Category No safety effect Minor Major Hazardous Catastrophic

Probability N/A <10-3 <10-5 <10-7 <10-9

Effect on Aircraft No effect Slight reduction Significant Large reduction in Normally with hull
in functional reduction in functional loss
capabilities or functional capabilities or
safety margins capabilities or safety margins
safety margins

Effect on Inconvenience Physical Physical distress, Serious or fatal Multiple fatalities

occupants discomfort possibly including injury to a small
injuries number of
passengers or
cabin crew
Effect on Crew No effect Slight increase Physical Physical distress or Fatalities or
in workload discomfort or a excessive workload incapacitation
significant impairs ability to
increase in perform tasks
workload
Qualitative N/A Probable Remote Extremely Remote Extremely
Probability improbable

Equations Honeycomb – lightweight, strong but no point loads

Force = Area x Pressure
Volume = Area x Length
Length = Volume / Area
Voltage = Current (I) X
Resistance
Capacitance = DP X
area/distance
Airframes
Power fac = Kw / Kva
Freq = RPM X pole pairs / 60
Power = (force X distance) /
time
Thrust = M x (Vjet – Vflight)
Frq = RPM x pole pairs/60
Maintenance – hard time = replaced after set hours, on
condition when deemed to be un-serviceable
Pressurisation loads, number of cycles more important
than time.
Load max at wing roots, Spars and skin form torsion box

Primary flight controls – Aileron (or roll control spoilers,

elevator, rudder.
Secondary – flaps, slats, speedbrakes and trimming
devices
Hydraulics
Shuttle valve – Allows 1 service be operated by 2
supplies i.e. primary and emergency
Hydraulic fuse – Shuts down flow if there is a leak
Colour Code Seals Flammable
Mineral Red DTD58 Synthetic Yes
5 rubber
Synthetic Purple 500A Butyl No
rubber,
Teflon,
propylene
Modern fuselage = semi-monocoque Fluid is irritant to skin and eyes
Stringers absorb longitudinal compressive loads Accumulators – Dampen fluctuations, limited emergency
Pressurisation loads taken on skin supply. Pressure of gas same as system
Stress – force applied, fatigue result of stress
 Failure leads to 50% increase in distance
Flight controls Tyres
Reversible – Require gust locks and provide feedback Ply rating = strength of tyre
Irreversible – need artificial feedback (in parallel) Marstand tyre reduces shimmy
Trimming Low pressure up to 200PSI, high 200-315PSI
- Normally centreing devices Loss of 5% okay over 24 hours
- Zero force position of control column does not Hydroplaning increases with higher tyre pressure
change using elevator trim Pneumatics
- ZF pos changes position of control wheel with Bleed air from compressor stage. Also used to prevent
aileron trim stall at low compressor speeds
Fly-by-wide – lighter, less maintenance and safer Airconditioning
Landing gear

Ram air is used to cool the heat exchangers

Red gear lights show gear is in different position to
switch
Emergency lowering – blow down, mechanical, gravity
and emergency hydraulics
Brakes
Brake wear checked with brakes on
Steel brakes work best cold, carbon best hot (long
braking vs short braking)
Anti-skid inputs – Idle wheel speed, braked wheel speed
and desired slip rate
Cooling is by heat exchange and making it do work in the
turbine. On the ground fans may be used to force air
through. Recirculation fans direct air around the cabin
Pressurisation systems
Air comes in from bleed air. Ram air in emergencies
Outflow valve controls cabin pressure (cabin altitude)
Max differential 9PSI. If 0.5 PSI over max safety valves
open. Cannot exceed 1,800fpm climb
Cannot take positive pressure on hull
Categories of decompression. Normal (6 to 10 seconds),
Rapid (4 to 6) Explosive (0 to 3)
>10,000ft cabin alt visual warning CABIN ALT
>13,850ft AUTO FAIL light
> 14,000ft oxygen masks drop
Ice and rain protection
Used on Aerofoils, engine intake, windscreens, static and
pitot tubes
Detection – Vibrating rod 40Khz, ice illuminates warning
light then heats to melt ice and goes out.
Pressure detectors – Ice blocks holes and pressure
triggers warning then heats to melt ice
Rotor – knife cuts ice and detects torque
Wings are normally hot bleed air, on turbo props
pneumatic boots.
Engine intakes hot air or oil. Propellers electric or fluid.
Windows heated to 35oC. Makes them malleable.
Rain repellent CFC based
Fuel systems
LP 115v AC pumps submerged to keep cool. If off LOW
PRESSURE light
Fuel heated by oil to prevent waxing and water crystals
Fuel flow measured after the Fuel Control Unit
Smoke and fire detection
Smoke detectors are duplicated, both must register
Smoke detection required in non-manned areas and Transformers – Step up or down voltage twice the turns
toilets twice the voltage
Ion detection – Smoke absorb alpha particles V drop Rectifiers – convert AC to DC
Optical – smoke scatters light Invertor – DC to AC
Fire detection in Jet engine, APU and main gear bays Zenier diode – Breakdown with too much reverse
Resistive loops use 28v DC and detect short circuit current, used for voltage stabilisation
Systron Donner – gas pressure in pipe increases. Pipe is Generator control unit protects against under / over
heated to test. Failure if low pressure voltage, under frequency etc
Pulling fire handle closes LP/HP valves, hydraulics and In fault it trips the excitation Breaker and isolates the
electrics generator
Oxygen systems Logic circuits
Portable oxygen for medical purposes
Chemical generation for passengers, bottled for crew
Gas stored @ 1800PSI delivered at 8PSI to mask
In smoke crew oxygen select 100% <32,000ft O2 mixes
Electrics

Joule – Unit of work

Watt – unit of power
Ampere – unit of current
Ohm – unit of resistance
DC electrics
Recharging voltage 112% of Bat voltage
Primary cell = 1.5V
Lead Acid cell 2.2v dropping to 2v under load
If close to discharged voltage falls under load
NiCad – 1.3v per cell. Wider temp range, fast charge
rate, can be stored discharged and hold voltage under
load
Disadvantage thermal runaway
DC Motors Piston Engines
Series Wound – Most common starter motors. Voltage Inlet valve opens before TDC (valve lead)
increases under load Ignition occurs just before TDC
Shunt wound – low torque, fans etc. Voltage decreases Compression ratio = Volume at BDC / TDC
under load 80% efficient
Compound wound – bit of both – constant voltage Mags cutout by grounding to earth
Split field – can run both directions with 2 sets of coils Fuel
AC electricity
Uses slip rings rather than commutator
The rotor rotates the stator is fixed
Alternator is AC generator and rectifier to produce DC
3 phase Stator pairs are 120o from each other
Capacitors act as high resistance to low frequencies
Need more on AC!
AC generator and motors
Frequency wild generator no control of RPM
Constant Speed Drives (CSD) keeps generator running at
same speed to keep frequency the same
Synchronous motor – runs at speed related to frequency
and maintains speed as load varies. Inductive systems High Octane = less chance of detonation = higher
starts them compression ratio
Induction motor – loses speed as load increases but are Gas turbine engines
self starting. Used for fuel pumps etc
AC Devices
 Feather position provides min drag on failed engine
Range between flight fine pitch and feather is called
alpha range. Range from FFP to reverse is Beta
The Constant Speed unit (CSU) has a simple rule:
Compressor – divergent duct
- If propeller RPM falls the CSU will cause the propeller
Diffuser after compressor before combustion chamber
blades to move to a finer pitch
reduced velocity and increases pressure
- If prop RPM rises the CSU will cause the prop blades to
Combustion chamber – continuous at constant pressure.
move to a coarser pitch
Exit is convergent duct
Turbine causes drop in temp, pressure and velocity as
the air is doing work
Exhaust – divergent duct – pressure reduces velocity
increases
Total pressure never changes as does total temperature
Axial flow more mass flow than centrifugal

Free turbine engine drive not connected to turbine

Rotor accelerates air towards stator

creating a divergent duct. Pressure
rises, velocity decreases. The rotor
moves the stator does not. Looks
like a wave if drawn.
Inner stage bleed may be required
to start the engine
Arrangement called Impulse blades

Gas Turbine handling

Dry start – no fuel no lightup
Hung start – stays at 20% high EGT low fuel flow
Hot start – Rapid rise in EGT
Wet start – Fails to light up, low RPM, no EGT some flow
Propeller Systems