Ebbing Gammon, General Chemistry,

1
Ninth Edition
 Position Title & Names Phone & Email Office# &
Building
Senior Laboratory Dr. BP Moloto 015 268 3710 Office No.
Assistant (Physical Chemistry) (Bryan.Moloto@ul.ac.za) 2022 (N-Block)

Senior Laboratory Ms. MP Mothapo 015 268 2759 Office No.

Assistant (Analytical Chemistry) (mmaphefo.mothapo@ul.ac.z 0023 (New
a) Chemistry
Labs)
Lecturers Prof MJ Hato 015 268 4116 Office No.
(Physical Chemistry Section) (mpitloane.hato@ul.ac.za) 1012 (N-Block)
Co-ordinator

Prof LV Mulaudzi 015 268 3240 Office No.

(Analytical Chemistry Section) (vusimuzi.mulaudzi@ul.ac.za) 1011 (N-Block)
 Module
SCHM011
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1A

PROF MJ HATO
LECTURER INFO Office: N Block, 1012 EXT.: 4116
Email: mpitloane.hato@ul.ac.za

CONSULTATION TIME
MON – THUR IMPORTANT DATES:
09H00 – 15H00 TEST 1: 15/03
ASSIGNMENT 1: 21/02
 #Lecture 1 & 2
12 February 2024
CHAPTER 1:

INTRODUCTION TO CHEMICAL
TERMINOLOGY
Chemistry

•The study of the composition, structure &

properties of materials and the changes that
they undergo.

1 |5
 Chemistry
•In this science we study matter and the changes
it undergoes.
 Scientific Method

Experiments Results

Hypothesis

1 | 10
Experiment

•An observation of natural phenomena

carried out in a controlled manner so that the
results can be duplicated and rational
conclusions obtained.

1 |7
Hypothesis

•An unconfirmed explanation of some regularity

of nature.

Theory

•A tested explanation of a basic natural

phenomenon.

1 |9
 Scientific Method

Experiments Results

Hypothesis

1 | 10
 Law

•A concise statement or mathematical equation

about a fundamental relationship or regularity
of nature.

1 |8
Mass
•The quantity of matter in a material.

Matter
•Whatever occupies space and can be
perceived by our senses.

1 | 11
Law of Conservation of Mass
•The total mass remains constant during a
chemical change (chemical reaction).

1 | 12
Aluminum powder burns in oxygen to
produce a substance called aluminum oxide.
A sample of 2.00 grams of aluminum is
burned in oxygen and produces 3.78 grams
of aluminum oxide. How many grams of
oxygen were used in this reaction?
aluminum + oxygen = aluminum oxide
2.00 g + oxygen = 3.78 g
oxygen = 1.78 g

1 | 13
Heating mercury metal in air
Heating mercury(II)
oxide
 Matter
•We defined matter as anything that has mass and
takes up space.
 Matter

• Atoms are the building blocks of matter.

• Each element is made of the same kind of atom.
• A compound is made of two or more different
kinds of elements.2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
 STATES OF MATTER

Solid: characterized by rigidity; fixed volume

and fixed shape.

Liquid: relatively incompressible fluid; fixed

volume, no fixed shape.

Gas: compressible fluid; no fixed volume, no

fixed shape.

1 | 18
1 | 19
Gas Structure

1 | 22
Liquid Structure

1 | 23
Solid Structure

1 | 24
Classification of Matter
 Types of Properties

• Intensive Properties…
– Are independent of the amount of the
substance that is present.
• Density, boiling point, color, etc.
• Extensive Properties…
– Depend upon the amount of the substance
present.
• Mass, volume, energy, etc.

2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Physical Change

•A change in the form of matter but not in its

chemical identity.

•For example:
Melting, Dissolving

1 | 26
Basic Distillation Setup

1 | 27
Chemical Change = Chemical Reaction

•A change in which one or more kinds of

matter are transformed into a new kind of
matter or several new kinds of matter.

•For example:
Decomposition, Combustion

1 | 28
Physical Property

•A characteristic that can be observed for a

material without changing its chemical identity.

•For example: Physical state, Boiling point, Color

1 | 29
Chemical Property
•A characteristic of a material involving it’s
chemical change.

For example:
 Ability to react with oxygen
 Ability to react with fluorine

1 | 30
Pure Substance

•A kind of matter that cannot be separated

into other kinds of matter by any physical
process such as distillation or sublimation.

1 | 31
Potassium is a soft, silvery-colored metal
that melts at 64°C. It reacts vigorously with
water, with oxygen, and with chlorine.
Identify all of the physical properties and
chemical properties given in this description.

Physical Properties Chemical Properties

Soft Reacts with water
Silvery-colored Reacts with oxygen
Melting point (64 oC) Reacts with chlorine

1 | 32
Element

•A substance that cannot be decomposed into

simpler substances by any chemical reaction.

•For example: Hydrogen, Carbon, Oxygen

1 | 33
 Figure 1.14: Some elements - Center:
Sulfur. From upper right, clockwise: Arsenic,
iodine, magnesium, bismuth, mercury.
Compound

•A substance composed of two or more

elements chemically combined.

For example:
Water (H2O)
Carbon dioxide (CO2)

1 | 35
Mixture

•A material that can be separated by

physical means into two or more substances.

For example: Italian salad dressing, Saltwater

1 | 36
Heterogeneous Mixture
•A mixture that consists of physically distinct
parts, each with different properties.

•For example: Salt and iron filings, Oil and vinegar

Phase
•One of several different homogeneous
materials present in the portion of matter under
study.

1 | 37
1 | 38
Homogenous Mixture

•A mixture that is uniform in its properties;

also called a solution.

•For example:
Saltwater, Air

1 | 39
Matter can be represented as being composed
of individual units. For example, the smallest
individual unit of matter can be represented as
a single circle, and chemical combinations of
these units of matter as connected circles; with
each element represented by a different color.
Using this model, label each figure on the next
slide as an element, a compound, or a mixture.

1 | 40
•A. Element
•B. Compound (made of two types of elements)
•C. Mixture of two types of elements

1 | 41
 Separation of Mixtures

Examples to separate heterogeneous mixtures:

- Magnetism
- Filtration
Examples to separate homogeneous mixtures:
- Distillation
- Chromatography

1 | 42
Filtration

•In filtration, solid

substances are
separated from
liquids and
suspensions.

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Separation of Mixtures by Paper
Chromatography

1 | 44
Separation of Mixtures by Column
Chromatography

1 | 45
Measurement

•The comparison of a physical quantity with

a fixed standard of measurement-a unit.

•For example: Centimeter, Kilogram

1 | 46
Any measurement consists of three interlinked
concepts:
a measured number
a unit
a measure of the uncertainty

If you repeat a particular measurement, you

usually do not obtain exactly the same result,
because each measurement is subject to
experimental error.
 PRECISION AND ACCURACY
•PRECISION – Reproducibility of the result
•ACCURACY – Nearness to the “true” value

1 | 48
The Length of a Steel Rod

1 | 49
Precision
•The closeness of the set of values obtained
from repeated measurement of the same
quantity.

Accuracy
•The closeness of a single measurement to
the true value.

1 | 50
Imagine that you shot five arrows at each of
the targets depicted on the next slide. Each “x”
represents one arrow. Choose the best
description for each target.

1 | 51
 X

X
X X X XX X
X X
XXX
XX
X

• A B C
•1. Poor accuracy and good precision
•2. Poor accuracy and poor precision
•3. Good accuracy and good precision
•4. Good accuracy and poor precision

•A: 1 B: 4 C: 3

1 | 52
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
Significant Figures

•Those digits in a measured number (or in

the result of a calculation with measured
numbers) that include all certain digits plus a
final digit having some uncertainty.

1 | 54
What is the length of the nail to the correct
number of significant figures?

•5.7 cm
•(The tenths place is estimated)
1 | 55
 Number of Significant Figures

•The number of digits reported for the value of

a measured or calculated quantity, indicating
the precision of the value.

1 | 56
Number of Significant Figures
• 1. All nonzero digits are significant.
• e.g. 0.00231 0.912
• 2. Zeros between nonzero digits are significant.
• e.g. 0.103 0.98042
• 3. Leading zeros are not significant.
• e.g. 0.00541 0.614
• 4. Terminal zeros are significant IF they are to
the right of a decimal point.
• e.g. 0.2540 9.00 90.0
• 5. Terminal zeros, in a number without a specific
decimal point, may or may not be significant.
1 | 57
•How many significant figures are in each of
the following measurements?
– a. 310.0 kg
– b. 0.224800 m
– c. 0.05930 kg
– d. 4.380 x 10-8 m
– e. 3.100 s
– f. 91,000
a. 4 significant figures d. 4 significant figures
b. 6 significant figures e. 4 significant figures
c. 4 significant figures f. 2 significant figures

1 | 60
Scientific Notation

•The representation of a number in the form

A × 10n

1 ≤ A < 10
•where n is an integer

NB: Every digit included in A is significant.

1 | 58
Write the following numbers in scientific
notation:

0.000653 6.53 × 10-4

350,000 3.5 × 105
0.02700 2.700 × 10-2

1 | 59
Significant Figures in Calculations

•Multiplication & Division

•Your answer should always have the same

number of significant figures as are in the
measurement with the least number of
significant figures.

1 | 61
 Perform the following calculation and
round your answer to the correct
number of significant figures:

6.8914
1.289  7 . 2 8
Calculator answer:
0.734383925
The answer should be rounded to three significant
figures:
0.734

1 | 62
Perform the following calculation and
round your answer to the correct
number of significant figures:

3.14 2.751
0.64
 13
(3 sig.figs.)  (4 sig.figs.)
(2 sig.figs.)  (2 sig. figs.)

1 | 63
Addition and Subtraction

•Your answer should have the same number

of decimal places as are in the
measurement with the least number of
decimal places.

1 | 64
 Perform the following calculation and
round your answer to the correct
number of significant figures:

0.453 1.59

Calculator answer:
-1.13700000
The answer should be rounded to two decimal
places:
-1.14

1 | 65
 Perform the following calculation and
round your answer to the correct
number of significant figures:

0.456  0.421

Calculator answer:
0.03500000
The answer should be rounded to three decimal
places:
0.035

1 | 66
 Perform the following calculation and
round your answer to the correct
number of significant figures:

92.35(0.456  0.421)
Calculator answer:
3.23225000
The answer should be rounded to two significant
figures:
3.2

1 | 67
Exact Number

•A counted number or defined number.

•For example:
 The number of students in the front row
 1 inch is defined as 2.54 centimeters

1 | 68
Rounding

•The procedure of dropping insignificant

digits and adjusting the last digit reported in
the final result of a calculation.

1 | 69
Rounding Procedure

1. Look at the leftmost digit to be dropped.

2. If this digit is 5 or greater:

Add 1 to the last digit to be retained
Drop all digits further to the right

3. If this digit is less than 5:

Drop all digits further to the right

1 | 70
For example:

• 1.2151 rounded to three significant

figures is
• 1.22

• 1.2143 rounded to three significant

figures is
• 1.21
1 | 71
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES: WHY THEY MATTER…
Lecture 5 & 6

SI UNITS
SI Units
•An international system of units made up of
a particular choice of metric units

Base Units
•The seven metric units from which all other
units can be derived

1 | 73
1 | 74
Scientific Notation and Metric Prefixes

•Because each of the metric prefixes has an

equivalent power of 10, the prefix may be
substituted for the power of 10.

•For example:
7.9 × 10-6 s
10-6 = micro, 
7.9 × 10-6 s = 7.9 s

1 | 76
1 | 75
Write the following measurements without
scientific notation using the appropriate SI prefix:

4.851 × 10-9 g
3.16 × 10-2 m
8.93 × 10-12 s

•4.851 ng
•3.16 cm
•8.93 ps

1 | 77
Using scientific notation, make the following
conversions:
6.20 km to m
2.54 cm to m
1.98 ns to s
5.23 g to g

•6.20 × 103 m
•2.54 × 10-2 m
•1.98 × 10-9 s
•5.23 × 10-6 g
1 | 78
Length, Mass and Time

Self study

1 | 79
Temperature

•A measure of “hotness”.
•Heat flows from an area of higher
temperature to an area of lower temperature.

•Temperature Units Celsius, °C Fahrenheit, °F

Kelvin, K

1 | 80
1 | 81
Converting Between Temperature Units

•Finding Kelvin temperature from Celsius

temperature:
 t 1K 

tK  C ο   273.15 K
 1 C

•Finding Fahrenheit temperature from Celsius

temperature:
 9ο F 
tF   t C  ο   32ο F
 5 C

1 | 82
Converting Between Temperature Units

•Finding Celsius temperature from Fahrenheit

temperature.

tC  Ft  32οF 5 ο
C
9ο F
•Finding Celsius temperature from Kelvin
temperature. ο

t  t K  273.15 K
C
 1 C
1K

1 | 83
 In winter, the average low temperature in
interior Alaska is
-30°F (two significant figures).
What is this temperature in degrees Celsius
and in Kelvins?
 
ο
5 C
tC  tF 32 F ο
ο

9 F
 
ο
5 C
tC  30. F  32 F ο
o ο

9F
 5ο C
tC  62 F ο
ο

9 F
tC  34.4444444 oC

tC   34 ο C 1 | 84
 tK   t C  ο   273.15K
1K
 1 C
 1K 
t K    34 C  ο   273.15 K
ο

 1 C
tK  34 K  273.15 K

tK  239.15 K

t K  239 K

1 | 85
Derived Units

•Combinations of fundamental units

•For example:
distance m
Speed  
time s
Volume  length  width  height  m3

1 | 86
Quantity Definition of Quantity SI Unit
Area length × length m2
Volume length × length × length m3
Density mass per unit volume kg/m3
Speed distance per unit time m/s
Acceleration change in speed per unit time m/s2

1 | 87
Quantity Definition of Quantity SI Unit

Force mass × acceleration kg  m/s2 =

N (newton)

Pressure force per unit area kg/m  s2 =

Pa (pascal)

Energy force × distance kg  m2/s2 =

J (joule)

1 | 88
 Volume
•The most commonly
used metric units for
volume are the liter (L)
and the milliliter (mL).
–A liter is a cube 1 dm long
on each side.
–A milliliter is a cube 1 cm
long on each side.

2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Uncertainty in Measurements
•Different measuring devices have different
uses and different degrees of accuracy.

2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Density

•Mass per unit volume m

d
V

•Common units
• solids g/cm3
• liquids g/mL
• gases g/L

1 | 91
The relative densities
of copper and mercury

Photo by James Scherer. ©Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Relative densities
of some liquids
Most substances expand when heated.
This means density depends on temperature.
For water:

Temperature(ºC) Density(g/cm3)
10 0.999700
15 0.999099
20 0.998203
25 0.997044
30 0.995646

1 | 94
 Oil of wintergreen is a colorless liquid
used as a flavoring agent. A 28.1-g
sample of oil of wintergreen has a
volume of 23.7 mL. What is the density
of oil of wintergreen?
m  28.1 g m
d 
V  2 3 .7 m L V
28.1 g
d 
23.7 mL
g
d  1.18565491
g mL
d  1.19
mL
1 | 95
 A sample of gasoline has a density
of 0.718 g/mL. What is the volume of
454 g of gasoline?

m m
d V
V d
454 g
V
g
0.718
mL
V  632.311978 mL
V  632 mL

1 | 96
•Units and Dimensional Analysis
(Factor-Label Method)
•A method of calculation in which one carries
along the units of quantities.

Conversion Factor

•A factor equal to 1 that converts a quantity

expressed in one unit to a quantity expressed in
another unit.

1 | 97
Dimensional Analysis
 We use dimensional
analysis to convert one
quantity to another.
 Most commonly
dimensional analysis
utilizes conversion
factors (e.g., 1 in. = 2.54
cm)
1 in. 2.54 cm
or
2.54 cm 1 in.

2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.

 Dimensional Analysis
•Use the form of the conversion factor that puts
the sought-for unit in the numerator.

desired unit
Given unit   desired unit
given unit

Conversion factor

2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.

 Dimensional Analysis

•For example, to convert 8.00 m to inches,

– convert m to cm
– convert cm to in.

100 cm 1 in.
8.00 m    315 in.
1m 2.54 cm

2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.

A sample of sodium metal is burned in chlorine
gas, producing 573 mg of sodium chloride. How
many grams and kilograms is this?

1mg  10  3 g and 1kg  10 3 g

573 mg  10  3 g 1kg
0.573 g  3
1 mg 10 g
573  10 g3
0.573  10 3 kg
0.573 g 5.73  104 kg

1 | 101
An experiment calls for 54.3 mL of ethanol.
What is this volume in cubic meters?

1mL  1cm3

(1 cm)  10 m
3 2
 3

1 mL  1 cm3  10 6 m3
10  6 m 3
54.3 mL 
1 mL
54.3  10 6 m 3
5.43 x 10 5 m 3
1 | 102
The Star of Asia sapphire in the Smithsonian
Institute weighs 330 carats (three significant
figures).
What is this weight in grams? One carat equals
200 mg (exact).
1 carat  200 mg (exact)
1 mg  10 3 g

200 mg 10 3 g
330. carats  
1 carat 1mg
6.6000000  10  1 g
6.60  10 1 g  66.0 g
1 | 103
The dimensions of Noah’s ark were reported as
3.0 × 102 cubits by 5.0 × 101 cubits. Express this
size in units of feet and meters. (1 cubit = 1.5 ft)

1cubit  1.5 ft
3 ft  1 y d
1 y d  0.9144 m (exact)
1.5 ft 1.5 ft
3.0  1 0 cubits 
2
5.0  101 cubits 
1 c ubit 1cubit
4.5000000  10 2 ft 7.5000000  101ft
4.5  102 ft by 7.5  101ft  75 ft

1 | 104
 1cubit  1.5 ft
3 ft  1 yd
1 yd  0.9144 m (exact)

4.5  102 ft by 7.5  101ft  75 ft

1 yd 0.9144 m 1 yd 0.9144 m
4.5  10 ft 
2
 75 ft  
3 ft 1 yd 3 ft 1 yd
1.37160000 102 m 22.8600000 m

1.4  102 m by 23 m
1 | 105