GENERAL BIOLOGY 2

REPRODUCTION (SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS)

FERTILIZATION

→ Is the fusion of a sperm cell and an egg cell to form a zygote, the first cell of a new
organism.

TWO TYPES OF FERTILIZATION

 INTERNAL FERTILIZATION
→ Internal fertilization occurs when the sperm cell fuses with the egg cell
inside the female reproductive tract.
→ This is the most common type of fertilization in mammals, including
human.

 EXTERNAL FERTILIZATION
→ External fertilization occurs when the sperm cell fuses with the egg cell
outside the female reproductive tract.
→ This type of fertilization is common in aquatic animals, such as fish and
amphibians.

FEATURE INTERNAL EXTERNAL

FERTILIZATION FERTILIZATION
LOCATION OF Inside the female Outside the female
FERTILIZATION reproductive tract. reproductive tract.
EFFICIENCY More efficient Less efficient
PROTECTION OF THE Protected Exposed to the
ZYGOTE environment
EXAMPLES Mammals, humans Fish, amphibians

HUMAN REPRODUCTION: MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

 TESTES
→ Male reproductive organs.
→ Main male reproductive organ.

 SEMINIFEROUS TUBULES
→ Produce sperm (spermatogenesis).

 REGULATED BY HORMONES
o GONADOTROPIN-RELEASING HORMONE (GnRH)
→ GnRH stimulates the release of FSH and LH from the anterior
pituitary gland. It acts as a key regulator of the reproductive
system by controlling the secretion of these gonadotropins.

 LUTEINIZING HORMONE
→ Triggering ovulation which causing the release of
mature egg cell from the ovary.

 FOLLICLE-STIMULATING HORMONE
→ For the maturation of egg cell (oocyte).

PARTS FUNCTION
EPIDIDYMIS Stores and matures sperm.
VAS DEFERENS Transports sperm form the epididymis to
the urethra.
AMPULLA OF VAS DEFERENS Widened portion of the vas deferens
where sperm mix with secretions from
the seminal vesicles.
SEMINAL VESICLE To produce a fluid that makes up seme,
which is released during ejaculation.
EJACULATORY DUCT Carries sperm from the seminal vesicle
and prostate gland to the urethra.
PROSTATE GLAND Produce the fluid that nourishes and
transports sperm. Produces alkaline fluid
that neutralizes acidic vaginal secretions.
URETHRA Passageway for both urine and semen.

PATHWAY OF THE SPERM CELL:

→ Sperm cells embark on a journey within the male reproductive system, beginning in
the seminiferous tubules of the testes, where spermatogenesis generates mature
spermatozoa. In the epididymis, sperm undergo maturation and gain motility.
The vas deferens, a muscular tube extending into the pelvic cavity, transports
mature sperm, expanding into the ampulla as it approaches the prostate gland.
At this juncture, the vas deferens combines with the duct from the seminal vesicle,
contributing seminal fluid enriched with nutrients and substances to enhance
sperm motility. The resulting ejaculatory duct traverses the prostate gland,
producing additional fluid that nourishes and protects the sperm. The ejaculate,
now comprising spermatozoa and fluids from the seminal vesicle and prostate
gland, continues through the urethra. This common pathway for urine and
semen runs through the penis, allowing for the expulsion of the sperm-containing
semen during ejaculation. This orchestrated series of events ensures the proper
development, transport, and release of spermatozoa for potential fertilization.
HUMAN REPRODUCTION: FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

 OVARIES
 OOGENESIS
→ Development of ovarian follicle.
→ The process of formation of female gametes.
→ Secretion of estrogen and progesterone.

 FALLOPIAN TUBE
→ Area where fertilization occurs.

 UTERUS
 ENDOMETRIUM
→ The innermost layer of the uterus.

 MYOMETRIUM
→ The middle and thickest layer of the uterus.

PARTS FUNCTION
OVARIES Produce eggs and hormones.
FALLOPIAN TUBES Transports eggs.
UTERUS House a fetus.
CERVIX Regulates passage of sperm and
 menstrual blood.
VAGINA Provides passageway for intercourse,
childbirth, and menstrual flow.

o The journey of
egg cell begins in the bursting of follicle in one of the ovaries releasing a mature
egg to the fallopian tube where conception or fertilization will occur, this process
is called ovulation. Next, the mature egg cell will undergo single cell division
forming the zygote. It will also undergo two-celled stage, four-celled stage, eight-
celled stage, until sixteen-thirty-two celled stage, forming now morula which is a
solid ball of cells. Following the initial formation of the morula, a solid ball of
cells resulting from early cleavage divisions, embryonic development progresses
into the blastocyst stage. During blastulation, the morula undergoes
differentiation, giving rise to two distinct cell types: the outer trophoblast and
the inner cell mass. Simultaneously, a fluid-filled cavity called the blastocoel
forms within the structure. This transformation from a solid to a hollow
structure characterizes the emergence of the blastocyst. The trophoblast, which
will contribute to the formation of the placenta, surrounds the blastocoel, while
the inner cell mass is poised to develop into the embryonic tissues. The blastocyst
continues its journey through the fallopian tube towards the uterus, where it
eventually undergoes implantation into the endometrial lining. This pivotal step
marks the initiation of pregnancy, with the trophoblast cells playing a crucial role in
placental formation, and the inner cell mass beginning the process of embryonic
development, ultimately giving rise to the various tissues and organs of the
developing organism.

 OVULATION
→ Releasing mature egg cell from one of the ovaries to the fallopian
tube.

 MORULA
→ A solid ball of cells.

 BLASTOCYST
→ Hollow one-layered cells.

o BLASTOCOEL
o INNER MASS CELL
o TROPHOBLAST

o GASTRULATION
→ Gastrulation is a critical phase that follows the
formation of the blastocyst and involves the
reorganization of cells into three distinct germ
layers: ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm.

o GASTRULA
 → Gastrula, early multicellular embryo, composed of
two or more germinal layers of cells from which the
various organs later derive.
→ Three-layered cell.
→ 7th to 14th day

HORMONAL REGULATION OF ANIMALS REPRODUCTION

THE PITUITARY GLAND SECRETES TWO GONADOTROPIN-RELEASING

HORMONES

 LUTEINIZING HORMONE (LH)

 IN MALE
→ Causes testes to secrete testosterone.

 IN FEMALE
→ It causes ovulation and it causes to secrete progesterone.

 FOLLICLE-STIMULATING HORMONE (FSH)

  IN MALE
→ Causes testes to
produce sperm.

 IN FEMALE
→ Causes the growth of ovarian follicle and it causes cells to secrete
estrogen.

ANIMAL DEVELOPMENT

1. GAMETOGENESIS
→ Is the process by which diploid precursor cells undergo meiotic division to
become haploid gametes (sex cells). In males, this process is called
 spermatogenesis and produce spermatozoa (sperm). In females, this
process is called oogenesis and produce ova (eggs).

2. FERTILIZATION
→ As the union of two haploid gametes, the spermatozoa and the oocyte,
here to referred to as egg, to restore the diploid state, form a zygote.

3. IMPLANTATION
→ The blastocyst attaches to the uterine lining, a process called implantation.
This is a critical step in early pregnancy, as it allows the embryo to receive
nutrients and oxygen from the mother’s blood.
4. GASTRULATION
→ The inner cell mass of the blastocyst undergoes series of complex changes
called gastrulation, which established the three primary germ layers: the
ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm.
→ These germ layers will give rise to all the tissues and organs of the body.
 GERM LAYER LATER DIFFERENTIATES INTO
ECTODERM Skin, nervous system, sensory organs,
mouth, nose, anus.
MESODERM Muscles, bones, blood, connective tissue,
urogenital system.
ENDODERM Digestive system, respiratory system,
urinary system, thyroid gland,
parathyroid glands.

ECTODERM

 Epidermis of skin and its derivative (including sweat glands, hair follicles)
 Epithelial lining of mouth and anus
 Cornea and lens of eye
 Nervous system
 Sensory receptors in epidermis
 Adrenal medulla
 Tooth enamel
 Epithelium of pineal and pituitary glands.

MESODERM

 Notochord
 Skeletal system muscular layer of stomach and intestine
 Excretory system
 Circulatory and lymphatic systems
 Reproductive system (except germ cells)
 Dermis of skin
 Lining of body cavity
  Adrenal cortex

ENDODERM

 Epithelial lining of digestive tract

 Epithelial lining of respiratory system
 Lining of urethra, urinary bladder, and reproductive system
 Liver
 Pancreas
 Thymus
 Thyroid and parathyroid glands

5. EMBRYONIC STAGE
→ The embryonic stage lasts from the third through the eight weeks of
pregnancy.
→ Development of the major organs and organ systems.
→ Formation of the neural tube, which will eventually become the brain and
spinal cord.
→ Development of the limbs and eyes.

6. FETAL STAGE
→ The fetal stage lasts from the ninth weeks of pregnancy until birth.
→ Continued growth and development of all organs and organ systems.
→ Development of the senses.
→ Maturation of the lungs and other organs in preparation for birth.