e-Prime - Advances in Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Energy 3 (2023) 100101

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e-Prime - Advances in Electrical

Engineering, Electronics and Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/prime

Transformation of conventional transformers for enhanced DC mitigation in

AC power networks with advanced grid support
Moazzam Nazir a, *, Klaehn Burkes b, Johan H. Enslin a
a
Clemson University, North Charleston, SC 29405, USA
b
Savannah River National Laboratory, Savannah River Site, Aiken, SC 29808, USA

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The flow of quasi-DC or DC in AC networks may trigger half-cycle saturation of electrical grid transformers that
DC-AC power conversion could lead to their internal heating or grid collapse. Apart from the requirement of DC mitigation measures, the
Impedance balancing conversion of conventional power grid into an intricate network demands the need for power equipment with
Power converter
dynamic control capability. The transformers provide the most strategic point in the grid for the introduction of
Power quality
Voltage control
DC protection and grid-support features. This paper proposes a fractionally rated power-electronics module
coupled to neutral and ground terminals of conventional transformers that delivers efficient power network
protection against quasi-DC or DC flow with different advanced grid-support features injected on the transformer
primary. The proposed concept is validated on an experimental hardware prototype employing power hardware-
in-the-loop (P-HIL) configuration of Typhoon HIL-402 and compared with the simulation results in this paper.
Also, a transformer and associated module protection approach employing a hybrid bypass switch has been
suggested and experimentally validated in this work. The experimental results validate the capability of the
module to counter DC injection, perform harmonics mitigation, voltage control or unbalance compensation,
impedance matching and power flow control at the same injection point.

1. Introduction a large integration of unpredictable distributed energy resources (DERs).

1.1. Motivation
With the recent warfare and space advancements, the energy secu­
rity is compromised owing to electric grid susceptibility to impairment
from quasi-direct current (DC) flow in transmission lines after a high-
amplitude electromagnetic pulse (HEMP) event [1]. A similar phe­
nomenon is created by the geomagnetic disturbance (GMD) resulting
from the solar storms [2]. The quasi-DC or DC flow may also exist in AC
grids because of inappropriate switching operation of power
electronics-centered devices or due to high-voltage DC (HVDC)
monopolar or ground-return mode operation in parallel AC/DC net­
works [3,4]. The resultant quasi-DC or DC flow in power networks may
result in transformers heating or ultimate damage, enhanced noise level,
inappropriate operation of power system protection devices and could
result in grid collapse [5].
Apart from the vulnerabilities related to the DC flow in AC networks,
the electric utilities are also encountering unprecedented challenges
because of rapid grid transformation into an intricate network and with
Due to the unpredictable nature of DERs and modern loads, there are
non-ideal power flows across the transmission corridors with some
experiencing congestion and the other staying underutilized. The
traditional power flow control strategy employing different generator
dispatch algorithms is no longer viable and there is a dire need to
introduce distributed, granular, and dynamic control across strategic
locations in the grid [6,7]. Also, owing to the volatility of DERs, tap
changers and phase shifters endure exceptionally higher switching rate
leading to substantial deterioration. To address this issue, deliberate
delays could be employed. However, that further worsens the required
rapid control action. The modern generation sources and loads also lead
to degraded power quality thus leading to ineffective grid operation [8].
1.2. Literature review
To counter most of the previously discussed issues in modern grids,
different FACTS strategies have been suggested; unified power flow
controller (UPFC) [9], static VAR compensators (SVCs), thyristor
switched series capacitor (TSSC) [10], thyristor-controlled series

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: mnazir@clemson.edu (M. Nazir).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.prime.2022.100101
Received 12 October 2022; Received in revised form 21 November 2022; Accepted 17 December 2022
Available online 21 December 2022
2772-6711/© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
M. Nazir et al. e-Prime - Advances in Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Energy 3 (2023) 100101

Table 1
Prime Features of exisitng solutions and proposed approach [14].
HVDC Light UPFC FR-BTB G-CDPAR G-CNT Proposed scheme

Transformer 2 fully rated, 2 fractionally rated, 1 fractional rating, 1 fully rated, standard 1 fully rated, standard 1 fully rated, standard
count & rating standard design custom design standard design design design design
Converter type & VSC B2B, fully VSC B2B, fractional VSC B2B, fractional AC chopper, fractional VSC B2B, fractional AC chopper, fractionally
rating rated rating rating rating rating rated
BIL management Handled by Challenging, relies on Challenging, converter Handled by standard Handled by standard Handled by standard
standard series transformer floating at the line transformer, converter at transformer, converter at transformer, converter at
transformer design voltage ground level ground level ground level
Cooling Active, deionized Active, forced air Forced air or Forced air or combined Forced air or combined Forced air or combined
water combined with with transformer cooling with transformer cooling with transformer cooling
transformer cooling
System ~95% ~99% ~99% ~99% ~99% ~99%
efficiency
DC mitigation/ No No No No No Yes
isolation
Voltage scaling Yes No No Yes Yes Yes
Power flow Complete and Independent PQ Independent PQ Optimized for P or Q Independent PQ control Independent PQ control
control independent PQ control around base control around base control around base around base power flow around base power flow
capability control power flow power flow power flow
Fail normal No Yes - large stress on Yes Yes Yes Yes
series transformer
Line unbalance Yes No No No Yes Yes
management
Scaling Yes BIL management BIL management BIL management limits Yes Yes
limits scalability impairs scalability scalability
Cost Highest Higher Lower Lowest Lower Lower

capacitor (TCSC) [11], controllable network transformer (CNT) [12],
fractionally rated back-to-back (FR-BTB) converter and compact dy­
namic phase angle regulator (CDPAR) [13,14].
1.3. Research gaps
Most of the above discussed device’s float near the line voltage that
raises isolation challenges [13]. This question was addressed in the
grounded controllable network transformer (G-CNT) scheme discussed
in [14], that employs a three-winding transformer with its tertiary
winding coupled to a marginally rated converter that operates near the
ground potential. But this approach necessitates a special triple-winding
transformer that hinders its applicability to the existing two-winding
transmission transformers. Moreover, the above discussed FACTS de­
vices do not block quasi-DC or DC flow in AC power networks.
Accordingly, proper grid operation stays at risk even after the installa­
tion of these power-electronics based devices. Apart from the
above-mentioned devices, the solid-state transformers (SSTs) also pro­
vide an alternate to address some of the above discussed issues. How­
ever, they are still far from the complete replacement of traditional
transformers due to the comparative shorter life span and robustness.
Moreover, there has been a significant investment on the already
installed conventional transformers with their substitution accompanied
with massive expenditure and time. In this perspective, strategies that

Fig. 1. (a) DC elimination and grid-support approach, (b) DC link voltage control.

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M. Nazir et al.
Fig. 2. Injection strategy for different grid-support functions.
can introduce protection and grid-support features in the existing
traditional transformers are a compelling solution leading to the concept
of hybrid transformers.
1.4. Contributions
A marginally rated converter device installed with the two-winding
electrical power transformers has been suggested that delivers effi­
cient defense against DC flow in AC grids in addition to multiple grid-
support functions [15,16]. These functions include impedance
balancing, voltage unbalance compensation, harmonics mitigation,
voltage control, and power flow control. The scheme essentially trans­
forms typical transformers into hybrid ones and the converter fractional
rating diminishes size, cost, and intricacy of the proposed module. The
proposed strategy has also shown its superior performance to enhance
HVDC-classic reliability and reduced complexity [17]. A comparison of
existing solutions for dynamic grid control and the strategy proposed in
this paper is shown in Table 1 [14].
This paper discusses the experimental evaluation of the hybrid
transformer scheme and compares it with the simulation results. The
evaluation involves a laboratory prototype validated using the power
hardware-in-the-loop (P-HIL) configuration of Typhoon HIL-402. It has
been proposed in our previous works that the hybrid module could
utilize a bypass switch to curtail high voltage development across the
module during inrush or ground faults scenarios. However, a compre­
hensive design and real operation of such a switch has not been pre­
sented earlier. In this work, the design of a bypass switch configuration
is also presented, and its proper working is experimentally verified.
1.5. Organization of the paper
The remainder of the paper is structured as follows: Section 2 gives a
concise overview of the proposed hybrid transformer topology. The
hardware prototype description is given in Section 3. The simulation
results of the scaled hardware prototype are presented in Section 4. The
experimental outcomes for a variety of operation modes of the proposed
scheme are examined in Section 5. The protection strategy for the pro­
posed module is discussed and associated experimental results are given
in Section 6. The conclusion of the paper and future work is presented in
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e-Prime - Advances in Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Energy 3 (2023) 100101
Section 7.
2. Proposed hybrid transformer
The single-phase counterpart of the hybrid transformer strategy is
demonstrated in Fig. 1(a). It employs a power-electronics centered
module connected between the transformer neutral and ground termi­
nals. The scaled converter utilizes an H-bridge converter rated to
25–30% of the line voltage. The DC-link of the proposed module utilizes
a capacitor C2 and an active storage, for instance, a battery or an ultra-
capacitor (UC), for storing the reverse power flow towards the converter
and supplying it when needed. The DC-link power flow control is not the
focus of this paper, but a simplified DC-link voltage control is shown in
Fig. 1(b). The required energy storage to be integrated to the DC-link is
largely dependent upon the application. For instance, if DC mitigation is
the only objective, a large DC-link capacitor or UC might be sufficient,
but if the objective is power flow control that usually spans over hours,
the DC-link might require a continuous power source, such as, a separate
converter fed by an independent source. The AC side switching har­
monics are mitigated employing a low-frequency filter comprised of C1
and L1.
A hybrid switch accompanies the proposed device, where the solid-
state component makes quick path to ground during faults and the
mechanical switch delivers a low-loss route to the associated high-value
currents. The bypass switch has a dual advantage, ensuring converter
and transformer protection from high voltage events across capacitor C1
and allowing continuity of traditional functions of the associated
transformer in case of module failure.
The proposed device bears the capability to inject voltage with var­
iable amplitude and phase angle between transformer neutral terminal
and ground. This allows a traditional transformer to perform voltage,
power flow and impedance control along with DC mitigation as shown in
Fig. 2, where the control limit is contingent upon the converter size. The
utility transformers at transmission level sub-stations are normally in a
three-phase configuration preferably constructed by integrating three
individual single-phase transformer units in required configuration
[18]. For transmission levels, three such proposed modules could be
employed, one between each of the three-transformer primary winding
neutrals and common substation ground.
M. Nazir et al. e-Prime - Advances in Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Energy 3 (2023) 100101

Fig. 3. Proposed controller for the DC mitigation and grid-support scheme.

The controller proposed for the DC mitigation and grid-support injected between the transformer neutral and substation ground, as can
scheme that generates the pulse width modulation (PWM) set point is be seen in Fig. 3. This effectively retains the transformer primary
shown in Fig. 3. The proposed controller is explained in detail in the winding voltage (Vxmfr), shown in Fig. 2, at its desired value.
subsequent sections.
2.3. Power flow control
2.1. DC mitigation
The active (P) and reactive (Q) power flow between PCC and
The prime aspect of the device is its capability to perform DC miti­ transformer primary shown in Fig. 2 is given as:
⃒ ⃒ (
gation or prevention of power network harmonics from travelling to­ 3|VPCC |⃒Vxmfr,eq ⃒sin δPCC − δxmfr,eq
)
wards the downstream of the module-integrated transformer. This P= (1)
Zxmfr
objective is achieved by measuring the voltage at VPCC and isolating its
harmonic content (Vh) from the fundamental component (V1) employ­ ( ⃒ ⃒ ( )
3 |VPCC |2 − |VPCC |⃒Vxmfr,eq ⃒cos δPCC − δxmfr,eq
ing a SOGI-based PLL, that are frequently utilized for synchronization of Q= (2)
single-phase grid-connected converters [19]. This unwanted signal (Vh) Zxmfr
is further introduced between the transformer neutral terminal and
Where, Vxmfr,eq is the sum of transformer and converter voltage, δPCC
ground that ensures the voltage at the transformer primary terminals
and δxmfr,eq are the angles of VPCC and Vxmfr,eq respectively. The pro­
(Vxmfr) is always harmonic free. This DC mitigation control branch can
posed strategy offers separate control over the converter voltage and
be seen in Fig. 3.
angle, therefore, Vxmfr,eq and δxmfr,eq could be adjusted individually. This
provides separate control over the active and reactive power. The
2.2. Voltage regulation implementation of this control fuction is shown in Fig. 3.

For the purpose of voltage regulation or balancing, the difference

between the desired (VPCC,ref) and actual voltage (VPCC) at PCC is

Fig. 4. Experimental laboratory hardware protoype to evaluate proposed scheme.

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Fig. 5. One-line illustration of hardware prototype.

2.4. Impedance control

Table 2
Hardware prototype parameters.
The replacement or upgradation of a transformer is usually associ­
ated with concerns like impedance mismatch that adversely effects Item Description
power flow and grid balance. The proposed device can address this issue TUT transformer 240V/240V, 1 kVA
through cancellation of the additional transformer impedance (Zxmfr) IGBT/chopper module Semikron B6U+E1C1F+B6C1
voltage resulting from the mismatch. This impedance control approach Converter controller Typhoon HIL-402
Voltage controller Kp=0.05, Ki=165, Limit=-4 to 4
is described in Fig. 2, where the converter injects an opposing voltage Current controller Kp=0.1, Ki=50, Limit=-1 to 1
(Vconv), by adjusting the gain G1, to nullify the extra voltage (Vz-Vz, Switching frequency (fsw) 5 kHz
effective) appearing across the transformer inductance, thus restoring its Level converter IC TI CD-4504BE
original value (Vz,effective). The implementation of impedance control Filter capacitor (C1) 50 uF
Filter inductor (L1) 1 mH, 10A
feature is shown in Fig. 3.
Solid state relay Crydom D2490-10
An internal current-control loop is also added to the proposed Mechanical relay Hiltego 5V, 10A
controller as can be seen in Fig. 3. This enables the current-limiting
mode of the module during ground faults when the bypass switch
operates and generates a short circuit across the module terminals. The sags or swells on the power networks and the isolation transformer is
variety of control actions discussed previously could be performed under utilized for safety objectives. An RL load is tied to the secondary winding
varying grid conditions. of TUT that loads it to 80%. The DC flow in power networks is mimicked
In the proposed strategy, the fractionally rated power converter is utilizing a DC power supply that is integrated to the neutral terminal of
positioned closed to the ground that helps to avert surpassing the basic the isolation transformer. The proposed module is realized employing an
insulation level (BIL) of the transformer and facilitates in reducing the IGBT converter/chopper unit from Semikron operated in a single-phase
converter isolation requirements. Also, the positioning of the module mode. The DC link is fed using a variac coupled to an isolation trans­
adjacent to the transformer helps in reducing the cooling cost, where the former for controlled input and safety purposes, respectively. For
module could be mounted on plates cooled with the associated trans­ experimental DC-link regulation, the DC chopper is activated above a
former oil. It is also recommended that the future transformers that are pre-defined threshold followed by the reverse power dissipation across a
desired to be equipped with these modules should be upgraded with braking resistor. In the practical scenario, it is desirable to store the
increased oil tank capacity and more radiator plates to ensure efficient reverse active power flow utilizing battery storage with the DC-link and
simultaneous cooling of transformer and the proposed converter supplying this stored power to the main grid when required. The
modules. Typhoon HIL-402 is used as a controller for the proposed module by
operating it in a P-HIL configuration. However, the maximum digital
3. Laboratory prototype description output of Typhoon HIL is 5V (TTL) that is unable to switch the IGBTs in
the module that operate at a 15V (CMOS) pulse signal. To resolve this
The hybrid transformer scheme is tested on a laboratory prototype as issue, a Texas Instrument (TI) voltage level shifter IC CD-4504BE is in­
presented in Fig. 4. The single-line diagram of the prototype is shown in tegrated to the digital output of Typhoon.
Fig. 5. It comprises of a one-to-one single-phase transformer (TUT) fed The equipment and control parameters of the hardware prototype
through a variac coupled to an isolation transformer. The variac mimics are presented in Table 2.

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M. Nazir et al. e-Prime - Advances in Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Energy 3 (2023) 100101

Fig. 6. Proposed strategy simulation under harmonics injection for scaled prototype; Top subplot shows voltage (VPCC) and current (Iprim) on HST primary, second
subplot shows HST load voltage (Vload), third subplot shows harmonic content in HST primary voltage (Vh) and compensation signal generated by proposed module
(Vconv), bottom subplot shows DC link voltage (VDC,link).

Fig. 7. Proposed strategy simulation under grid voltage sag for scaled prototype; Top subplot shows voltage on HST primary (VPCC), second subplot shows HST load
voltage (Vload), third subplot shows compensation signal generated by proposed module (Vconv), bottom subplot shows DC link voltage (VDC,link).

4. Scaled prototype simulation results
A simulation model was created for the laboratory scale hardware
prototype whose results will be presented and compared with the actual
hardware prototype. First, the DC mitigation performance of the pro­
posed device is evaluated by injecting DC and entering the TUT into half-
cycle saturation. Later, module is activated that effectively counters the
injected DC and returns the transformer to its normal operation as
shown in Fig. 6. A simulation of the proposed scheme is also performed
for the case of a voltage sag that is generated by reducing the source
voltage to 0.85pu. Later, the module is activated to restore the load
voltage to its nominal value as shown in Fig. 7. These two simulation
results are discussed here to show the effectiveness of the proposed
scheme for a scaled prototype. In the next section, P-HIL results from an
actual hardware protype are presented and discussed. Finally, the
simulation and hardware results are compared and discussed in the
subsequent section.
5. Experimental results
The different scenarios that a real utility transformer can experience
are created and proposed module is assessed against tackling these is­
sues [2–6,8]. The experimental results are presented under respective
scenario.

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M. Nazir et al. e-Prime - Advances in Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Energy 3 (2023) 100101

Fig. 8. Proposed strategy evaluation under harmonics injection; Top subplot shows voltage (VPCC) and current (Iprim) on HST primary, second subplot shows HST
load voltage (Vload), third subplot shows harmonic content in HST primary voltage (Vh) and compensation signal generated by proposed module (Vconv), bottom
subplot shows DC link voltage (VDC,link).

and its output effectively follows harmonics in the VPCC. This leads to
Table 3
isolation of harmonics from moving towards the load side. This facili­
THD of load voltage for different operation scenarios.
tates to prevent transformer half-cycle saturation during flow of DC in
Normal operation DC injection DC injection compensation power networks. It is pertinent to mention that harmonics (Vh) during
3.5% 13% 1% normal operation of the transformer in Fig. 8 are preexistent in the grid
voltage that represent a non-ideal source. The THD of the load voltage
for the three regions of operation in Fig. 8 is shown in Table 3.
5.1. DC mitigation This DC mitigation ability of the proposed module is greatly desir­
able under the present scenario of exponential addition of power
To evaluate DC mitigation capability of the proposed module, the electronics-based generation resources and loads that lead to unabated
installed DC power supply is employed to force TUT into half-cycle injection of harmonics to the grid.
saturation by mimicking the previously discussed DC injection sce­
narios. This mode leads to increased harmonics on each side of the
transformer as depicted in Fig. 8. Afterwards, the module is triggered,

Fig. 9. Proposed strategy performance under grid voltage sag; Top subplot shows voltage on HST primary (VPCC), second subplot shows HST load voltage (Vload),
third subplot shows compensation signal generated by proposed module (Vconv), bottom subplot shows DC link voltage (VDC,link).

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Fig. 10. Proposed strategy performance under grid voltage swell; Top subplot shows voltage on HST primary (VPCC), second subplot shows HST load voltage
(Vload), third subplot shows compensation signal generated by proposed module (Vconv), bottom subplot shows DC link voltage (VDC,link).

Fig. 11. Utilization of proposed strategy to increase power flow across TUT; Top subplot shows voltage on HST primary (VPCC), second subplot shows HST load
voltage (Vload), third subplot shows compensation signal generated by proposed module (Vconv), bottom subplot shows DC link voltage (VDC,link).

5.2. Voltage regulation
Now, the voltage regulation ability of the module is assessed. The
objective, in this case, is to control the load voltage regardless of voltage
dips or surges on the grid. To simulate a voltage dip on the grid, the
variac output connected to primary of TUT is reduced to 0.85pu. Next,
the module is actuated and result for this case is displayed in Fig. 9. The
module successfully controls the load voltage to its normal value. Also, a
voltage swell is created by increasing the variac output that is followed
by voltage regulation by the proposed module. The result for this case is
presented in Fig. 10, where the voltage control ability of the proposed
module is verified. This voltage control ability is extremely valuable for
the power networks due to rapid addition of volatile renewable energy
sources. The unpredictable renewable generation causes taps of
autotransformers endure rapid switching. This induces significant
deterioration and undesirable control action delays compromising grid
reliability. In this situation, the module could provide rapid and grainy
grid voltage control. Also, the implementation of the proposed module
on a per-phase basis allows its utilization for grid unbalance mitigation
[16]. Moreover, the voltage control feature of the suggested module
could be utilized to satisfy IEEE 1547-2018 by providing VRT services to
DERs [20]. This objective could be achieved by operating the proposed
device as a STATCOM. The more details regarding this feature of the
proposed device can be found in [21].
5.3. Power flow control
To depict the power flow management capability introduced by the

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Fig. 12. Utilization of proposed strategy to decrease power flow across TUT; Top subplot shows voltage on HST primary (VPCC), second subplot shows HST load
voltage (Vload), third subplot shows compensation signal generated by proposed module (Vconv), bottom subplot shows DC link voltage (VDC,link).

where the additional power is provided by the converter. In the second

Table 4
case, the quadrature voltage is injected at a leading angle w.r.t. the VPCC
Power flow control capability of proposed module.
and consequently a decreased power flow is observed across the trans­
State P flow across P flow from Q flow from former as depicted in Fig. 12. In this scenario, the power difference starts
TUT (p.u) module (p.u) module (p.u)
flowing towards the converter, where it could be stored for later utili­
Normal operation 0.76 -0.01 0 zation. The above presented power flow control results are summarized
20% lagging injection ( 0.88 0.07 0.05
in Table 4.
Fig. 9)
20% leading quadrature 0.6 -0.09 -0.02 The power flow control capability of the hybrid transformer is highly
injection (Fig. 10) relevant considering the exponential integration of DERs. The volatile
nature of DERs leads to congestion or underutilization of transmission
capacity under different generation scenarios. The proposed dynamic
module into the traditional TUT, an angular voltage injection from the power flow control ability introduced by the device in conventional
module w.r.t. the VPCC is utilized. In the first case, the injected voltage transformers can be employed for fast redistribution of power and
(Vconv) is lagging the VPCC by 50 degrees and the resultant response is eventually employing the DERs at their maximum generation capacity.
demonstrated in Fig. 11. The rise in the power angle leads to an This feature is also highly relevant to the parallel AC/DC transmission
enhanced power flow through the transformer, as per Eqs. (1) and (2),

Fig. 13. Impedance control aspect of the proposed module; Top subplot shows voltage across external impedance added to transformer primary (Vz), second subplot
shows HST load voltage (Vload), third subplot shows compensation signal generated by proposed module (Vconv), bottom subplot shows DC link voltage (VDC,link).

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M. Nazir et al.
Table 5
Converter rating as a function of transformed power.
Function (Refer to Figs.6–13) Maximum converter Maximum converter
output voltage (AC output power (AC
side), pu of base side), pu of
voltage transformed power
Simulation P-HIL Simulation
DC mitigation 0.19 0.2 0.12
Voltage regulation (sag of 0.85pu) 0.18 0.2 0.13
Voltage regulation (swell of 1.15pu) 0.17 0.18 0.11
Power flow control (decreased 0.2 0.22 0.26
power flow)
Power flow control (increased 0.2 0.18 0.14
power flow)
Impedance control 0.006 0.008 0.017
that are experiencing a growing trend in China and Europe. The HVDC
transmission possesses the inherent feature of performing power flow
control whereas the AC-tie lines do not bear this ability that could be
introduced utilizing the proposed modules [19].
5.4. Impedance control
To assess the impedance control ability of the proposed device, an
impedance mismatch scenario is mimicked by adding an external
inductance of 1mH to the primary winding of TUT. This leads to
diminished flow across the transformer which is sensed by the proposed
module, and it injects a voltage by adjusting impedance gain G1 to
nullify the resultant effects of impedance (Zxmfr) addition. The experi­
mental result for this case is presented in Fig. 13, where it is seen that
voltage appearing across the inserted impedance (Vz) is sensed by the
controller and it adjusts the gain G1 to -0.67 for effective cancellation of
this additional voltage and restoring the normal operation of the TUT by
recovering the load voltage.
The impedance control requires prior knowledge of the voltage drop
across the impedance (Zxmfr) of the replaced transformer and the new
transformer to automatically adjust the gain G1. The impedance Zxmfr is
not an external one in real transformers and, therefore, the voltage
required for impedance control is hard to measure. However, there are
alternate ways to obtain this voltage. For instance, the impedance of
actual and replaced transformer can be obtained from the name plate,
which can be multiplied with the current flow through transformer
primary to obtain the required voltage injection. The other approach
could be the utilization of historical flows through the damaged trans­
former to match them with the replaced transformer flows by tuning G1.
However, once adjusted no continuous tuning of G1 is required as long as
the transformer operates within the linear operating range. The
impedance control element of the proposed device could be utilized to
balance the power flow across the phases of the three single-phase
transformers or two parallel three-phase transformers, where the
mismatch could be the result of utilizing non-custom built replacement
transformer. This approach could be utilized for rapid transformer re­
placements or fast power recovery in event of irreversible damage by
utilizing a spare unit or borrowing from a neighboring utility under
auspices of programs like spare transformer equipment database (STED)
or spare equipment database (SED) initiated by Edison Electric Insitute
(EEI) and NERC [22].
The maximum converter output voltage as per unit of base voltage
and converter output power as a fraction of the power flow across the
transformer for the above discussed scenarios are shown in Table 5. It is
pertinent to mention that these values are for the extreme scenarios
generated in a laboratory environment to depict different functions of
the proposed module. In a real-world scenario, the required power rat­
ing of the module will be much lower due to less severe electrical grid
disturbances.
The above presented experimental results validate the promising
e-Prime - Advances in Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Energy 3 (2023) 100101
performance of the proposed hybrid transformer strategy thus providing
an all-in-one solution to the electric utilities for resolving multiple
contemporary grid problems.
From the field deployment perspective, the proposed solution is
completely relevant for 24–500 kV networks where single-phase trans­
formers are deployed to form three-phase substations. The development
P-
HIL of single-phase converter for the proposed application requires devices
that could provide high blocking voltage and switching speed or by
0.14
0.14
employing converter topologies with high number of series multi-level
0.10 connections. High Voltage (>6 kV) wide bandgap (WBG) silicon car­
0.29 bide (SiC) based MOSFETs, in a three-cell cascaded H-bridge configu­
ration to handle the required high voltage (>20 kV) DC-bus voltage,
0.15
could be utilized for this approach as described in [23]. The WBG de­
0.02 vices have higher peak electric field strength and power devices with
blocking voltages in the range of 10–24 kV have already been demon­
strated [24–26]. The 15 kV SiC MOSFET may be a good option for future
designs and is suitable for applications requiring higher voltages and
lower currents as its Ron increases exponentially with temperature that
leads to higher conduction loss [23]. Better cooling, such as forced air or
water cooling could be utilized to drop thermal resistance significantly.
The other approach could be the utilization of low-voltage IGBTs or
MOSFETs in series to split the high voltage. This approach has been
broadly utilized in designing Voltage Source Converters (VSCs), now
available upto 500 kV, for the HVDC substations and a wide variety of
topologies have already been demonstrated; MMC with half bridges,
MMC with full bridges, hybrid MMC with half and full bridges, clamped
single cell MMC, clamped double-cell MMC, alternate arm converter and
so on [27,28]. Which converter topology to utilize for a specific appli­
cation is largely dependent upon the respective requirements, such as,
DC fault current limitation, DC fault current control, valve cost,
switching and conduction losses etc. For the proposed device, the
thermal management could be efficiently performed utilizing passive
cooling where the converter is mounted on plates cooled with the
transformer oil. The transformers to be integrated with this module
could be upgraded with increased oil tank capacity and increasing
number of radiator plates for effective cooling. This also reduces
pumping costs associated with water-cooled devices at this power level
that are installed at significant distance from the substation
transformers.
6. Module protection strategy
The converter protection against high voltage development across
the filter capacitor C1 during ground faults or inrush scenarios is highly
critical. In addition to converter damage, this might lead to exceeding
the protected transformer BIL, that is typically 10 times higher than the
nominal rating of a transformer. As already discussed, the power
electronics-based SSTs reliability is still significantly lower than the
traditional transformers and therefore, integration of a power
electronics-based device without effective protection consideration
might compromise the high reliability of conventional transformers.
Considering the speedy response and high-current requirement of the
bypass, an antiparallel solid-state SCR arrangement coupled to a parallel
mechanical switch could provide an optimum protection. The solid-state
portion of the proposed device could be utilized for rapid initiation of
bypass that is followed by closure of the mechanical switch that carries
the fault or inrush current with little loss. A Metal Oxide Varistor (MOV),
set at 0.4pu, is also integrated parallel to the proposed switch to prevent
damage of the converter from momentary voltage transients. The
module output voltage (Vconv) is constantly observed and when it ex­
ceeds a pre-defined threshold, a signal is generated to operate the bypass
switch for 25 cycles. The 25 cycles are adequate for the clearance of
ground fault by protection devices and for the successful decay of inrush
currents [29]. The operation of bypass switch establishes a short circuit
condition across the converter. However, a pre-defined current limiting
threshold in the converter control (shown in Fig. 3) inhibits the flow of
10
M. Nazir et al.
Fig. 14. Flow chart for bypass switch operation.
considerably higher currents. Utilizing the current-limiting mode
instead of blocking the converter aids in rapid servicing by the proposed
module as soon as the bypass switch reopens to provide faster response
times. The bypass protection strategy discussed above is illustrated in
Fig. 14. The signal generation logic to trip the bypass switch is shown in
Fig. 15.
The module fault protection scheme is evaluated on the experimental
prototype. It is observed that the mechanical switch operates almost
instantaneously with the application of the trip signal. As this does not
replicate the typical tripping behavior of a circuit breaker, a delay of 3
cycles is created between the switch trip initiation and the mechanical
switch operation. From the perspective of field installation of the pro­
posed module, it represents a scenario where the solid-state switch is
operated with the embedded controller to avoid the delays introduced
by the field relays from damaging the converter, whereas the parallel
breaker is tripped by a typical substation relay.
For the experimental evaluation, a fault is created for a few cycles by
shorting the primary of TUT at 0.95 s when the converter is performing
its DC mitigation operation. This scenario mimics a temporary ground
fault, and the outcome is presented in Fig. 16. It is seen that occurrence
of a ground fault raises the module output voltage (Vconv). As soon as it
crosses the pre-defined threshold of 0.4pu, the controller generates a trip
signal for the bypass switch. The solid-state switch immediately operates
and creates a short across module terminals that is followed by me­
chanical switch operation after 3 cycles. This bypass path avoids flow of
the significantly higher fault current through the converter, thus,
Fig. 15. Generation of trip signal for hybird bypass switch.
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e-Prime - Advances in Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Energy 3 (2023) 100101
avoiding its overvoltage or overcurrent damage. Throughout this time,
voltage across the converter output stays close to zero. Moreover, the
module output current is limited to around 4pu due to associated
current-limiting mode. After 25 cycles, the converter effectively returns
to its normal function of DC mitigation. The brief closure of the bypass
still prohibits the associated transformer from going into half-cycle
saturation owing to substantially longer time constant linked to the RL
circuit consisting of magnetizing inductance of the transformer and line
impedance [6].
Now, the protection strategy is also evaluated when the module is
performing the voltage regulation grid support under a grid voltage dip.
The experimental result for this scenario is presented in Fig. 17, where it
is again noticed that the initiation of a ground fault is successfully
detected followed by the bypass switch operation that limits the voltage
across the converter and avoids the high fault current to flow through
the converter. Also, the module returns to its normal operation of
voltage regulation as soon as the bypass switch opens after the delay of
25 cycles. It is pertinent to mention that due to the trip logic shown in
Fig. 15, the bypass switch repeats the same cycle if for some reason the
fault stays uncleared or there are consecutive high voltage events across
the converter. This ensures the module protection and its effective
operation under all scenarios.
The module bypass during transformer energization helps to avert
any adjustments to the 2nd harmonic blocking ability of differential re­
lays due to this new installation. The bypass switch also allows the
associated power transformer to continue performing its usual operation
in case of module failure. The proposed protection topology has many
applications for dynamic grid controllers that utilize converters or
analogous topologies.
7. Conclusions and future work
This paper proposes an effective DC mitigation and advanced grid-
support module, that transforms the traditional transformers into
hybrid transformers. The experimental results from a laboratory-scale
hardware prototype are also presented and compared with simulation
results. The experimental results validate the efficient functioning of the
proposed strategy in protecting the AC power grids against DC flow and
addressing critical challenges encountering electric utilities that involve
grid power quality, power flow control, impedance matching and
voltage balancing. The paper also proposes and experimentally validates
a bypass protection module that is intended to protect the proposed
module and to circumvent surpassing the associated transformer basic
insulation level (BIL) rating in event of high-voltage events at module
output terminals. The design, control and operation of a multi-level
converter for practical application of the proposed scheme remains a
challenge and will be addressed in the ongoing research. The future
work includes implementation of the suggested scheme on a utility scale.
This involves its utilization in a selected substation with a transformer
experiencing different challenges discussed in this paper. The future
work also involves enhancing reliability of a transmission and distri­
bution network through optimal conversion of transformers into hybrid
transformers.
M. Nazir et al. e-Prime - Advances in Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Energy 3 (2023) 100101

Fig. 16. Proposed protection scheme performance under a temporary ground fault during DC mitigation; Top subplot shows current on HST primary (Iprim), second
subplot shows HST load voltage (Vload), third subplot shows harmonics in HST primary voltage (Vharmonics) and compensation signal generated by proposed
module (Vconv), fourth subplot shows module output current (Iinv,op), fifth subplot shows DC link voltage (VDC,link), bottom subplot shows switching sequence of
solid state and mechanical switch.

Fig. 17. Proposed protection scheme performance under a temporary ground fault during voltage regulation; Top subplot shows voltage on HST primary (VPCC),
second subplot shows HST load voltage (Vload) and compensation signal generated by proposed module (Vconv), third subplot shows module output current (Iinv,
op), fourth subplot shows DC link voltage (VDC,link), bottom subplot shows switching sequence of solid state and mechanical switch.

Declaration of Competing Interest Data Availability

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial No data was used for the research described in the article.
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments

This work was supported by the Laboratory Directed Research and

12
M. Nazir et al.
Development (LDRD) program within the Savannah River National
Laboratory (SRNL). This document was prepared in conjunction with
work accomplished under Contract No. DE-AC09-08SR22470 with the
U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Office of Environmental Management
(EM).
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Moazzam Nazir is a PhD student in the Holcombe Department
of Electrical and Computer Engineering at Clemson University.
He has a bachelor’s and a master’s degree in Electrical Engi­
neering with more than 5 years of work experience in research
organizations and industry pertaining to Electrical and Elec­
tronics Engineering. He secured the Fulbright PhD scholarship
from the U.S. Department of State in 2017 and currently pur­
suing his research on a Savannah River National Laboratory
project related to power systems reliability enhancement
through protection of transmission and distribution trans­
formers against DC currents. His research interests include
power systems protection, renewable technologies, power
converters and control systems.
Klaehn Burkes is a Senior Engineer in the Cybersecurity Pro­
grams group in the Digital Transformation Directorate at
Savannah River National Laboratory. He received a B.S. degree
in electrical engineering and a M.S. degree in power systems
from Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA, in 2012 and 2014
respectively. His current research interests include industrial
control systems, defense critical infrastructure, solid state
technologies, large power equipment testing, Electric Grid/
Petroleum SCADA Cybersecurity, and data acquisition.
Dr. Johan H Enslin (M’85; SM’92; F’12) is the Duke Energy
Endowed Chaired Professor in Smart Grid at Clemson Univer­
sity in North Charleston SC, USA and Executive Director for the
Energy Systems Program at the Zucker Family Graduate Edu­
cation Center. Enslin has combined a 39-year career with
leadership in industry and academia, in the US, Europe and
South Africa. He served as a senior executive for private busi­
ness operations and a professor in electrical engineering. He
received the BS, MS and PhD degrees in Electrical and Elec­
tronic Engineering from the Rand Afrikaans University (RAU),
South Africa, in 1981, 1983 and 1988 respectively. He is a
registered Professional Engineer in South Africa, Fellow of the
SAIEE and Fellow of the IEEE.