BITS Pilani

K K Birla Goa Campus

BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

How do metals respond to external loads?

/volume
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 DEFORMATION

ELASTIC PLASTIC

Recoverable, temporary Non-recoverable,

permanent deformation

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BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus
Elastic Deformation
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

bonds
stretch

return to
initial
δ
F
F Linear-
elastic
Elastic means reversible! Non-Linear-
elastic
δ
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BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus
Plastic Deformation
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch planes
& planes still
shear sheared

δ plastic
δ elastic + plastic

F
F
Plastic means permanent! linear linear
elastic elastic
δ
δ plastic 5
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Types of Loading

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Engineering Stress and Engineering Strain
 Engineering stress: σ = F / Ao
F is load applied perpendicular to specimen cross-section; A0 is
cross-sectional area (perpendicular to the force) before
application of the load.

 Engineering strain: ε = Δl / lo (× 100 %)

Δl is change in length, lo is the original length.

 Stress and strain are positive for tensile loads, negative for
compressive loads

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Engineering Stress & Strain
• Tensile stress, σ: • Tensile strain, ε :
Ft

Area, Ao

Ft
Ft = N
σ=
Ao m2
𝑙−𝑙𝑜 ∆𝑙
original cross-sectional area ∈= =
before loading 𝑙𝑜 𝑙𝑜
(m/m) dimensionless 8
BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus
 Shear stress and Shear strain
Shear stress: τ = F / Ao
F is load applied parallel to the upper and Ft F
lower faces each of which has an area A0.
Area, Ao Fs
𝒂
Shear strain: γ = = tan θ
𝒉
a is the shear displacement, h is the
distance over which shear acts, θ is the
strain angle Fs
a
F Ft
τ = s F
h Ao
Shear stress
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 Stress-Strain Testing
Typical tensile test machine Typical tensile specimen

Fig. 8.2,
Callister &
extensometer specimen Rethwisch 9e.

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Stress-Strain Behavior
Elastic deformation
Reversible: when the stress is
removed, the material returns to the
dimension it had before the loading.
Usually strains are small (except for
the case of plastics).

Plastic deformation
Irreversible: when the stress is
removed, the material does not
return to its previous dimension.

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 Linear Elastic Properties
 In tensile tests, if the deformation is
elastic, the stress-strain relationship
is called Hooke's law:
𝝈 = 𝑬𝝐
E is Young's modulus or modulus of
elasticity, has the same units as σ,
N/m2 or Pa.
 The greater the modulus, the stiffer
the material, or, the smaller the
elastic strain that results from the
application of a given stress.

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Room-Temperature Elastic and Shear Moduli, and Poisson’s
Ratio for Various Metal Alloys

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 Non-linear elastic behavior
 There are some materials
(e.g., gray cast iron, concrete,
and many polymers) for
which the elastic portion of
the stress–strain curve is not
linear.
 For this nonlinear behavior,
either tangent or secant
modulus is normally used.

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 Elastic Deformation:
Atomic scale picture
 The magnitude of the modulus of elasticity is a measure of the
resistance to separation of adjacent atoms, that is, the
interatomic bonding forces.
𝑑𝐹
𝐸∝
𝑑𝑟 𝑟
𝑜

(r0 – equilibrium
separation)

Force versus interatomic

separation for weakly and
strongly bonded atoms.

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Modulus of elasticity of ceramics,
polymers vs metals??

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Effect of temperature?

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Problem
A piece of copper originally 305 mm long is pulled in
tension with a stress of 276 MPa. If the deformation is
entirely elastic, what will be the resultant elongation?
(Modulus of elasticity for Cu = 110 GPa)

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Shear Modulus
 For elastic deformation, relationship of shear stress to shear
strain:
τ = G γ,
where: γ = tan θ = Δy / zo
G is Shear Modulus (Units: N/m2)

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Room-Temperature Elastic and Shear Moduli, and Poisson’s
Ratio for Various Metal Alloys

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 Poisson’s ratio
 Materials subject to tension shrink laterally. Those subject to compression,
bulge.
 The ratio of lateral and axial
(longitudinal) strains is called the
Poisson's ratio, ν.
 If the applied stress is uniaxial (only in
the z-direction) and the material is
isotropic, then εx= εy

 ν is dimensionless, negative sign is included so that ν is always positive, since εx

and εz will always be of opposite sign.
 For ideal materials, ν =0.5
 For real materials, ν ranges from 0.25 to 0.4. 21
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Relationship among elastic parameters
 For isotropic materials, shear and elastic moduli are related to
each other and to Poisson’s ratio according to
𝐸 = 2𝐺(1 + ν)

 In most metals G is about 0.4E; thus, if the value of one

modulus is known, the other may be approximated.

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Problem
A tensile stress is to be applied along the long axis of a
cylindrical brass rod that has a diameter of 10 mm.
Determine the magnitude of the load required to
produce a 2.5 x 10-3 mm change in diameter if the
deformation is entirely elastic.
(Given: For brass, E = 97 GPa, G = 37 GPa, ν = 0.34)

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 Stress-Strain Behavior:
Plastic deformation
Plastic deformation:
 stress and strain are
not proportional
 the deformation is not
reversible
 deformation occurs by
breaking and re-
arrangement of atomic
bonds (in crystalline
materials primarily by
motion of dislocations
(called slip))
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Yield Strength
 Stress at which noticeable plastic
deformation has occurred.
 Yield strength σy - is chosen as that causing
a permanent strain of 0.002 (or 0.2
percent).
 Also known as the 0.2 percent yield strength
or 0.2 percent offset yield strength.
 Yield point P - the strain deviates from
being proportional to the stress (also called
the proportional limit)
 The yield strength for a metal is a measure
of its resistance to plastic deformation
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 Tensile Strength/Ultimate tensile strength
 The tensile strength is the stress
If stress = tensile strength is maintained
at the maximum on the
engineering stress-strain curve.
then specimen will eventually break
 This corresponds to the maximum
stress that can be sustained by a Fracture
structure in tension; if this stress is
Strength
applied and maintained, the
fracture will result.
 All deformation upto this point is
uniform throughout the narrow
region of the tensile specimen.
However, at this maximum stress, “Necking”
a small constriction or neck begins
to form and all subsequent
deformation is confined at this Tensile strength: maximum
neck. stress (~ 100 - 1000 MPa)
 Fracture strength corresponds to
 For
the structural
stress applications, the yield strength is usually a more important
at fracture.
property than the tensile strength, since once the yield stress has passed,
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the structure has deformed beyond acceptable limits.
BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus
Problem
From the tensile stress-strain behavior for the brass specimen
shown in Figure below, determine the following:
(a) The modulus of elasticity
(b) The yield strength at a strain offset of 0.002
(c)The maximum load that
can be sustained by a
cylindrical specimen having
an original diameter of
12.8 mm.
(d) The change in length of a
specimen originally 250 mm
long that is subjected to a
tensile stress of 345 MPa.

BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

 Ductility
 The amount of elongation that a tensile smaller %EL
specimen undergoes during testing
provides a value for the ductility of a
metal.
larger %EL
 Ductility is a measure of degree of
plastic deformation sustained at
fracture.
 A material that experiences very little
or no plastic deformation upon fracture
is termed brittle.
 Defined by percent elongation or
Brittle materials are approximately
percent reduction in area
𝑙𝑓−𝑙𝑜
considered to be those having a
%𝐸𝐿 = × 100; fracture strain of less than about 5%.
𝑙𝑜
𝐴𝑜 − 𝐴𝑓 28
%𝑅𝐴 = × 100
𝐴𝑜 BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus
Typical Mechanical Properties of Several
Metals and Alloys at room temperature

 These properties are sensitive to any prior deformation, the presence of

impurities, and/or any heat treatment to which the metal has been
subjected.
 The yield and tensile strengths decrease with increasing temperature
(similar to modulus of elasticity); ductility increases with temperature.
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 True Stress and True Strain
 True stress = load divided by
actual area in the necked-
down region, continues to rise
to the point of fracture, in
contrast to the engineering
stress.
σT = F/Ai
Ai = Instantaneous minimum cross-
sectional area of sample
 True strain, εT = ln(li/lo)
where, lo = original gauge length of the
sample; li = instantaneous extended
gauge length of the test specimen during
the test. 30
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True Stress and True Strain
If no volume change occurs during deformation, that is, if
𝐴𝑖 𝑙𝑖 = 𝐴𝑜 𝑙𝑜
true and engineering stress and strain are related according to
𝜎𝑇 = 𝜎(1 + 𝜖)
𝜖 𝑇 = 𝑙𝑛(1 + 𝜖)
Above equations are valid only to the onset of necking; beyond
this point true stress and strain should be computed from actual
load, cross-sectional area, and gauge length measurements.
 So in a tension test, true stress is larger than engineering stress
and true strain is less than engineering strain.

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Question 4:
A cylindrical specimen of steel having an original
diameter of 12.8 mm is tensile tested to fracture and
found to have an engineering fracture strength σf of
460 MPa. If its cross-sectional diameter at fracture is
10.7 mm, determine:
(a) The ductility in terms of percent reduction in area
(b) The true stress at fracture

BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

 Toughness
 Toughness = the ability to
absorb energy up to fracture =
the total area under the strain-
stress curve up to fracture

 Units: the energy per unit

volume, e.g. J/m3
 For a material to be tough, it must display both strength
and ductility.
 Often, ductile materials are tougher than brittle ones.
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 Hardness
 Hardness is a measure of the material’s resistance to localized
plastic deformation (e.g. a small dent or scratch)
 Large hardness means:
 resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in compression.
 better wear properties.
apply known force measure size
e.g., of indent after
10 mm sphere removing load

Smaller indents
D d mean larger
hardness.

most brasses easy to machine cutting nitrided

plastics Al alloys steels file hard tools steels diamond

increasing hardness 34
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 Hardness (contd.)
 A qualitative Mohs scale, determined by the
ability of a material to scratch another material:
from 1 (softest = talc) to 10 (hardest = diamond).
 Different types of quantitative hardness test has
been designed (Rockwell, Brinell, Vickers, etc.).
 Usually a small indenter (sphere, cone, or
pyramid) is forced into the surface of a material
under conditions of controlled magnitude and
rate of loading. The depth or size of indentation
is measured.
 The tests are somewhat approximate, but
popular because they are easy and non-
destructive (except for the small dent). 35
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 36
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 Correlation Between Hardness
and Tensile Strength
 Both tensile strength and
hardness are indicators of a
metal’s resistance to plastic
deformation.
 Hardness is proportional to
the tensile strength – but
note that the proportionality
constant is different for
different materials.

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 What are the limits of “safe”
deformation?
 Design stress: σd = N’σc
where σc = maximum
anticipated stress, N’ is
the “design factor” > 1.
Want to make sure that
σd < σy
 Safe or working stress:
σw = σy/N where N is
“factor of safety” > 1.

 The choice of appropriate value of N is necessary. If N is too large, then

component overdesign will result. Values normally range between 1.2 and
4.0. 38
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