University of Mustansiriyah College of Engineering

Computer Department Second Class

Communication Systems

Noise in Communication Systems:

Noise unwanted electrical signals that accompany the message signals source of noise:

1- Man-made: electromagnetic pick up of other radiating signals.

 50Hz hum due to in adequate power supply filtering

 Switching transients

2- Natural: atmospheric disturbances

 Extra-terrestrial radiation.
 Internal cct noise.

Resistor (Thermal) Noise:

It has been determined experimentally that the noise voltage Vn(t) that appears across the
terminals of a resistor R is: additive, Gaussian, and has a mean square voltage, in a narrow
freq. df, equal to

V 2 n = 4 KTRdf

K= Botzman's constant = 1.37* 10-23 Joule/k

T= temperature

To= room temperature

Note: Gaussian noise means it has a Gaussian probability density function (pdf), i.e if the
noise sampled at any arbitrary time t1 the probability that the measured sample n(t) will
fall in the range n to n+dn is given by f(n) dn with

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Lecture 12 2018-2017
University of Mustansiriyah College of Engineering
Computer Department Second Class
Communication Systems

/ 2 2
en
2

f ( n)  f(n)

2  2

2= noise variance

n
E(n) = mean = zero

Experiments indicate that V 2 n is independent of the center freq. fo of the filter having the
bandwidth df, hence the power spectral density of the noise source is approximately white
and equal to

Vn 2
Gv(f) = ,
2df Gv(f)

two-sided density = 2KTR

The noisy resistor R can be represented by the equivalent cct.

R
noiseless

i 2 n = 4 KTGdf
2
V n = 4 KTRdf R
R noiseless
Noisy

Norton’s Equ.
Thevenin’s Equ.
at Temp.=T

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Lecture 12 2018-2017
University of Mustansiriyah College of Engineering
Computer Department Second Class
Communication Systems

Multiple Resistor Noise Sources:

Consider two resistors of resistances R1 & R2 both at temp. T connected in series.

R1+R2
2
V n = 4 KTRdf

V 2 n +V 2n

= 4 KT(R1+R2)df
V 2 n = 4 KTRdf

This can be extended to an arbitrary network of resistors all at the same temp. T. if the
resistance seen looking in to some set of terminals is R=1/G,

Then open cct mean square noise voltage Vn 2 = 4KTRdf

Mean square short cct noise current in 2 = 4KTGdf.

Networks with Reactive Elements:

Consider a network composed of resistors inductors and capacitors.

Net, with R(f) X(f)

R’s, L’s and
C’s
Vn 2

The impedance Z(f) seen looking back in to terminal a-b is generally a function of freq.
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Lecture 12 2018-2017
University of Mustansiriyah College of Engineering
Computer Department Second Class
Communication Systems

Z(f)= R(f) + jx(f)

Where R9f) = real (resistive) component of the impedance

X(f)= imaginary (reactive) component of the impedance

To determine V 2 n , a load resistor R1 is bridged a cross the terminals a-b of the network.

R(f)
R(f) R(f)
2
2 in1
Vn 2 in1 Vn1
2

Assuming all parts of the cct are at the same temp. in thermal equilibrium.

 power delivered by Z(f)= power delivered to R1 to Z(R)

2
Vn1
in1 
2 2
due to Vn1
( R( f )  R1 ) 2  ( x( f )) 2
Vn 2
in 2  due to Vn 2
( R( f )  R1) 2  ( x( f )) 2

Since there is no net transfer of power.

2 2
in1 R(t) = in R1

Vn 2 = 4KTR(f)/ df

The two-sided power spectral density of the open cct voltage.

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Lecture 12 2018-2017
University of Mustansiriyah College of Engineering
Computer Department Second Class
Communication Systems

Vn 2
Gv( f )   2 KTR ( f )
2df

Available Power:

The available power of a source is the max. Powers which may be drown from the source.
Max. power is drawn when:
Vs Zs=Rs+jXs
ZL = Zs* = Rs – jxs ZL

The available power is

Vs 2
Pa=
4 Rs

Pa depends on the resistive component of the source the available thermal noise power
(not normalized) of a resister R in the freq. range, df

4 KTRdf
Pa   KT df
4R

The two-sided available thermal noise power spectral density.

Pa KT
Ga( f )  
2df 2

Ga depends on the physical constant K and temperature T independent of resistance R Ga

applies at all freq. i.e the noise is white. Gv(f)

The total available power

KT/2
∞
𝑃𝑎 = ∫ 𝐺𝑎(𝑓)𝑑𝑓
−∞
f

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Lecture 12 2018-2017
University of Mustansiriyah College of Engineering
Computer Department Second Class
Communication Systems
∞ 𝐾𝑇
= ∫−∞ 𝑑𝑓 = ∞ Inconsistent
2

ℎ𝑓⁄
𝐺𝑎(𝑓) = 2
ℎ𝑓⁄
𝑒 𝐾𝑇 −1

H=Planck’s constant

When hf <<KT

Ga(f) ≡ KT/2= η/2

Noise in analog modulation systems:

Although the noise is assumed ransom so that the voltage values cannot be specified in
advance, as a function of time, but we can assume noise statistics.

Noise Statistics:

Let n(t) be a random noise signal

n(t)

1- n(t) has probability density function f(n).

2- n(t) has an expected value E(n) (statistical average)

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Lecture 12 2018-2017
University of Mustansiriyah College of Engineering
Computer Department Second Class
Communication Systems
T
1
n(t ) =  n(t )  time average
T 0

If E(n)= n(t )  periodic process.

3- n(t) has a variance 2

E(n2)= 2 + E2(n)

T
1
n (t )   n 2 (t ) dt  pav (normalized )
2

T 0

Pav = E(n)2 periodic processes = 2 + E2(n)

4- Auto correlation function:

It is a measure of how a random process such as noise may vary in a given time interval.

n(t)

τ
t1 T2

As (t2t1), n(t2) as a random variable becomes more closely related (or predictable)
to n(t1). as (t2-t1)= τ increase, we expect less dependence of one upon the other this
concept becomes more precise by defining the autocorrelation function.

Rn(t1, t2)= E(n(t1). n(t2) to simplify assume

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Lecture 12 2018-2017
University of Mustansiriyah College of Engineering
Computer Department Second Class
Communication Systems

Rn (t1, t2) depends only on the interval

τ = t2 – t1 and not on the time origin t.

(i.e independent of time)

Rn(τ)= E(n (t) n(t+ τ))

Such a process is called a stationary process.

Correlation:

1- cross correlation: it is a measure of the similarity or relatedness between the wave

forms suppose we have the two wave forms V1(t), V2(t) not necessarily periodic nor
confined time interval.

The average cross correlation between them is defined.

T
2

R12 (τ)= limT 1/T 

T
v1 (t) V2 (t+ τ) dt
2

If V1(t) and V2(t) are periodic with the same fundamental freq. fo

To / 2
1
To To/ 2
R12 ( )  V 1 (t ) V 2 (t   )dt

If V1|(t) and V2 (t) are non- periodic


R12 (T )   V 1 (t ) V 2 (t   )dt


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Lecture 12 2018-2017
University of Mustansiriyah College of Engineering
Computer Department Second Class
Communication Systems

τ : is a searching or scanning parameter which may be adjusted to a proper time shift to

reveal the relatedness or correlation between the function to the max. extent possible when
R12(τ)= 0 for all τ, the two function are uncorrelated.

Let p1= normalized power of V1 (t)

P2= normalized power of V2 (t)

P12= normalized power of V1(t)+ V2 (t)

T2

1
P12  lim T   [V1 (t )  V2 (t   )]2 dt
T T 2
T2 T T
2 2
1
 lim T  [  Vi 2 (t ) dt   V 2 2 (t   ) dt  2  V1 (1  V2 (t   ) dt ] P
T T 2 T
2
T
2

 P1  P2  2 R12 ( )

2- Autocorrelation:

The correlation of a function with itself.

T
1 2
T T 2
R( )  lim T  V (t )V (t   ) dt for random signal

To
2
1 for periodic signal
To To
 V (t ) v(t   ) dt
2


  V (t ) v(t   ) dt for non- periodic signal


R(t)has the following properties.

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Lecture 12 2018-2017
University of Mustansiriyah College of Engineering
Computer Department Second Class
Communication Systems

1- R(0) = P or [normalized power or energy]

2- R(0)  R(τ)
3- R(τ ) = R (-τ ) [even function Of τ)
4- a- for power signals

R(τ) = F-1 [G(w)]

Where G(w) = power spectral density function

b- for energy signals

R(τ) = F-1 [E(w)]

Where E(G)= energy spectral density function.

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