or not depends on the rate at which the system destroys or eliminates the
poison. If the poison is being eliminated as fast as received the concentration in the
tissues cannot increase. It is stated, for example, that the amount of nicotine in a cigar
would kill a man if taken in one dose. If it is spread over twenty minutes, the destruction or
elimination of the nicotine is so rapid that no obviously bad effects are noted.
Another interesting thing about the work on poison gases is that in most cases a
preliminary exposure to less than the lethal concentration does not seem to make the
animal either more or less sensitive on a later exposure. This is quite unexpected,
because we know that with irritating gases, especially lachrymators, men adapt
themselves to much higher concentrations than they could stand at first. In view of the
experiences of arsenic eaters, it is quite possible that the experiments, which showed no
accustoming to toxic gases, were not continued long enough to give positive results.
Not only does the susceptibility of different animals of the same species vary greatly
for a particular gas, but the susceptibility of different species varies greatly with different
gases. Thus while the effects of certain gases on mice are quite comparable to the effects
on man, it is very far from being true with other gases.

Lachrymators
While one cannot determine the lethal concentrations of poison gases for men, it is
possible to determine the concentration that will produce lachrymation. The threshold
value is that at which two-thirds of the observers experience irritation. The lachrymatory
value is considerably higher than the threshold value.
 Fig. 117.—Aeration Apparatus for Testing Lachrymators.

A very satisfactory method for determining lachrymatory values is shown in Fig. 117.
Air is measured at A and bubbled through the lachrymatory substance in B. The air and
gas are mixed in D and pass into E, a gas-tight, glass-walled chamber of about 150 liters
capacity. The gas is removed through Ef, by suction and the volume of the air-gas mixture
measured by the flow meter, F.
After the apparatus has run a few minutes, and the concentration of the gas has
become constant, the subject is instructed to adjust the mask, attached at H, and to tell
whatever he notices just as soon as he notices it. The operator stands in such a position
that he can manipulate the stopcock H without being observed by the subject. After
breathing air for a time (H is a two-way cock, connected with the air through J, and to the
chamber through Eg) both to become accustomed to the mask and to eliminate, as far as
possible, any “psychological symptoms,” the subject is allowed to breathe the gas mixture
for a maximum of three minutes. If the expected symptoms are produced in less than this
time, the test is discontinued as soon as they develop.
 Fig. 118.—Type of Spray Nozzles.

For accurate work, it is necessary to work with a pure sample which is at least fairly
volatile. Mixtures cannot be run by this method. In this case it is necessary to volatilize
each separately, passing the vapors simultaneously into the mixing chamber E.
A spray method may also be used with satisfactory results. Types of sprays are shown
in Fig. 118.

Odors
Because of the great value in detecting low concentrations of gases in the field, it is
important to know the smallest amount of a gas that can be detected by odor. In some
cases, this test is more delicate than any chemical test yet devised.
Odors may be divided into two classes, true odors, and mild irritation. By true odor is
meant a definite stimulation of the olfactory nerve, giving rise to a sensation which is more
or less characteristic for each substance producing the stimulation. Mild irritation defines
the sensation which is confused with the sense of smell by untrained observers, but which
is really a gentle stimulation of the sensory nerve endings of the nose. This so-called odor
of substances producing this effect is not characteristic. Higher concentrations of these
compounds almost invariably cause a definite irritation of the nose.
 Examples of true odors are the mercaptans, mustard gas, bromoacetone, acrolein,
chlorine and ammonia. Substances which cause mild irritation are chloroacetone, methyl
dichloroarsine, ethyl iodoacetate and chloropicrin.
In making the test for odor, the same apparatus is used as for lachrymators. The time
of exposure is shortened to 30 seconds, as the subject always detects the odor at the first
or second inhalation.
In this connection the recent work of Allison and Katz (J. Ind. Eng. Chem. 11, 336,
[1919]) is of interest. They have designed an instrument, “the odorometer,” for measuring
the intensity of odors in varying concentrations in air. It is based on the principle given
above. A measured volume of air is passed through the liquid and then diluted to a given
concentration. The mixture is then passed through a rubber tube with a glass funnel at the
open end. Only one inhalation of the mixture is used to determine the intensity of the odor.
The position of any strength of odor on the scale depends upon the sensitiveness and
judgment of the operator, but with one person conducting the entire test, the results have
been found quite satisfactory. (See tables on pages 360 and 361.)

Skin Irritants
Substances which seem useful for producing skin burns are studied both on animals
and on man. Dichloroethyl sulfide (mustard gas) is used as a basis of comparison.
Several methods are available.
Direct Application. This method consists of the direct application of the compound
itself to the skin, using a definite quantity (0.005 cc. or 0.005 mg.) over a definite area (5
square centimeters) of the skin. With such a quantity of mustard gas a rather severe burn
on animals is produced. No precautions are taken to prevent evaporation from the skin
since it is believed that in this way the test will approximate fairly closely the field
conditions.
Vapor Tests. Preliminary tests with vapors of volatile compounds are best made by
placing a small amount of the material on a plug of cotton in the bottom of a test tube
enclosed in a larger test tube which acts as an air jacket. After about an hour at room
temperature the mouth of the test tube is applied to the skin. The concentration is not
known, but one is dealing practically with saturated vapor. If an exposure of from 30 to 60
minutes produces no effect, one is safe to assume that the compound is not sufficiently
active to be of value as a skin irritant.
If quantitative results are desired, the apparatus shown in Fig. 119 is used. Dry air is
blown through the bubbler, which is connected with a series of glass skin applicators. The
concentration is determined in the usual way. The skin applicator consists of a small
cylinder about 1.5 to 2 cm. in diameter and about 4 cm. long with a small glass handle
attached on top. The opening is 1 cm. in diameter. When the concentration of the gas is
constant, the exposure to the skin is made directly for any desired length of time. The skin
irritant efficiency is judged by comparing the per cent of positive responses to
approximately equal concentrations of the vapors, using mustard gas as a standard.

TABLE I—Physical and Physiological Properties

of Chemicals Used as Stenches
 Boiling Freezing Physiological
Character
Chemical Point, Point, Properties Remarks
of Odor
°C. °C. of Vapor
Amyl acetate 148 -75 Banana oil Harmless Pleasant to most
(thick) people;
disagreeable to
some
Ethyl acetate 77.4 -83.8 Fruity, pleasant Harmless
Amyl alcohol 137.8 Alcoholic Harmless
Butyric acid 162.3 -7.9 Very disagreeable Harmless
Valeric acid 186.4 -58.5 Very disagreeable Harmless
Ethyl ether 35 -112.6 Pungent Soporific
Phenyl Very disagreeable Unknown
165
isocyanide
Allyl Mustard oil, Lachrymatory and
151
isothiocyanate disagreeable toxic
Methyl Mustard oil, Lachrymatory and
119 34
isothiocyanate disagreeable toxic
Amyl isovalerate 190 Very disagreeable Harmless
Butyl mercaptan 97 Very disagreeable Harmless
Isobutyl Very disagreeable Unknown Probably harmless
88
mercaptan
Ethyl mercaptan 37 -144.4 Very disagreeable Harmless
Propyl mercaptan 67 Very disagreeable Unknown Probably harmless
Oil of wintergreen, Harmless
Methyl salicylate 222.2 -8.3
pleasant
Amyl thioether 95-98 Very disagreeable Unknown Probably harmless
Ethyl thioether 92 -99.5 Very disagreeable Unknown Probably harmless
Carbon Sweet, unpleasant Harmless
76.74 -19.5
tetrachloride
Chloroform 62 -63.2 Sweet, agreeable Soporific
Iodoform Decomposes 119 Unpleasant Harmless
Artificial musk Pleasant Harmless Unpleasant in
higher
concentration
Nitrobenzene 209.4 5.71 Almonds, pleasant Toxic
Oil of peppermint Pleasant Harmless
Pyridine 115.2 -42 Very disagreeable Toxic

TABLE II—Results of Measurement of the Intensity

of Various Stenches
Volumes of the Chemical, as a Perfect
Gas, per Million Volumes of Air,
Intensity of Odor
Chemical
Quite Very
Detectable Faint Strong
Noticeable Strong
Amyl acetate 7 10 13 90 246
 Volumes of the Chemical, as a Perfect
Gas, per Million Volumes of Air,
Intensity of Odor
Chemical
Quite Very
Detectable Faint Strong
Noticeable Strong
Ethyl acetate 190 339 615 1236 1753
Amyl alcohol 63 83 123 439 601
Butyric acid 2.4 6 18 91 161
Valeric acid 7 29 125 332 962
1923 4927 5825 19982
Ethyl ether
3352
Butyl mercaptan 6 12 18 38 56
Isobutyl mercaptan 3.5 5 7 11 16
Ethyl mercaptan 18 35 73 141 198
Propyl mercaptan 2 7 9 14 17
Amyl thioether 0.2 1 1.6 1.7 2.2
Ethyl thioether 3 12 29 61 74
Allyl isothiocyanate ?2 3 6 8 50
Methyl 5 13 23 36 48
isothiocyanate
Amyl isovalerate 1.7 3 6 10 12
Carbon 718 1461 1588 4964 6091
tetrachloride
674 1389 2600 5887
Chloroform
19528
Iodoform 1.1[35]
Artificial musk
Nitrobenzene 29 36 44 114 296
Phenyl isocyanide 0.5 1 3 10 25
Pyridine 10 45 93 700 1764
[36]
Methyl salicylate 16.1 23 29 244
Oil of peppermint
 Milligrams of Chemical
per
Cu. Ft. of Air,
Chemical
Intensity of Odor
Quite Very
Detectable Faint Strong
Noticeable Strong
Amyl acetate 1.1 1.5 2 14 38
Ethyl acetate 19.4 34.6 63 126 191
Amyl alcohol 6.4 8.5 13 45 61
Butyric acid 0.3 0.6 2 9 16
Valeric acid 0.8 3.4 15 39 114
Ethyl ether 165.1 287.7 423 500 1715
Butyl mercaptan 0.5 1.0 2 3 5
Isobutyl mercaptan 0.2 0.5 0.7 1 2
Ethyl mercaptan 1.3 2.5 5 10 14
Propyl mercaptan 0.2 0.6 0.8 1.2 1.6
Amyl thioether 0.04 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Ethyl thioether 0.3 1.2 3 6 8
Allyl isothiocyanate 0.2 0.3 0.7 0.9 6
Methyl 0.4 1.1 2 3 4
isothiocyanate
Amyl isovalerate 0.4 0.5 1 2 2.3
Carbon tetrachloride 128 260 283 886 1087
Chloroform 93 192 360 816 1321
[37]
Iodoform 0.5
Artificial musk 0.001[38]
Nitrobenzene 4 5 6 16 42
Phenyl isocyanide 0.06 0.1 0.4 1 3
Pyridine 0.9 4 9 64 162
[39]
Methyl salicylate 2.8 4 5 43
Oil of peppermint 0.68 0.9 3 9.5 9.9