CM 2 Cemdef40 1

#2 MECHANICS OF DEFORMABLE
BODIES
FLEX Course Material

To identify the cause of
Engr. Marvin Bartido 1ST TERM AY 2023-2024
stress in the body

Familiarize with the
different types of stress.
Compute for the normal
FUNDAMENTAL
stress, internal normal
force or resisting area of
the body
Compute for the shear
stress, internal shear force CONCEPT OF
STRESS
or resisting area of the
body
Design simple dimensions
such as length, width,
thickness or diameter of
materials based on the
allowable stress of the
material.
Compute for the bearing
stress, internal Marvin M. Bartido, RCE
compressive force or
resisting area of the body
Compute for the
maximum pressure that a
thin-walled cylinder can
safely withstand.
1ST TERM AY 2023-2024

Table of Contents
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPT OF STRESS

Normal Stress
Shear Stress
Allowable Stress
Design of Simple Connections
Bearing Stress
Tangential & Longitudinal Stress in Thin-Walled Vessel
2
I can do all things through Christ who gives me strength.
Philippians 4:13
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPT OF STRESS

Mechanics of Deformable Bodies usually deals with stresses and deformations. As
engineers, the goal is to minimize the deformation and stress of the body in the design
of machines and structures.
Definition of Stress
Stress is defined as the strength of a material per unit area or unit strength. It is
the force on a member divided by area, which carries the force, formerly express in psi,
now in N/mm2 or MPa.
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑙𝑏
𝑝𝑠𝑖 =
𝑖𝑛2
𝑙𝑏
𝑝𝑠𝑓 =
𝑓𝑡 2
𝑁
𝑃𝑎 =
𝑚2
𝑁
𝑀𝑃𝑎 =
𝑚𝑚2
1 𝑀𝑃𝑎 = 1, 000, 000 𝑃𝑎
Types of Stress
1. Normal Stress
2. Shearing Stress
3. Bearing Stress
4. Tangential & Longitudinal Stress in Thin-Walled Vessel
3
Philippians 4:13
Normal Stress
Normal Stress (sometimes called axial stress) is a stress that measures

the intensity of normal/axial force.
It tends to compress or elongate a body.
Normal stress is either tensile stress or compressive stress. Members
subject to pure tension (or tensile force) is under tensile stress, while
compression members (members subject to compressive force) are under
compressive stress.
𝑃
𝜎=
𝐴
𝜎 (𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑚𝑎) = normal stress at any point on the cross-sectional area
P = internal resultant normal force, which acts through the centroid of the
cross-sectional area. P is determined using the method of sections and the
equations of equilibrium.
A = cross-sectional area of the body where 𝜎 is determined
4
Philippians 4:13
Procedure for Analysis

𝑃
The equation 𝜎 = gives the normal stress on the cross-sectional
𝐴
area of a member when the section is subjected to an internal resultant
normal force P. For axially loaded members, application of this equation
requires the following steps.
Internal Loading
• Section the member perpendicular to its longitudinal axis at the point
where the normal stress is to be determined and use the necessary free-
body diagram and force equation of equilibrium to obtain the internal axial
force P at the section.
Normal Stress
• Determine the member’s cross-sectional area at the section and calculate
𝑃
the normal stress 𝜎 = .
𝐴
5
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. A rod is composed of an aluminum section rigidly attached between

steel and bronze sections, as shown in Fig. P-107. Axial loads are
applied at the positions indicated. If P = 3000 lb and the cross sectional
area of the rod is 0.5 in2, determine the stress in each section.
Find: For aluminum:

Stress in each section Internal Loading
Solution:
σ 𝐹𝐻 = 0 → +
𝐹 − 4𝑃 = 0
𝐹 − 4(3000) = 0
𝐹 = 12000 𝑙𝑏
Normal Stress
𝐹
𝜎=𝐴
12000 𝑙𝑏
𝜎=
For steel: 0.5 𝑖𝑛2
𝜎 = 24000 𝑝𝑠𝑖
Internal Loading
For bronze:
Internal Loading
σ 𝐹𝐻 = 0 → +
𝐹 − 4𝑃 = 0 σ 𝐹𝐻 = 0 → +
𝐹 − 4(3000) = 0 𝐹 − 4𝑃 + 𝑃 = 0
𝐹 = 12000 𝑙𝑏 𝐹 − 3𝑃 = 0
𝐹 − 3(3000) = 0
𝐹 = 9000 𝑙𝑏
Normal Stress
𝐹
𝜎= Normal Stress
𝐴
12000 𝑙𝑏 𝐹
𝜎= 𝜎=𝐴
0.5 𝑖𝑛2
9000 𝑙𝑏
𝜎 = 24000 𝑝𝑠𝑖 𝜎= 0.5 𝑖𝑛2
𝜎 = 18000 𝑝𝑠𝑖
6
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
2. The 80-kg lamp is supported by two rods AB and BC as shown in the

figure. If AB has a diameter of 10 mm and BC has a diameter of 8 mm,
determine the average normal stress in each rod.
Find:
Normal stress Normal Stress:
𝐹𝐵𝐶
𝜎𝐵𝐶 =
𝐴𝐵𝐶
Solution:
395.24 𝑁
Internal Loading 𝜎𝐵𝐶 = 𝜋
8 𝑚𝑚 2
4
𝑁
𝜎𝐵𝐶 = 7.86 𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝑚𝑚2
𝐹𝐵𝐴
𝜎𝐵𝐴 =
𝐴𝐵𝐴
632.38 𝑁
𝜎𝐵𝐴 = 𝜋
10 𝑚𝑚 2
4
𝑁
𝜎𝐵𝐴 = 8.05 𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝑚𝑚2
σ 𝐹𝐻 = 0 → +
4
𝐹𝐵𝐶 − 𝐹𝐵𝐴 cos 60° = 0 (Eq. 1)
5
σ 𝐹𝑉 = 0 ↑ +
3
𝐹𝐵𝐶 + 𝐹𝐵𝐴 sin 60° − 784.8 = 0
5
(eq. 2)
𝐹𝐵𝐶 = 395.24 𝑁
𝐹𝐵𝐴 = 632.38 𝑁
7
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
3. Member AC shown in Fig. 1–19a is subjected to a vertical force of 3

kN. Determine the position x of this force so that the average
compressive stress at the smooth support C is equal to the average
tensile stress in the tie rod AB. The rod has a cross-sectional area of
400 𝑚𝑚2 and the contact area at C is 650 𝑚𝑚2 .
Find: Normal Stress

position x 𝜎𝑐 = 𝜎𝑡
𝐹𝐴𝐵 𝐹𝐶
=
Solution: 𝐴𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐶
𝐹𝐴𝐵 𝐹𝐶
Internal Loading =
400 650
𝐹𝐶 = 1.625 𝐹𝐴𝐵
Substituting this into Eq. 1,
solving for 𝐹𝐴𝐵 then solving for
𝐹𝐶 , we obtain
𝐹𝐴𝐵 = 1.14286 𝑘𝑁
𝐹𝐶 = 1.85714 𝑘𝑁
The position of the applied load

is determined from Eq. 2,
σ 𝐹𝑉 = 0 ↑ + 𝑥 = 123.81 𝑚𝑚
𝐹𝐴𝐵 + 𝐹𝐶 − 3 = 0 (eq. 1)
σ 𝑀𝐴 = 0 ↻ +
3 𝑥 − 𝐹𝐶 200 = 0 (Eq. 2)
8
Philippians 4:13
Shear Stress
Shear Stress is a stress that measures the intensity of shear force.

It tends to cut/divide to body into two.
Shearing Stress is a type of stress that acts coplanar with a cross-section of
material. It differs to tensile and compressive stresses, which are caused by forces
perpendicular to the area on which they act. Shearing stress is also known as tangential
stress.
𝑉
𝜏=
𝐴
𝜏 (𝑡𝑎𝑢) = average shear stress at the section,

𝑉 = internal resultant shear force on the section determined from the equations of
equilibrium
𝐴 = area at the section
Double Shear – an instance where a single material developed simultaneous shear
stresses in two separate parallel resisting area.
9
Philippians 4:13

𝑉
The equation 𝜏 = is used to determine the shear stress in the

𝐴
material. Application requires the following steps.
Internal Shear
• Section the member at the point where the average shear stress is to be
determined.
• Draw the necessary free-body diagram, and calculate the internal shear
force V acting at the section that is necessary to hold the part in equilibrium.
Shear Stress
• Determine the sectioned area A, and determine the average shear stress
10
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. Determine the average shear stress in the 20-mm-diameter pin at A

and the 30-mm-diameter pin at B that support the beam in Fig. 1–22a.
Find: Thus, the resultant force acting on

Shear stress in pin at A and pin at B pin A is
𝐹𝐴 = 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐴𝑦 2
Solution: 𝐹𝐴 = (7.50)2 +(20)2
Internal Loadings. The forces on 𝐹𝐴 = 21.36 𝑘𝑁
the pins can be obtained by
considering the equilibrium of the
beam, figure (b).
σ 𝑀𝐴 = 0 ↻ +
4
−𝐹𝐵 6 + 30 2 = 0 The pin at A is supported by two
5
𝐹𝐵 = 12.5 𝑘𝑁 fixed “leaves” and so the free-body
diagram of the center segment of
the pin shown in figure (c) has two
shearing surfaces between the
σ 𝐹𝐻 = 0 → + beam and each leaf. The force of
3 the beam (21.36 kN) acting on the
12.5 − 𝐴𝑋 = 0 pin is therefore supported by shear
5
𝐴𝑋 = 7.50 𝑘𝑁 force on each of these surfaces.
This case is called double shear.
Thus,
𝐹𝐴 21.36
σ 𝐹𝑉 = 0 ↑ + 𝑉𝐴 = = = 10.68 𝑘𝑁
4 2 2
𝐴𝑦 + 12.5 − 30 = 0
5
𝐴𝑦 = 20 𝑘𝑁
11
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
In figure (a), note that pin B is

subjected to single shear, which
occurs on the section between
the cable and beam, figure (d).
For this pin segment,
𝑉𝐵 = 𝐹𝐵 = 12.5 𝑘𝑁
Shear Stress
For pin at A
𝑉𝐴
𝜏𝐴 =
𝐴𝐴
10.68
𝜏𝐴 = 𝜋
20 2
4
𝑘𝑁
𝜏𝐴 = 0.033995
𝑚𝑚2
𝑁
𝜏𝐴 = 33.995 𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝑚𝑚2
For pin at B
𝑉𝐵
𝜏𝐵 =
𝐴𝐵
12.5
𝜏𝐵 = 𝜋
30 2
4
𝑘𝑁
𝜏𝐵 = 0.017684
𝑚𝑚2
𝑁
𝜏𝐵 = 17.684 𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝑚𝑚2
12
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
2. What force is required to punch a 20-mm-diameter hole in a plate

that is 25 mm thick? The shear strength is 350 MN/m2.
Find:
Force required (shear force)
Solution:
The magnitude of the shear
force will be equivalent to force
P. Note that the shear force will
act at the shearing area.
Shear Stress
The shear strength will be equal
to the shear stress
𝑉
𝜏=
𝐴
𝑃
350 𝑁Τ𝑚𝑚2 =
𝜋(20 𝑚𝑚)(25 𝑚𝑚)
𝑃 = 549778 𝑁
𝑃 = 549.778 𝑘𝑁
𝑀𝑁 𝑁
Note that = 𝑀𝑃𝑎 =
𝑚2 𝑚𝑚2
13
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
3. If the wood joint in the figure has a width of 150 mm, determine the
average shear stress developed along shear planes a–a and b–b. For
each plane, represent the state of stress on an element of the material
Find:
shear stress developed along shear σ 𝐹𝐻 = 0 → +
planes a–a and b–b 𝑉𝑎 − 3 = 0
Solution: 𝑉𝑎 = 3 𝑘𝑁
Internal Loadings. Referring to the
free-body diagram of the member,
figure (b),
σ 𝐹𝐻 = 0 → +
−𝑉𝑏 + 3 = 0
σ 𝐹𝐻 = 0 → + 𝑉𝑏 = 3 𝑘𝑁
6−𝐹−𝐹 =0
6 − 2𝐹 = 0 Average Shear Stress
𝐹 = 3 𝑘𝑁 𝑉𝑎
𝜏𝑎 =
𝐴𝑎
3 𝑘𝑁
Now consider the equilibrium of 𝜏𝑎 =
(0.10 𝑚)(0.15 𝑚)
segments cut across shear planes a–a
and b–b, shown in figure (c) and (d). 𝜏𝑎 = 200 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑉𝑏
𝜏𝑏 =
𝐴𝑏
3 𝑘𝑁
𝜏𝑏 =
(0.125 𝑚)(0.15 𝑚)
𝜏𝑏 = 160 𝑘𝑃𝑎
14
For God so loved the world that He gave His one and only Son,
that whoever believes in Him shall not perish but have eternal life.
John 3:16
Allowable Stress
To properly design a structural member or mechanical element it is necessary to
restrict the stress in the material to a level that will be safe. To ensure this safety, it is
therefore necessary to choose an allowable stress that restricts the applied load to one
that is less than the load the member can fully support.
There are many reasons for doing this. For example, the load for which the
member is designed may be different from actual loadings placed on it. The intended
measurements of a structure or machine may not be exact, due to errors in fabrication
or in the assembly of its component parts. Unknown vibrations, impact, or accidental
loadings can occur that may not be accounted for in the design. Atmospheric corrosion,
decay, or weathering tend to cause materials to deteriorate during service. And lastly,
some materials, such as wood, concrete, or fiber-reinforced composites, can show high
variability in mechanical properties.
One method of specifying the allowable load for a member is to use a number
called the factor of safety. The factor of safety (F.S.) is a ratio of the failure load 𝑭𝒇𝒂𝒊𝒍 to
the allowable load 𝑭𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘 . Here 𝐹𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙 is found from experimental testing of the
material, and the factor of safety is selected based on experience so that the above
mentioned uncertainties are accounted for when the member is used under similar
conditions of loading and geometry. Stated mathematically,
𝐹𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙
𝐹. 𝑆. =
𝐹𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤
If the load applied to the member is linearly related to the stress developed
𝑃 𝑉
within the member, as in the case of using 𝜎 = and 𝜏 = then we can also express
𝐴 𝐴
the factor of safety as a ratio of the failure stress 𝜎𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙 (or 𝜏𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙 ) to the allowable stress
𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 (or 𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 );∗ that is,
𝜎𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙
𝐹. 𝑆. =
𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤
or
𝜏𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙
𝐹. 𝑆. =
𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤
In any of these equations, the factor of safety must be greater than 1 in order to avoid
the potential for failure. Specific values depend on the types of materials to be used and
the intended purpose of the structure or machine. For example, the F.S. used in the
design of aircraft or space vehicle components may be close to 1 in order to reduce the
weight of the vehicle. Or, in the case of a nuclear power plant, the factor of safety for
some of its components may be as high as 3 due to uncertainties in loading or material
behavior. In many cases, the factor of safety for a specific case can be found in design
codes and engineering handbooks. These values are intended to form a balance of
ensuring public and environmental safety and providing a reasonable economic solution
to design.
15
John 3:16
Design of Simple Connections
By making simplifying assumptions regarding the behavior of the

𝑃 𝑉
material, the equations 𝜎 = and 𝜏 = can often be used to analyze
𝐴 𝐴
or design a simple connection or mechanical element. In particular, if a
member is subjected to normal force at a section, its required area at
the section is determined from
𝑃
𝐴=
𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤
On the other hand, if the section is subjected to an shear force, then

the required area at the section is
𝑉
𝐴=𝜏
𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤

When solving problems using the normal and shear stress equations, a
careful consideration should first be made as to choose the section
over which the critical stress is acting. Once this section is determined,
the member must then be designed to have a sufficient area at the
section to resist the stress that acts on it. This area is determined
using the following steps.
Internal Loading
• Section the member through the area and draw a free-body diagram
of a segment of the member. The internal resultant force at the
section is then determined using the equations of equilibrium.
Required Area
• Provided the allowable stress is known or can be determined, the
required area needed to sustain the load at the section is then
𝑃 𝑉
determined from 𝐴 = and 𝐴 = 𝜏
𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤
16
John 3:16
Important Point:
Design of a member for strength is based on selecting an allowable
stress that will enable it to safely support its intended load. Since there are
many unknown factors that can influence the actual stress in a member, then
depending upon the intended use of the member, a factor of safety is
applied to obtain the allowable load the member can support.
17
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. The control arm is subjected to the loading shown in Fig. 1–26a.

Determine the required diameter of the steel pin at C if the allowable
shear stress for the steel is 𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 8 𝑘𝑠𝑖.
Find: σ 𝑀𝐶 = 0 ↻ +
Required diameter of the steel 3 3 +5
3
5 − 𝐹𝐴𝐵 8 = 0
pin 5
𝐹𝐴𝐵 = 3 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠
Solution: σ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 → +
4
Internal Shear Force. A free-body −𝐹𝐴𝐵 − 𝐶𝑥 + 5
5
=0
diagram of the arm is shown in −3 − 𝐶𝑥 + 5
4
=0
Fig. (b). For equilibrium we have 5
𝐶𝑥 = 1 𝑘𝑖𝑝
σ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 ↑ +
3
𝐶𝑦 − 3 − 5 =0
5
𝐶𝑦 = 6 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠
The pin at C resists the resultant

force at C, which is
𝐹𝐶 = (𝐶𝑥 )2 +(𝐶𝑦 )2
𝐹𝐶 = (1)2 +(6)2
𝐹𝐶 = 6.0828 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠
18
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
Since the pin is subjected

to double shear, a shear force of
3.0414 kip acts over its cross-
sectional area between the arm
and each supporting leaf for the
pin, Fig. (c).
Required Area. We have

𝑉
𝐴=
𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤
3.0414 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠
𝐴=
8 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠ൗ𝑖𝑛2
𝐴 = 0.38018 𝑖𝑛2
Solving for diameter, d:

𝜋
𝐴 = (𝑑)2
4
𝜋
0.38018 = (𝑑)2
4
𝑑 = 0.69574 𝑖𝑛.
19
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
2. The rigid bar AB shown in Fig. 1–29a is supported by a steel rod AC

having a diameter of 20 mm and an aluminum block having a cross-
sectional area of 1800 𝑚𝑚2 . The 18-mm-diameter pins at A and C are
subjected to single shear. If the failure stress for the steel and
aluminum is 𝜎𝑠𝑡 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙 = 680 𝑀𝑃𝑎 and 𝜎𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙 = 70 𝑀𝑃𝑎
respectively, and the failure shear stress for each pin is 𝜏𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙 =
900 𝑀𝑃𝑎, determine the largest load P that can be applied to the bar.
Apply a factor of safety of F.S. = 2.
Find:
The free-body diagram of the bar is
Determine the largest load P shown in Fig. 1–29b.
Solution:
Allowable stresses:
𝜎𝑠𝑡 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙
𝜎𝑠𝑡 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 =
𝐹.𝑆.
680
𝜎𝑠𝑡 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 =
2
𝜎𝑠𝑡 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 340 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜎𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙
𝜎𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 = There are three unknowns. Here
𝐹.𝑆.
70 we will apply the moment
𝜎𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 = equations of equilibrium in order
2
𝜎𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 35 𝑀𝑃𝑎 to express 𝐹𝐴𝐶 and 𝐹𝐵 in terms of
the applied load P. We have
𝜏𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙 σ 𝑀𝐵 = 0 ↻ +
𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 =
𝐹.𝑆.
900
−𝑃 1.25 + 𝐹𝐴𝐶 2 = 0 (eq. 1)
2
𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 450 𝑀𝑃𝑎 σ 𝑀𝐴 = 0 ↻ +
−𝐹𝐵 2 + 𝑃 0.75 = 0 (eq. 2)
20
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
We will now determine each value

of P that creates the allowable
stress in the rod, block, and pins,
respectively.
Rod AC. This requires
𝐹
𝜎𝑠𝑡 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝐴𝐶
𝐴𝐴𝐶
𝐹
340 103 𝑘𝑁 𝐴𝐶
ൗ𝑚2 = 𝜋(0.02 𝑚)2
4
𝐹𝐴𝐶 = 106.81 𝑘𝑁
Using Eq. 1,
−𝑃 1.25 + 106.81 2 = 0
𝑃 = 170.90 𝑘𝑁
Block B. In this case,

𝐹
𝜎𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝐵
𝐴𝐵
𝐹
35 103 𝑘𝑁ൗ𝑚2 = 𝐵
0.0018 𝑚2
𝐹𝐵 = 63 𝑘𝑁
Using Eq. 2,
−63 2 + 𝑃 0.75 = 0 (eq. 2)
𝑃 = 168 𝑘𝑁
Pin A or C. Due to single shear,

𝑉
𝐴
𝐹
𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝐴𝐶
𝐴
3 𝑘𝑁 𝐹
𝐴𝐶
450(10 ) ൗ𝑚2 = 𝜋(0.018 𝑚)2
4
𝐹𝐴𝐶 = 114.51 𝑘𝑁
From Eq. 1,
−𝑃 1.25 + 114.51 2 = 0
𝑃 = 183.22 𝑘𝑁
By comparison, as P reaches its

smallest value (168 kN),the
allowable normal stress will first be
developed in the aluminum block.
Hence,
𝑃 = 168 𝑘𝑁
21
Philippians 4:13
Bearing Stress
If two bodies are pressed against each other, compressive forces are developed
on the area of contact. The pressure caused by these surface loads is called bearing
stress. It is also known as contact pressure.
Examples of bearing stress are the soil pressure beneath a pier and the contact
pressure between a rivet and the side of its hole. If the bearing stress is large enough, it
can locally crush the material, which in turn can lead to more serious problems. To
reduce bearing stress, engineers sometimes employ bearing plates, the purpose of
which is to distribute the contact forces over a large area.
As an illustration of bearing stress, consider the lap joint formed by the two
plates that are riveted together as shown in Fig. 1.12(a). The bearing stress caused by
the rivet is not constant; it actually varies from zero at the sides of the hole to a
maximum behind the rivet as illustrated in Fig. 1.12(b). The difficulty inherent in such a
complicated stress distribution is avoided by the common practice assuming that the
bearing stress 𝜎𝑏 is uniformly distributed over a reduced area. The reduced area 𝐴𝑏 is
taken to be the projected area of the rivet:
𝐴𝑏 = 𝑡𝑑
where t is the thickness of the plate and d represents the diameter of the rivet, as
shown in the FBD of the upper plate in Fig 1.12(c). From this FBD we see that the
bearing force 𝑃𝑏 equals the applied load P (the bearing load will be reduced if there is
friction between the plates), so that the bearing stress becomes
𝑃𝑏 𝑃
𝜎𝑏 = =
𝐴𝑏 𝑡𝑑
The contact area (𝐴𝑏 ) is perpendicular to the internal compressive force (𝑃𝐵 )
acting in the separate bodies that are in contact with each other.
22
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. In Fig. 1-12, assume that a 20-mm-diameter rivet joins the plates

that are each 110 mm wide. The allowable stresses are 120 MPa for
bearing in the plate material and 60 MPa for shearing of rivet.
Determine (a) the minimum thickness of each plate; and (b) the largest
average tensile stress in the plates.
Find: (b) the largest average tensile

(a) the minimum thickness of stress in the plates.
each plate; and (b) the largest 𝑃
average tensile stress in the 𝜎=
𝐴
plates. 18849.56
𝜎=
Solution: (110−20)(7.85)
(a) the minimum thickness of 𝜎= 26.68 𝑁Τ𝑚𝑚2 𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑃𝑎

each plate
From shearing of rivet:
𝑉
𝜏=
𝐴
𝑁Τ 𝑃
60 𝑚𝑚2 =𝜋
20 𝑚𝑚 2
4
𝑃 = 18849.56 𝑁
𝑃 = 18.85 𝑘𝑁
From bearing of the plate

material:
𝑃𝑏
𝜎𝑏 =
𝐴𝑏
𝑁Τ 18849.56 𝑁
120 𝑚𝑚2 =
20 𝑚𝑚 (𝑡)
𝑡 = 7.85 𝑚𝑚
23
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
2. The lap joint shown in Fig. (a) is fastened by four rivets of ¾-in
diameter. Find the maximum load P that can be applied if the working
stresses are 14 ksi for shear in the rivet and 18 ksi for bearing in the
plate. Assume that the applied load is distributed evenly among the
four rivets, and neglect friction between the plates.
Find: Design for Shear Stress in Rivets

The value of P that would cause the shear
maximum load P stress in the rivets to reach its working
value found as follows:
𝑉
𝜏=𝐴
Solution: 𝑃
14000 𝑙𝑏 4
We will calculate P using each of ൗ𝑖𝑛2 = 𝜋 3Τ 𝑖𝑛 2
4 4
the two design criteria. The largest 𝑃 = 24740.04 𝑙𝑏
safe load will be the smaller of the
two values. Figure (b) shows the Design for Bearing Stress in Plate:
FBD od the lower plate. In this FBD, 𝑃
the lower halves of the rivets are in The shear force 𝑉 = 4 that acts on the cross
section of one rivet is equal to the bearing
the plate, having been isolated force 𝑃𝑏 due to the contact between the
from their top halves by a cutting rivet and the plate. The value of P that
would cause the bearing stress equal to its
plane. This cut exposes the shear working value is computed from Eq. (1.9):
forces V that act on the cross 𝜎𝑏 =
𝑃𝑏
sections of the rivets. We see that 𝑡𝑑
𝑃
𝑃
the equilibrium condition is 𝑉 = . 18000 𝑙𝑏
ൗ𝑖𝑛2 = 7Τ 4
3
4 8 𝑖𝑛 Τ4 𝑖𝑛
𝑃 = 47250 𝑙𝑏
Comparing the above solutions, we

conclude that the maximum safe load P
that can be applied to the lap joint is
𝑃 = 24740.04 𝑙𝑏
with the shear stress in the rivets being the
governing design criterion.
24
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
3. In the clevis shown in Fig. 1-11b, find the

minimum bolt diameter and the minimum
thickness of each yoke that will support a
load P = 14 kips without exceeding a shearing
stress of 12 ksi and a bearing stress of 20 ksi.
Clevis is a U-shaped fastening

device with two holes at the end

for a pin or bolt to pass through.
Find:
minimum bolt diameter and the
minimum thickness of each yoke
Solution:
For shearing of rivets (double
shear):
𝑉
𝜏=
𝐴
𝑃
2
𝜏=
𝐴 𝑃𝑏
𝑘𝑖𝑝 14 𝑘𝑖𝑝 𝜎𝑏 =
12 ൗ𝑖𝑛2 = 𝜋 2 𝐴𝑏
2 𝑑 𝑃
4
2
𝑑 = 0.86181 𝑖𝑛 𝜎𝑏 =
𝑑𝑡
𝑘𝑖𝑝 14 𝑘𝑖𝑝
20 ൗ𝑖𝑛2 =
2(0.86181 𝑖𝑛) (𝑡)
For bearing of yoke:
𝑡 = 0.40612 𝑖𝑛
25
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
4. A timber column carries a load of

100 KN as shown in the figure. A
concrete pedestal with bearing
steel plate supports the timber
column. Determine the bearing
stress on the pedestal.
Find:
Bearing stress on the concrete pedestal
Solution:
σ 𝐹𝑉 = 0 ↑ +
𝑃 − 110 − 𝑊𝑤𝑜𝑜𝑑 − 𝑊𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 0
𝑃 − 110 − 6.50089 − 4.4145 =
0
𝑃 = 120.92 𝑘𝑁
𝑃𝑏
𝜎𝑏 =
𝐴𝑏
120.92 𝑘𝑁
𝜎𝑏 =
(0.75 𝑚)(0.75 𝑚)
𝜎𝑏 = 214.97 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑊 = 𝜌𝑔𝑉
𝑊 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝜌 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑔 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑉 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
For the 𝑊𝑤𝑜𝑜𝑑 :

𝑊𝑤𝑜𝑜𝑑 = 𝜋
900 𝑘𝑔ൗ𝑚3 9.81 𝑚Τ𝑠2 0.50 𝑚 2 (3.75 𝑚
4
𝑊𝑤𝑜𝑜𝑑 = 6500.89 𝑁
For the 𝑊𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 :

𝑊𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑘𝑔
=
8000 ൗ𝑚3 9.81 𝑚Τ𝑠2 0.75 𝑚)(0.75 𝑚) (0.1 𝑚
𝑊𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 4414.5 𝑁
26
Philippians 4:13
Tangential & Longitudinal

Stress in Thin-Walled Vessel
Fundamentals of Thin-Walled Cylinder

𝐹 = 𝑚𝑔
𝐹
𝑝=𝐴
𝑚
𝜌= 𝑉
𝐹 = 𝜌𝑔𝑉
𝐹 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑝 = 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝐴 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝜌 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑉 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑔 = 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
Cylindrical or spherical vessels are commonly used in industry to serve as
boilers or tanks. When under pressure, the material of which they are made is
subjected to a loading from all directions. Although this is the case, the vessel can be
analyzed in a simple manner provided it has a thin wall. In general, “thin wall” refers to
𝑟
a vessel having an inner-radius-to-wall-thickness ratio of 10 or more ≥ 10 .
𝑡
𝑟
Specifically, when = 10 the results of a thin-wall analysis will predict a stress that is
𝑡 𝑟
approximately 4% less than the actual maximum stress in the vessel. For larger ratios
𝑡
this error will be even smaller.
Cylindrical pressure vessels, such as this gas tank, have semi-spherical end caps
rather than flat ones in order to reduce the stress in the tank.
27
John 3:16
Cylindrical Vessels. Consider the cylindrical vessel in Fig. 8–1a, having a wall
thickness t, inner radius r, and subjected to a gauge pressure p that
developed within the vessel by a contained gas. Due to this loading, a small
element of the vessel that is sufficiently removed from the ends and
oriented as shown in Fig. 8–1a, is subjected to normal stresses 𝜎1 in the
circumferential (tangential) or hoop direction and 𝜎2 in the longitudinal or
axial direction.
The hoop stress (tangential or circumferential stress) can be

determined by considering the vessel to be sectioned by planes a, b, and c. A
free-body diagram of the back segment along with the contained gas is
shown in Fig. 8–1b. Here only the loadings in the x direction are shown.
These loadings are developed by the uniform hoop stress acting on the
vessel’s wall, and the pressure acting on the vertical face of the gas. For
equilibrium in the x direction, we require
σ 𝐹𝑥 = 0
2 𝜎1 𝑡 𝑑𝑦 − 𝑝 2𝑟 𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝑝𝑟
𝜎1 = (tangential stress)
𝑡
28
John 3:16
The longitudinal stress can be determined by considering the left

portion of section b of the cylinder, Fig. 8–1a. As shown in Fig. 8–1c, 𝜎2 acts
uniformly throughout the wall, and 𝑝 acts on the section of the contained
gas. Since the mean radius is approximately equal to the vessel’s inner radius,
equilibrium in the y direction requires
σ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
𝜎2 2𝜋𝑟 𝑡 − 𝑝 𝜋𝑟 2 = 0
𝑝𝑟
𝜎2 = (longitudinal stress)
2𝑡
In the above equations,

𝜎1 , 𝜎2 - the normal stress in the hoop and longitudinal directions,
respectively. Each is assumed to be constant throughout the wall of the
cylinder, and each subjects the material to tension.
𝑝 - the internal gauge pressure developed by the contained gas
𝑟 - the inner radius of the cylinder
𝑟
𝑡 - the thickness of the wall ≥ 10 .
𝑡
By comparison, note that the hoop or circumferential (tangential)

stress is twice as large as the longitudinal or axial stress. Consequently, when
fabricating cylindrical pressure vessels from rolled-formed plates, the
longitudinal joints must be designed to carry twice as much stress as the
circumferential joints.
29
John 3:16
Spherical Vessels. We can analyze a spherical pressure vessel in a similar

manner. To do this, consider the vessel to have a wall thickness t, inner
radius r, and subjected to an internal gauge pressure 𝑝, Fig. 8–2a.
If the vessel is sectioned in half, the resulting free-body diagram is

shown in Fig. 8–2b. Like the cylinder, equilibrium in the y direction requires
σ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
𝜎2 2𝜋𝑟 𝑡 − 𝑝 𝜋𝑟 2 = 0
𝑝𝑟
𝜎2 = (stress in spherical vessel wall)
2𝑡
This is the same result as that obtained for the longitudinal stress in
the cylindrical pressure vessel. Furthermore, from the analysis, this stress will
be the same regardless of the orientation of the hemispheric free-body
diagram. Consequently, a small element of the material is subjected to the
state of stress shown in Fig. 8–2a.
30
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. A cylindrical pressure vessel has an inner diameter of 4 ft and a

1
thickness of 𝑖𝑛. Determine the maximum internal pressure it can
2
sustain so that neither its circumferential nor its longitudinal stress
component exceeds 20 ksi. Under the same conditions, what is the
maximum internal pressure that a similar-size spherical vessel can
sustain?
Find: Spherical Vessel. Here the

maximum internal pressure maximum stress occurs in any
without exceeding stress = 20 ksi two perpendicular directions on
(for cylindrical vessel and an element of the vessel
spherical vessel) 𝑝𝑟
𝜎2 =
2𝑡
𝑘𝑖𝑝 𝑝(24 𝑖𝑛)
Solution: 20 ൗ𝑖𝑛2 = 1
2 𝑖𝑛
Cylindrical Pressure Vessel. The 2
maximum stress occurs in the 𝑝 = 0.83333 𝑘𝑠𝑖
circumferential direction.
𝑝𝑟 𝑝 = 833.33 𝑝𝑠𝑖
𝜎1 =
𝑡
𝑘𝑖𝑝 𝑝(24 𝑖𝑛)
20 ൗ𝑖𝑛2 = 1 NOTE: Although it is more
𝑖𝑛
2
difficult to fabricate, the
𝑝 = 0.41667 𝑘𝑠𝑖 spherical pressure vessel will
𝑝 = 416.67 𝑝𝑠𝑖 carry twice as much internal
pressure as a cylindrical vessel.
Note that when we solve for 𝑝 in
longitudinal direction, it will be
𝑝𝑟
𝜎2 = ; 20 𝑘𝑖𝑝ൗ𝑖𝑛2 =
2𝑡
𝑝(24 𝑖𝑛)
1 ; 𝑝 = 833.33 𝑝𝑠𝑖. If we
2 𝑖𝑛
2
use this pressure in solving for
𝜎1 , it will exceed 20 ksi.
31
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
0.02 m
2. A cylinder steel tank has a

thickness of 20 mm. The length of
the tank is 4 meters and diameter is
1.80 meters as shown in the figure.
Compute the following:
(a) Tangential stress in the steel
wall if the cylinder is
completely filled with liquid
whose density is 748.90 kg/m³.

(b) Hydrostatic pressure acting on
the wall of the steel tank.
Find: 𝐹
𝑝=
𝐴
Tangential stress in the steel wall 74780.39 𝑁
Hydrostatic pressure 𝑝=
1.80 𝑚 (4 𝑚)
𝑝 = 10386.17 𝑃𝑎
Solution:
𝑝𝑟
𝜎𝑡 =
𝑡
10386.17 (0.90)
𝜎𝑡 =
(0.02)
0.02 m
𝜎𝑡 = 467377.7 𝑃𝑎
𝐹 = 𝜌𝑔𝑉
𝐹=
𝑘𝑔 𝑚 𝜋 2
748.90 ൗ𝑚3 (9.81 Τ𝑠2 ) 1.80 𝑚 (4 𝑚)
4
𝐹 = 74780.39 𝑁
32
REFERENCES
Pytel, Andrew & Kiusalaas, Jaan (2012). Strength of Materials.

2nd Edition: Cengage Learning
Hibbeler, R.C. (2011). Mechanics of Materials 8th edition: Pearson
Prentice Hall.
https://mathalino.com/reviewer/mechanics-and-strength-of-
materials/solution-to-problem-107-normal-stress
materials/solution-to-problem-125-bearing-stress
materials/solution-to-problem-127-bearing-stress
33
ASSESSMENT TASK
CM Assessment Task No. 2

Write the problem and the given illustrations. Show your complete
solution and box your final answer.
1. The bar in Fig. (a) has a constant width of 35 mm and a thickness of

10 mm. Determine the maximum average normal stress in the bar
when it is subjected to the loading shown.
2. The casting shown in Fig. (a) is made of steel having a specific

weight of 𝛾𝑠𝑡 = 490 𝑙𝑏ൗ𝑓𝑡 3. Determine the average compressive stress
acting at points A and B.
34
ASSESSMENT TASK
3. The inclined member in Fig. (a) is subjected to a compressive force

of 600 lb. Determine the average compressive stress along the smooth
areas of contact defined by AB and BC, and the average shear stress
along the horizontal plane defined by DB.
4. The suspender rod is supported at its end by a fixed-connected

circular disk as shown in Fig. (a). If the rod passes through a 40-mm-
diameter hole, determine the minimum required diameter of the rod
and the minimum thickness of the disk needed to support the 20-kN
load. The allowable normal stress for the rod is 𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 60 𝑀𝑃𝑎 and
the allowable shear stress for the disk is 𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 35 𝑀𝑃𝑎.
35
ASSESSMENT TASK
5. Determine the maximum average shear stress developed in each –

¾-inch diameter bolt.
6. The three steel wires are used to support the load. If the wires have
an allowable tensile stress of 𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 165 𝑀𝑃𝑎, and wire AB has a
diameter of 6 mm, BC has a diameter of 5 mm, and BD has a diameter
of 7 mm, determine the greatest force P that can be applied before
one of the wires fails.
36
ASSESSMENT TASK
7. The lap joint is connected by three 20-mm diameter rivets.

Assuming that the axial load P = 50 kN is distributed equally among
the three rivets, find (a) the shear stress in a rivet; (b) the bearing
stress between a plate and a rivet; and (c) the maximum average
tensile stress in each plate.
8. Design the thickness of the cylinder tank in Figure 3 if it is to be

filled with oil whose density is 790 kg/m³. The maximum stress of the
material is 70 MPa. Steel tank dimensions are D = 2.5 m and L = 4 m.
37

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#2 MECHANICS OF DEFORMABLE

FLEX Course Material

stress in the body

1ST TERM AY 2023-2024

FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPT OF STRESS

FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPT OF STRESS

1 𝑀𝑃𝑎 = 1, 000, 000 𝑃𝑎

Normal Stress (sometimes called axial stress) is a stress that measures

Procedure for Analysis

1. A rod is composed of an aluminum section rigidly attached between

Find: For aluminum:

2. The 80-kg lamp is supported by two rods AB and BC as shown in the

3. Member AC shown in Fig. 1–19a is subjected to a vertical force of 3

Find: Normal Stress

The position of the applied load

Shear Stress is a stress that measures the intensity of shear force.

𝜏 (𝑡𝑎𝑢) = average shear stress at the section,

Procedure for Analysis

The equation 𝜏 = is used to determine the shear stress in the

1. Determine the average shear stress in the 20-mm-diameter pin at A

Find: Thus, the resultant force acting on

In figure (a), note that pin B is

2. What force is required to punch a 20-mm-diameter hole in a plate

Design of Simple Connections

By making simplifying assumptions regarding the behavior of the

On the other hand, if the section is subjected to an shear force, then

Procedure for Analysis

applied to obtain the allowable load the member can support.

1. The control arm is subjected to the loading shown in Fig. 1–26a.

The pin at C resists the resultant

Since the pin is subjected

Required Area. We have

Solving for diameter, d:

2. The rigid bar AB shown in Fig. 1–29a is supported by a steel rod AC

We will now determine each value

Block B. In this case,

Pin A or C. Due to single shear,

By comparison, as P reaches its

1. In Fig. 1-12, assume that a 20-mm-diameter rivet joins the plates

Find: (b) the largest average tensile

(a) the minimum thickness of 𝜎= 26.68 𝑁Τ𝑚𝑚2 𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑃𝑎

From bearing of the plate

Find: Design for Shear Stress in Rivets

Comparing the above solutions, we

3. In the clevis shown in Fig. 1-11b, find the

Clevis is a U-shaped fastening

device with two holes at the end

4. A timber column carries a load of

Bearing stress on the concrete pedestal

For the 𝑊𝑤𝑜𝑜𝑑 :

For the 𝑊𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 :

Tangential & Longitudinal

Fundamentals of Thin-Walled Cylinder

The hoop stress (tangential or circumferential stress) can be

The longitudinal stress can be determined by considering the left

In the above equations,

By comparison, note that the hoop or circumferential (tangential)

Spherical Vessels. We can analyze a spherical pressure vessel in a similar

If the vessel is sectioned in half, the resulting free-body diagram is

1. A cylindrical pressure vessel has an inner diameter of 4 ft and a

Find: Spherical Vessel. Here the

2. A cylinder steel tank has a

whose density is 748.90 kg/m³.