Villanueva - Literary Response - Final

Name: Lysa Karylle U.
Villanueva Course: BSEd - English

Instructor: Kim Karlo Tom Amorado, LPT Subject: EL 115 – Survey of English and American Literature
FINAL TERM - LITERARY RESPONSE

TITLE: BEOWULF
AUTHOR/S: ANONYMOUS ANGLO - SAXON POET / BEOWULF POET
PIECE:
Beowulf is the first narrative poem and the most important piece in the history of English
Literature, written by an anonymous Anglo – Saxon poet referred to as the “Beowulf poet”.
According to J.R.R. Tolkien – Beowulf was almost certainly written by an 8th-century Anglo-
Saxon poet shortly after England's conversion to Christianity. The story tells the life of the
legendary Geatish hero, Beowulf and his battles against the monster Grendel (and Grendel’s
mother), and against an unnamed dragon. Moreover, the setting is set in Scandinavia, in Sweden
and Denmark, and the tale likewise probably is of Scandinavian origin.
Moreover, the Beowulf Heroic poem is considered the highest achievement of Old English
literature and the earliest European vernacular epic. It deals with events of the early 6th century
and was probably composed c. 700–750. It tells the story of the Scandinavian hero Beowulf, who
gained fame as a young man by vanquishing the monster Grendel and Grendel’s mother; later, as
an aging king, he kills a dragon but dies soon after, honoured and lamented. Beowulf belongs
metrically, stylistically, and thematically to the Germanic heroic tradition but shows a distinct
Christian influence.
FULL PIECE: BEOWULF.pdf
REFERENCES
Thomas, J. (2018, August 16). Beowulf summary | Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved
July 12, 2022, from https://www.britannica.com/summary/Beowulf
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PERSONAL INTERPRETATIONS AND CRITIQUES
“Beowulf”
By: Anglo - Saxon Beowulf Poet
The epic poem “Beowulf '' was written by an anonymous Anglo - Saxon Poet referred to as
“Beowulf Poet”. This epic poem became one of the most important pieces during the time of Early
English Literature, specifically the piece highlighted the history and events of the Brtion’s society
and how the author adapts to his piece the shift of beliefs from Animism to the conquest of Rome
which was centered on Cristianity.
First and foremost, the epic poem was written in a dialect known as Old English or
commonly referred to as Anglo - Saxon. Unlike other rhythm poems which we commonly
observed, this Old English poetry renowned its emphasis on alliteration and is written in a severely
accented language that is so unfamiliar from current English as to be practically unrecognizable.
Due to the poem’s cohesive structure and integration of historical details into the primary narrative
flow, I believe that the poem is narrated from a third - person omniscient point of view in which
the narrator most likely accesses the interior thoughts and feelings of all the characters including
the dragon monster. In terms of line, I also observed that the author divided the poem into two
district half - lines in which each line contains atleast for syllabus and is separated by a pause or
commonly known as “caesura” . Moreover, as I continue reading the poem the author makes use
of related repetitions sounds. As for me, I believed that the alliterative nature of the stanza lends
Old English poetry its harmony and rhythm even though very few of the lines end in rhymes in the
traditional sense.
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The major themes that I have identified in this poem are the heroic code and loyalty.
Although, I believe that aside from these 2 there are still a lot of themes to point out with but as for
myself I have observed this theme several times as the story goes along. In the poem, Beowulf
shows bravery and courage while battling the demons and dragons which gain the respect of the
public and the king. He upholds the heroic code while doing so and serves as another shining
example of bravery, chivalry, courage, and selflessness. Moreover, through Beowulf and Unferth,
Beowulf illustrates the theme of loyalty which occurs the moment that the Danish king Hrothgar
accepts Beowulf's offer when forced to deal with Grendel and his mother's evil. The poem gives us
readers and also the people of the society an implication of the importance of bravery and loyalty
beyond measure as portrayed by Beowulf’s character. In addition, the literary devices in which the
authors make use are imagery and hyperbole to exaggerate the events and settings of the novel.
The synthesis of the poem goes along with the obsession with patriarchal history
manifested itself throughout Beowulf, which opens by tracing Hrothgar’s male ancestry and
constantly refers to characters as the sons of their fathers. By placing such an emphasis on who
their fathers were and how their fathers acted, the men of Beowulf bind themselves to a cycle of
necessity governed by the heroic code. Moreover, Christianity and Paganism was also relevant in
the epic poem considering that it has its roots in a pagan Saxon past, but by the time the epic was
written down, almost all Anglo-Saxons had converted to Christianity. As a result, the Beowulf poet
is at pains to resolve his Christian beliefs with the often quite un-Christian behavior of his
characters.
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In conclusion, Beowulf possessed many heroic qualities in the Anglo-Saxon era that mere
mortals lack - bravery beyond compare, superhuman intelligence, strength or skills and a driving
desire to find success. As a reader, I've learned the value of loyalty and bravery as demonstrated by
Beowulf, that every person can overcome difficulties. Additionally, I also learned how to give a
deeper understanding of the meaning of the text—especially considering the peculiar language
used in this piece and the fact that, unlike other poems, this one does not rhyme as most of us
would expect. Indeed, the epic poem Beowulf is relevant to today's society because it provides us
with a deeper understanding of life in the Middle Ages. The poem has highly strong moral norms
and morals that permeate practically every element of their society . In this epic poem, virtues like
loyalty, honesty, family, bravery, and even Christianity are emphasized heavily. Furthermore,
Beowulf, the earliest extant Anglo-Saxon English poem, provides readers with background
information on the history of England and the development of British literature. With these, I
believe that we students can learn more about the history of the English language and Old English
by reading Beowulf.
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TITLE: CAESURA AND KENNINGS
PIECE:
The Anglo - Saxon oral traditions are evident in Beowulf. Like other oral art, it was handed down,
with changes and embellishments, from one storyteller to another. To aid the retelling of the story,
poetic devices are incorporated into this epic poem including Caesura and Kennings.
Caesurae have been used in poetry since the time of the ancient Greeks and Romans—though,
back then, the term was even more specific and referred to pauses that actually threw off the meter
of a line of poetry. A caesura is a pause that occurs within a line of poetry, usually marked by some
form of punctuation such as a period, comma, ellipsis, or dash. A caesura doesn't have to be placed
in the exact middle of a line of poetry. It can be placed anywhere after the first word and before the
last word of a line. Often the verse line is divided into two halves separated by a rhythmical pause
or caesura. In one half - two words would commonly alliterate; in the other half, one word
alliterates with the two from the other half.
On the other hand, Kennings is a figure of speech where a two-word phrase replaces a one-word
noun.The two words are often joined together by a hyphen and form a compound word. Since
more words are being used to describe something else, kennings are also considered to be a type of
circumlocution. A circumlocution is an indirect way of speaking. The earliest and simplest kenning
are compound words formed from two common nouns such as “sky-candle” for sun and “whale -
road” for sea. Once a kennings was formed it was used over and over by the oral poets.
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REFERENCES:
Master, P. (2019, February 20). What is a Kenning? | Definition and Examples. Twinkl. Retrieved
July 12, 2022, from https://www.twinkl.com.ph/teaching-wiki/kenning
Smith, L. (2017, March 15). Caesura: Definition and Examples | LiteraryTerms.net. Literary
Terms. Retrieved July 12, 2022, from https://literaryterms.net/caesura/
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“Caesura and Kennings”

“Everyone has to breathe” – therefore, a poetic line cannot be repeated indefinitely. With
these, breaks are necessary. A caesura in the Anglo-Saxon sense usually refers to the space or
pause between two halves of a line; using caesura it provides a natural break in poetry. In the
simplest terms, a caesura is a natural end in a poetic phrase or break in the rhyme. On the other
hand, kennings are a figure of speech common to Anglo-Saxon and Norse texts. Kenning is a
concise compound or figurative phrase replacing a common noun, especially in Old Germanic, Old
Norse, and Old English poetry. Furthermore, kenning is also used in the epic poem “Beowulf”.
In the epic poem of Beowulf, the poetic devices Caesura and Kennings were used. One of
the examples of caesura is Shakespeare's line “To be, or not to be – that is the question” this
example has two caesura, the clearest one comes after being and before that. It’s a dramatic pause
in the meter of the writing. However, the less noticeable one is set off by the comma after “To be.”
Caesura come in different types such as masculine caesura, feminine caesura, initial caesura,
medial caesura, and terminal caesura. Masculine caesura is seen after a stressed syllable.
Feminine caesura comes after an unstressed syllable. Initial caesura is seen toward the beginning.
Medial caesura near the middle and Terminal caesura at or near the end. As a speaker when we
speak, we naturally take pauses to breathe. The same with poets they use this natural pause to add
to the rhythm and impact of their poetry through a caesura. An example of a literary piece which
uses caesura is the “Mother and Poet” by Elizabeth Barret. In her poem, she uses pauses which we
can see after the stress syllabus. For example, in the third line in her first stanza “Ah boys, how
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you hurt! || you were strong as you pressed”. The phrase “hurt” is stress, making it a perfect
example of caesura. On the other hand, kenning's examples are focused on concise compound
phrases replacing a common noun. An example of kenning are words “whale- road” is used for the
sea and "shepherd of evil" is used for Grendel. Other well- known kennings include "battle sweat"
for blood; "raven harvest" for corpse; and "sleep of the sword" for death. For instance, there are
numerous documented examples of Old English in the epic poem Beowulf where a caesura is a
large blank space in the middle of a line. A caesura in Beowulf serves the dual functions of
illustrating a pause and dividing stressed syllables. Beowulf was written during a different era;
thus, the poet wasn't as concerned with the meter as other poets were in later poetry. I believed that
with the use of caesura and kenning in Beowulf these techniques contributed to the Anglo – Saxon
poet to add melody, structure and metaphor to the piece.
As I have explored and learned about Caesura and Kennings, I believe that this technique is
helpful for both readers, poets and writers of literary pieces. It is helpful for the readers since it
provides a space for them to take breath and to give emphasis and stress to a word. Helpful for the
poets because they can give emphasis to their texts and to a syllable that is needed to be stressed
for the reader to much more feel the tone of a certain piece. In conclusion, caesura and kennings
are most likely seen and used in Old English Literature including the epic poem of Beowulf.
Through using caesura, it gives the text an emphasis to a syllable while also providing natural
pauses using punctuation, a stop or a metrical line. Alternatively, kennings are used to describe a
person, idea or object using figurative language.
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TITLE: KING ARTHUR AND THE KNIGHTS OF THE ROUND TABLE
AUTHOR: ROGER LANCELYN GREEN
PIECE:
King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table is an amazin story of bravery and knights who
stand up for the weak and the future of the greater good is found in King Arthur and the Knights of
the Round Table. But King Arthur is merely a tale; there is insufficient evidence to support his
existence; alternatively, he might have been modeled on another general or famous figure of the
era and conjured up by a writer. King Arthur is a medieval, mythological figure who was the head
of the kingdom Camelot and the Knights of the Round Table. The story of King Arthur was writer
by a British biographer and children's writer named Roger Lancelyn Green.
According to the legend, King Arthur was king of Camelot, a castle and city which served as the
capital of his kingdom. Camelot is often presented as a peaceful, thriving city that is ruled by
Arthur's court, who sit around a round table to symbolize their status of equality. King Arthur's
court is made up of several knights, known as the Knights of the Round Table. Lots of the main
characters of the King Arthur legend are Knights of the Round Table, such as Sir Gawain, Sir
Galahad, and Sir Launcelot, also known as Sir Lancelot.
FULL PIECE: KING ARTHUR AND THE ROUND TABLE.pdf
REFERENCES:
Gomez, L. (2013, February 4). King Arthur and His Knights of the Round Table - 1014 Words |
Studymode. StudyMode. Retrieved July 12, 2022, from
https://www.studymode.com/essays/King-Arthur-And-His-Knights-Of-1403430.html
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“King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table”
By: Roger Lancelyn Green
In the beginning, the author eloquently portrays the story by bringing us readers to such
experience of adventures and trials of King Arthur together with his Knights and to many exciting
endeavors of heroism and fortitude. First and foremost, the character in which I have observed
King Arthur in the poem is that he possesses the ideal qualities of a leader such as honesty,
intelligence and courage to the people he serves and protects. Although he receives a lot of
criticism and judgment for proclaiming as the new king, King Arthur remains good and shapes his
government with an important new philosophy that makes him a great king.
The major themes in the story are love, betrayal, heroism, and loss. The theme of love is
seen as King Arthur truly showed her love and loyalty to his lover – Genevieve in which
oppositely felt by the betrayal of Genevieve the moment that she chooses to become unfaithful to
King Arthur with her relationship to SirLancelot. The character of Guinevere symbolizes and
reflect the qualities of “unfaithful” and “seductress” partner who was also relevant to our
generation today not just only for woman but for both sex. The theme of loss is seen at the moment
of the loss of the British Kingdom, Camelot where also the theme of heroism enters when King
Arthur defends and takes back the Kingdom for such a time. Furthermore, the story occurs in King
Arthur’s Castle in Camelot, England. The round table which King Arthur together with the Knight
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discusses symbolizes and is said to “represents the word”. Moreover, the round table signifies the
roundness of the world supported by the fact that knights come to it from all the countries where
chivalry exists.
In my perspective, King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table is an incredible story
of bravery, and knights who fight for those that cannot and for the greater good’s future. But it is
only a legend, there is not enough factual evidence that King Arthur existed, only he could have
been based off another general or great leader in that time and created by a writer’s imagination.
The relevance and contribution of the piece “King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table” in
terms of political aspects in our society today, is that through this story the reader gets to realize as
to what are the ideal qualities of a good leader. As King Arthur himself, his character is seen to be
a leader of honesty, good governance, intelligence and courage. King Arthur symbolizes our ideals,
which makes the most authentic part of us invested in his legacy. Aside from the political aspect,
we also have the influences in terms of the relevant issues such as “cheating”. Guinevere
represents both loyalty and betrayal. She is seen by the people of Camelot as a devoted supporter
of her husband's deeds and ideas. However, despite of this perspective she still chooses to betray
her husband which only proves that even though we expected that person to be an ideal partner, but
we cannot stop a person’s personal agenda either to be faithful or not.
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TITLE: CANTERBURY TALES
AUTHOR: GEOFFEY CHAUCER
PIECE:
In The Canterbury Tales, a group of pilgrims traveling to Canterbury Cathedral compete in a
storytelling contest. This overarching plot, or frame, provides a reason for the pilgrims to tell their
stories, which reflect the concerns sparked by the social upheavals of late medieval England. The
General Prologue sets the scene for these societal tensions by introducing a wide variety of
pilgrims from across different social classes. When the Host suggests the storytelling contest and
claims the best storyteller will win a free tavern meal, he incites the plot because this contest both
creates a reason for the pilgrims to tell stories and also places the pilgrims in competition with each
other.
The Knight, who speaks first in accordance with his rank, roots his tale firmly in rigid courtly
sensibilities. However, Miller insists on going next, disrupting the hierarchy. His bawdy tale that
celebrates adultery contrasts sharply with the courtly love of “The Knight’s Tale.” The Reeve
follows in response to a slight in “The Miller’s Tale,” emphasizing that social class no longer plays
any role in determining the order of the tales. The subsequent tales often respond to each other
thematically, creating dialogues about social concerns in the Middle Ages. Several tales depict
tensions around the changing roles of women, particularly in regard to marriage. “The Wife of
Bath’s Tale” ignites this conflict, using courtly romance to subvert courtly norms and arguing for
female independence. “The Clerk’s Tale” aims to refute the Wife’s story, asserting that marriage is
happiest when the wife is obedient. Franklin promotes a middle ground. He describes a devoted
young couple who share power in their marriage.

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Other tales in this middle section examine tensions around the role of the church in public life,
particularly given the institution’s prevalent corruption. The Friar tells a story about a corrupt
summoner, while the Summoner describes a friar who, seeking to cheat parishioners of their
money, is himself cheated. Their tales introduce the theme of corrupt church officials abusing their
positions for financial gain while also illustrating the rivalries among different religious
professions. The repeated hypocrisy demonstrated by most of the higher ranking clerical characters
brings up questions about the sincerity of church officials and their prominent roles in the
community.
Ultimately, The Canterbury Tales concludes with no real resolution to the multiple conflicts it
raises and with no conclusion to the storytelling contest. The final tale is told by the Parson, a
generous and honest religious leader who, in lieu of a story, preaches repentance to the pilgrims,
wanting them to remain in good standing with God. Following “The Parson’s Tale,” Chaucer
includes several paragraphs apologizing if his readers did not like parts of The Canterbury Tales
and retracting any sexual or violent content that offended rigid church morality.
FULL PIECE: Canterbury Tales.pdf
REFERENCES:
Chaucer, G. (2018, April 15). The Canterbury Tales: Full Book Analysis. SparkNotes. Retrieved
July 12, 2022, from https://www.sparknotes.com/lit/the-canterbury-tales/plot-analysis/
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“Canterbury Tales”
By: Geoffey Chaucer
The Canterbury Tales is narrated by a character whom scholars identify as
Chaucer-the-pilgrim, a literary character based on the author but presented as far more naïve,
clueless, and trusting than the actual Chaucer could have been. This piece is written by Geoffey
Chaucer who’s a son of a wealthy wine merchant of London, given a good education at local
schools, and entered service of the royal court around the age of 13 in 1356 CE.
Despite the fact that they are all told by different pilgrims, each of the stories is told from
an omniscient third-person point of view, giving the reader insight into the protagonists' thoughts
and. Moreover, the tone of The Canterbury Tales contains a diverse array of perspectives on both
life and literature. As I have read the story, I was mesmerized as to how the authors gathered such
society’s issues in one tale. The major themes and topics that I have observed in the story centered
on the nobility, the church, and the peasantry which also formed the three pillars of medieval
society. The satire of Chaucer takes aim at all facets of medieval social problems, human
immorality, and the corrupted heart. He, for instance, exposes every social layer of his pilgrims and
skillfully demonstrates how they fall short of carrying out their true responsibilities. In The Nun's
Priest's Tale, he develops the idea of societal satire further by mocking courtly love and eschewing
standards of decency. In The Woman of Bath's Tale, the wife uses her own interpretation of Bible
scriptures to refute religious reasoning. Aside from social satire relative themes also exist in the
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different stories of the pilgrims such as courtly love and sexual desire, corruption in church,
competition, Christianity, class, life and deceptions, rivalry and company. These themes were
observed in the stories shared by the pilgrims as they continued their trip. The author of the story
put the consideration of the essentiality of themes which were also observed from the different
stories. And because of these themes it made the story much more appealing and persuasive to
read.
In my perspective, The Canterbury Tales should still be read and studied, to make all this
relevant to the present. Students can study the past and discover how relevant it is to the present.
The poem explores the terrible truths of existence in all facets of society. It is a satire on social
status, church corruption, friendship, and companionship for all classes in medieval society, with
the exception of the highest aristocracy and the lowest order of life. Additionally, by reading and
understanding this poem as a reader and a student, we will come to understand the importance of
respect and honesty. Furthermore, the story of Canterbury Tales provides relevance and
contribution to different aspects in a person's life including individuality, religion, and in the
society. The relevance of this piece in terms of individuality is that Canterbury Tales allows
individuals to realize that lust only gets you in trouble wherein as an individual we must center
religion and morality as virtuous, and honor and honesty must be highly valued. In terms of
religion, the Canterbury Tales provides a window into the debasement of Christianity under the
Catholic Church during Chaucer's time. But on the balance, Chaucer is also mindful of the fact that
there are still individuals who practice what they preach. And lastly the impact on society, the
Canterbury Tales reflects then and now. Women are still seen as inferior, there is still corruption,
and people are still deceitful.
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TITLE: CAEDMON’S HYMN
AUTHOR: CAEDMON
PIECE: (SUMMARY)
Cædmon’s Hymn’ is an example of Old English poetry, one of the few pieces that survives and one
of the very few that isn’t a fragment. The majority of these poems were oral, meaning that they
were exchanged only through recitation.
The story of the poem Caedmon’s Hymn and how it came to be is told in the Ecclesiastical History
of the English people, a book by an 8th-century monk named Caedmon. Caedmon's Hymn is a
short lyrical poem that was supposedly sung by Caedmon, who at the time worked from a
monastery and refused to sing. The hymn was originally written in Old English and was written
around 731 CE. "Caedmon's Hymn" is a poem originally performed in Old English, an early form
of the English language heavily influenced by Germanic languages. Caedmon’s hymn is a type of a
religious song.
REFERENCES:
Baldwin, E. (2017, September 23). Cædmon's Hymn by Cædmon. Poem Analysis. Retrieved July
12, 2022, from https://poemanalysis.com/caedmon/caedmons-hymn/
Dieves, C. (2017, August 20). Caedmon's Hymn. The British Library. Retrieved July 12, 2022,
from https://www.bl.uk/collection-items/the-story-of-caedmons-hymn
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“CAEDMON’S HYMN”
By: Caedmon
The lyrical poem Caedmon’s Hymn provides significant insights and valuable lessons
specifically for the Christians to give honor, praises and adoration to God and the heaven -
kingdom. The poem, though short, is praised for its ability to bring together various theological
concepts into an elegant form. Caedmon's poem is short and straightforward, but the deeper
meaning goes beyond the mere letter of the text.
In the first lines of ‘Cædmon’s Hymn, the speaker uses the first-person point of view to
refer to the praise that must be given to God. The poet uses several different names for God
throughout the poem, from “heaven-kingdom’s Guardian” to “the Measurer.”
“Heaven-kingdom” is an example of an Anglo Saxon compound word, known as a kenning. The
theme of the lyrical poem is that God created the heavens and the earth for the enjoyment of the
men. The author of the poem – Caedmon shows his adoration and praise to God through his
creation and literary piece. The literary device that I have observed in the poem is repetition, in
which the author uses this device as he continues to repeat and points out that God, unlike man, is
eternal. Moreover, the mood of the poem is in a fairly pagan Celtic atmosphere, we see some of the
earliest influences of Christianity. Furthermore, in "Caedmon's Hymn," the poet made use of
another literary devices, such as alliteration, caesura, and allusion. The speaker praises God
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throughout the lines without going into specifics about Bible stories or how becoming a devoted
Christian changed his own life. However, all of this is hinted at, so the reader should understand it
from the mentions of "the Glory-Father" and "Master almighty." Alliteration is seen in the line
“Measurer’s might” and “mind” in the second line and “middle-earth” and “mankind” in line
seven. Caesura are observed in the line “The work of the Glory-Father, when he of wonders of
everyone” as well as line nine, which reads: “For men earth, Master almighty.”
In my perspective, as I have read and explored the poem I have realized that Caedmon’s
personality is admirable. Throughout the poem I perceived him as humble, devoted, gifted and able
to inspire goodness in others. One of the moral messages I have learned from the poem is that
Praising the Lord our God gives us total satisfaction and through devotion in him we are able to
create a positive and productive life. I believed that this poem must be shared to everyone and
most importantly for the Christians.
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Name: Lysa Karylle U.

Villanueva Course: BSEd - English

FINAL TERM - LITERARY RESPONSE

FULL PIECE: BEOWULF.pdf

July 12, 2022, from https://www.britannica.com/summary/Beowulf

which was centered on Cristianity.

accented language that is so unfamiliar from current English as to be practically unrecognizable.

alliterates with the two from the other half.

July 12, 2022, from https://www.twinkl.com.ph/teaching-wiki/kenning

Terms. Retrieved July 12, 2022, from https://literaryterms.net/caesura/

“Caesura and Kennings”

poet to add melody, structure and metaphor to the piece.

person, idea or object using figurative language.

AUTHOR: ROGER LANCELYN GREEN

by a British biographer and children's writer named Roger Lancelyn Green.

Galahad, and Sir Launcelot, also known as Sir Lancelot.

FULL PIECE: KING ARTHUR AND THE ROUND TABLE.pdf

Studymode. StudyMode. Retrieved July 12, 2022, from

“King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table”

By: Roger Lancelyn Green

we cannot stop a person’s personal agenda either to be faithful or not.

AUTHOR: GEOFFEY CHAUCER

In The Canterbury Tales, a group of pilgrims traveling to Canterbury Cathedral compete in a

young couple who share power in their marriage.

FULL PIECE: Canterbury Tales.pdf

July 12, 2022, from https://www.sparknotes.com/lit/the-canterbury-tales/plot-analysis/

The Canterbury Tales is narrated by a character whom scholars identify as

and people are still deceitful.

were exchanged only through recitation.

12, 2022, from https://poemanalysis.com/caedmon/caedmons-hymn/

meaning goes beyond the mere letter of the text.

throughout the poem, from “heaven-kingdom’s Guardian” to “the Measurer.”

“Heaven-kingdom” is an example of an Anglo Saxon compound word, known as a kenning. The

most importantly for the Christians.

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