Wireless Local Loop

Local loop is a circuit line from a subscriber’s phone to the local central office (LCO). But
the implementation of local loop of wires is risky for the operators, especially in rural and
remote areas due to less number of users and increased cost of installation. Hence, the
solution for it is the usage of wireless local loop (WLL) which uses wireless links rather than
copper wires to connect subscribers to the local central office.
WLL Architecture:

WLL components:
1. PSTN:
It is Public Switched Telephone Network which is a circuit switched network. It is a
collection of world’s interconnected circuit switched telephone networks.
2. Switch Function:
Switch Function switches the PSTN among various WANUs.
3. WANU:
It is short for Wireless Access Network Unit. It is present at the local exchange office. All
local WASUs are connected to it. Its functions includes: Authentication, Operation &
maintenance, Routing, Transceiving voice and data. It consists of following sub-
components:
● Transceiver: It transmits/receives data.

● WLL Controller: It controls the wireless local loop component with WASU.
● AM: It is short for Access Manager. It is responsible for authentication.
● HLR: It is short for Home Location Register. It stores the details of all local WASUs.
4. WASU:
It is short for Wireless Access Subscriber Units. It is present at the house of the
subscriber. It connects the subscriber to WANU and the power supply for it is provided
locally.

Advantages of WLL:

● It eliminates the first mile or last mile construction of the network connection.
● Low cost due to no use of conventional copper wires.
 ● Much more secure due to digital encryption techniques used in wireless
communication.
● Highly scalable as it doesn’t require the installation of more wires for scaling it.
Features of WLL:
● Internet connection via modem

● Data service
● Voice service
● Fax service

The WLL system can be based on 4 major technologies. They are:

Satellite-Based Systems:
These systems provide telephony services for rural communities and isolated areas such as
islands.
Advantages:
• Low bit rate for voice and data.
• Low cost mobile terminals.
• It provides quality and grade of service for WLL applications.
Disadvantages:
• The number of satellites and propagation delay put restrictions on the system design.
• Handover capability is needed e.g. LEO,MEO satellites are in motion relative to the earth’s
surface, so they need handover capability for all fixed and cellular applications
Cellular-Based Systems:
These systems provide large power, large range, median subscriber density, and median
circuit quality WLL services. Cellular WLL technologies are primarily used to expand the
basic telephony services.
This approach offers both mobility and fixed wireless access from the same cellular platform.
Advantages: • They provide fixed wireless access and mobility.
• They can be rapidly deployed in rural and urban areas.
• They provide large power and operating range.
• They provide medium circuit and medium subscriber density.
Disadvantages:
• They are not recommended for deployment indoors and in picocells.
• Air interface is complex.
• The user bandwidth is limited.
Fixed Wireless Access Systems
These systems are proprietary radio systems designed specifically for fixed wireless
applications, which may or may not be extensible to PCS or cordless.
FWA systems for zonal areas are designed to cover the local telephone area directly from the
PSTN switches. The systems for rural areas provide connection at the remote ends of rural
links to the end users.
Advantages:
• Less expensive
• It can be easily installed
• The installation time need is less.
Disadvantages:
• Limitation on toll-quality and signaling transparency.
Low-Tier PCS or Microcellular-Based Systems:
These systems provide low power, small range, high subscriber density, and high circuit
quality WLL services. They are typically operated at 800 MHz, 1.5 GHz, 1.8 GHz, and 1.9
GHz frequency bands
Advantages:
• High Subscriber density.
• Low power.
• High circuit quality.
Disadvantages:
• Transmission cost is more.
WLL Types:
Fixed wireless terminal (FWT) units differ from conventional mobile terminal units operating
within cellular networks – such as GSM – in that a fixed wireless terminal or desk phone will
be limited to an almost permanent location with almost no roaming abilities.
WLL and FWT are generic terms for radio-based telecommunications technologies and the
respective devices, which can be implemented using a number of different wireless and radio
technologies.

WLL Applications.

● There are two types of WLL :- The Local Multipoint Distribution System (LMDS)
and Multichannel Multipoint Distribution System (MMDS)
1 LMDS
2 MMDS
 ● LMDS provides services :- High speed internet access , Real time multimedia file
transfer, remote access to local area network, interactive video , video on demand ,
video conference , telephone services

● MMDS can transmit videos, voice or data signals at rate 1.5 to 2 Mbps downstream
and 320 Kpbs to upstream.
Local Exchange Carrier (LEC)
LEC stands for Local Exchange Carrier, is a telco in the United States that provides local
telephone and telecommunication services to businesses and individuals. “Local exchange”
refers to a telco’s central office( (CO) The central office (CO) contains the switching
equipment that connects telephone subscribers to both local and long-distance phone
services.), and “carrier” refers to a company that “carries” telephone and data traffic for
customers. In other words, your local exchange carrier (LEC) is simply the company that
sends you a telephone bill for local phone calls.

A LEC owns the local loop cabling between its CO and its subscribers’ premises, which are
confined to a geographical area known as the local access and transport area (LATA).

Any calls that take place within a given LATA are considered local calls and are billed
accordingly. The largest LECs came into existence with the breakup of AT&T in the early
1980s.

Key responsibilities of the local exchange carrier are:

● Number portability:
● Resale of telecommunication services:
● Dialing parity:
● Comply to standards and policies:
● Reciprocal compensation:
●

Line Coding Techniques

Turning digital data into digital signals is known as line coding. Because data is always
transmitted in the form of digital signals, we may use line coding to turn a sequence of bits
(or encoding) into a digital signal, which is then translated back into bits by the receiver (or
can be said to be decoded by the receiver). We'll need line coding systems to avoid signal
overlapping and distortion for all of this to happen.
Characteristics of line coding
The first line coding method turns digital data into digital signals. The following are
important parameters that characterize line coding schemes.
● There is a minor complication.

● Tolerance for noise and interference is required.

● There should be no DC (or low-frequency) component because it cannot be conveyed
over longer distances.
● At the very least, baseline roaming should be present (baseline wander: low-frequency
noise having nonlinear and non-stationary nature).
● Error detection should be possible.

● It should be synced by itself.

Techniques of line coding

Unipolar, Polar, and Bipolar line coding techniques are the three mainline coding
techniques.

Unipolar encoding
A binary one is represented by a positive voltage, while a binary zero is represented by zero
volts. It's the simplest line code, simply encoding the bitstream, and it's similar to
modulation's on-off keying.
Polar line coding

Polar line coding techniques use positive and negative voltage levels to encode binary values.
Like the unipolar line coding systems discussed above, Polar signaling has both NRZ and RZ
forms. However, there are two types of NRZ schemes for polar line coding.

NRZ(Non-Return to Zero)
NRZ schemes were commonly used in the construction of unipolar schemes.

RZ(Return to zero)
Return to zero(RZ) has proven to be a viable alternative, if not a complete solution, to the
NRZ's shortcomings. RZ, unlike NRZ, uses three voltage values: positive, negative, and zero.
It also returns to zero during each bit, as the name implies.

Bipolar line coding

Positive, negative, and zero are the three voltage levels in bipolar. While representing, one bit
of data has its voltage level set to zero, while the other bit inverts or alternates between
positive and negative voltage.
1. Amplitude Shift keying – Amplitude Shift Keying is a technique in which carrier signal is
analog and data to be modulated is digital. The amplitude of analog carrier signal is modified
to reflect binary data.

The binary signal when modulated gives a zero value when the binary data represents 0 while
gives the carrier output when data is 1. The frequency and phase of the carrier signal remain
constant.

Advantages of amplitude shift Keying –

● It can be used to transmit digital data over optical fiber.

● The receiver and transmitter have a simple design which also makes it comparatively
inexpensive.
● It uses lesser bandwidth as compared to FSK thus it offers high bandwidth efficiency.
Disadvantages of amplitude shift Keying –
● It is susceptible to noise interference and entire transmissions could be lost due to this.

● It has lower power efficiency.

3. Phase Shift keying – In this modulation the phase of the analog carrier signal is modified
to reflect binary data.The amplitude and frequency of the carrier signal remains constant.
It is further categorized as follows:
1. Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK):
BPSK also known as phase reversal keying or 2PSK is the simplest form of phase shift
keying. The Phase of the carrier wave is changed according to the two binary inputs. In
Binary Phase shift keying, difference of 180 phase shift is used between binary 1 and
binary 0.
This is regarded as the most robust digital modulation technique and is used for long
distance wireless communication.

S.NO PCM DPCM

PCM stands for Pulse Code While DPCM stands for Differential Pulse
1. Modulation. Code Modulation.

2. In PCM, feedback is not provided. While in DPCM, feedback is provided.

While it has moderate signal to noise

3. It has good signal to noise ratio. ratio.

4. It is less efficient than DPCM. While it is more efficient than PCM.

For transmission channel, PCM needs Whereas DPCM needs less bandwidth (B)
5. high bandwidth(B). than PCM.

PCM is complex than DPCM in terms While DPCM is simple in terms of

6. of complexity. complexity.

In PCM, seven bits are transmitted per In DPCM, four bits are transmitted per six
7. eight sample. sample.

In PCM, for transmitting bits rate While in DPCM, for transmitting bits rate
8. varies from fifty five to sixty four. varies from thirty two to forty eight.

Difference between Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) and Delta Modulation (DM):
S.NO PCM DM

PCM stands for Pulse Code

1. Modulation. DM stands for Delta Modulation.
 S.NO PCM DM

In PCM, feedback does not exist in While in DM, feedback exists in

2. transmitter or receiver. transmitter.

Here, only one bit is used per

3. Per sample 4, 8, or 16 bits are used. sample.

PCM requires highest transmitter DM requires lowest transmitter

4. bandwidth. bandwidth.

PCM is complex in terms of While DM is simple in terms of

5. complexity of implementation. complexity of implementation.

While DM has poor signal to

6. PCM has good signal to noise ratio. noise ratio.

7. PCM is costly. DM is cheap.

PCM may be a technique wont to

digitally represent sampled analog Digital to analog and analog to
8. signals. digital converter.

In PCM, signal requires encoder and In DM, signal can modulate and
9. decoder both sides. demodulate.

PM is mostly used in video telephony DM is mostly used in speeches as

10. and audio telephony. well as images.

Spread Spectrum

o Spread Spectrum refers to a system originally developed for military applications, to

provide secure communications by spreading the signal over a large frequency band.
Figure 1 represents a narrow band signal in the frequency domain. These narrowband
signals are easily jammed by any other signal in the same band.
o Spread spectrum signals are highly resistant to the jamming.
o Many users can share a signal band with no interference.
o Unauthorized listening is prevented.
o Unintentional interference occupying the same band is greatly minimized and in most
cases virtually eliminated.
o Resistant to fading.
o Superior method for radar.
Spread spectrum

Types of Spread Spectrum

Spread Spectrum can be categorized into two types:
o Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
o Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum(DSSS)

Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

o The Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum or FHSS allows us to utilize bandwidth
properly and maximum. In this technique, the whole available bandwidth is divided
into many channels and spread between channels, arranged continuously.
o The frequency slots are selected randomly, and frequency signals are transmitted
according to their occupancy.
o The transmitters and receivers keep on hopping on channels available for a particular
amount of time in milliseconds.

The Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum or FHSS can also be classified into two
types:
 o Slow Hopping: In slow hopping, multiple bits are transmitted on a specific frequency
or same frequency.
o Fast Hopping: In fast hopping, individual bits are split and then transmitted on
different frequencies.
o

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

The Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) is a spread-spectrum modulation technique
primarily used to reduce overall signal interference in telecommunication. The Direct
Sequence Spread Spectrum modulation makes the transmitted signal wider in bandwidth than
the information bandwidth. In DSSS, the message bits are modulated by a bit sequencing
process known as a spreading sequence. Following are the features of Direct Sequence
Spread Spectrum or DSSS.
o In Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum or DSSS technique, the data that needs to be
transmitted is split into smaller blocks.
o After that, each data block is attached with a high data rate bit sequence and is
transmitted from the sender end to the receiver end.
o Data blocks are recombined again to generate the original data at the receiver's end,
which was sent by the sender, with the help of the data rate bit sequence.
o If somehow data is lost, then data blocks can also be recovered with those data rate
bits.
o The main advantage of splitting the data into smaller blocks is that it reduces the noise
and unintentional inference.

The Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum or DSSS can also be classified into two types:

o Wide Band Spread Spectrum

o Narrow Band Spread Spectrum