Science exam notes

BIOLOGY
PHOTOSYNTHESIS :
1. The XYLEM : special tubes that carry water from the root to the leaf.
2. The PHLOEM : Special tubes that carry Glucose from leaf to other parts of the plant.
3. STOMATA/STOMATA (s) : tiny openings on the underside of the leaf. The plant
exchanges gasses with its surroundings through the stomata.
4. Word Equation - Carbon dioxide + water + (light energy) glucose + oxygen gas.
5. Photosynthesis is the process by which plants make carbohydrate (glucose)
as food.
6. This carbohydrate is stored in the form of starch.
7. Starch is stored in leaves.

What is a destarched plant ?

8. A plant from which starch has been removed is called a destarched plant.
9. For this, place the plant in a dark place like a cupboard for 2-3 days.
10. Such a plant is now ready for further investigations on photosynthesis.
11. carbon dioxide in photosynthesis video.

12. Stomata = pores in a leaf, mostly on the undersurface.

13. Each pore is surrounded by a pair of guard cells
14. Guard cells can change shape to open or close the stomata.

15. Transpiration pull :

- During the transpiration process water molecules evaporate from the stomata, this
results in an upward pull of water from the root to the leaf mesophyll cells for
photosynthesis.

16. Importance of photosynthesis :

- Converts light energy into chemical energy by producing Glucose and other
carbohydrates.
- Herbivores derive their energy by eating the plants.
- Some animals derive their energy by eating other animals. Therefore, in a food
chain all animals directly/ indirectly depend on plants for their food.

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Science exam notes
- They utilize carbon dioxide from the air and convert it into Oxygen. Oxygen is
important for respiration in all organisms.

17. Why are fertilizers important?

Element Magnesium Nitrogen ( Nitrates)

With Needed for development Needed for converting

of leaf for making of carbohydrates to proteins
green pigment which are important for
chlorophyll making new cells. Also
needed for making
chlorophyll.

Without Leaves turn yellow and Plant shows poor growth

plants show poor growth. and stays small, and
leaves die.

18. CARBON :
- Element
- Present in many substances : Carbon , graphite, carbohydrates, proteins and fats.
- We cannot use carbon as an element, we can use it as a part of a compound. These
are made by plants.
- Plants use carbon dioxide to form carbohydrates.
- They use it to make proteins and fats.
19. CARBON CYCLE :

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Science exam notes

CHEMISTRY
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS:

1. ELEMENTS OF THE PERIODIC TABLE -

❖ HYDROGEN
❖ HELIUM
❖ LITHIUM
❖ BERYLLIUM
❖ BORON
❖ CARBON
❖ NITROGEN
❖ OXYGEN
❖ FLUORINE

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Science exam notes
❖ NEON
❖ SODIUM
❖ MAGNESIUM
❖ ALUMINIUM
❖ SILICON
❖ PHOSPHOROUS
❖ SULPHUR
❖ CHLORINE
❖ ARGON
❖ POTASSIUM
❖ CALCIUM
2.

- ATOMIC NUMBER : an atomic number of an element is the number of

protons found in the nucleus of that atom.
- MASS NUMBER : a mass number of an element is the total number of
protons and neutrons in the nucleus of the atom of that element.
- ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION : the electronic configuration is
the distribution of electrons of an atom or molecule in atomic or molecular
orbitals.
- MELTING POINT ( M.P ) : the temperature at which an element
changes its state from solid to liquid is called the melting point of the
element.
- BOILING POINT ( B.P ) : the temperature at which a liquid changes
into vapour is known as the boiling point of that element.

3. RULES FOR CHEMICAL SYMBOLS IN THE PERIODIC TABLE

- The symbol is usually the first one or two letters of the name
Eg : helium ( He )
- Sometimes the old ( latin ) name is used for the symbol
Eg : sodium ( Na )
- The first letter of a symbol is always capitalized and the second one is small.

4. Group 1 : ALKALI

- Li, K , H can also be placed in this group

- Atomic number increases as you go down in the group.
- Mass number also increases as you go down in the group.
- Size of an atom also increases as you go down in the group.

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- M.P, B.P decreases as you go down in the group

5. Group 7 : HALOGENS
- F, Cl, Br

6. Group 8 : NOBLE GASSES

- Helium, Neon, Argon
- Inert gasses

7. 🩵 Lewis dot and cross structure.

8. Covalent bonding : A covalent bond is a chemical bond that involves the sharing of
electrons to form electron pairs between atoms. These electron pairs are known as shared
pairs or bonding pairs. The stable balance of attractive and repulsive forces between
atoms, when they share electrons, is known as covalent bonding.
9. Videos To Watch :

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Science exam notes
- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_lNF3_30lUE

- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xazQRcSCRaY&pp=ygUFYXRvbXM%
3D

- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fN8kH9Vvqo0&pp=ygUFYXRvbXM%3
D

- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5I_1jRGSR9E&pp=ygUQY292YWxlbn
QgYm9uZGluZw%3D%3D

- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rz4Dd1I_fX0&pp=ygUOcGVyaW9kaW
MgdGFibGU%3D

- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Sk7W2VgbhOg&pp=ygUTbGV3aXMgZ
G90IHN0cnVjdHVyZQ%3D%3D

PHYSICS
ELECTRICITY

1. Definition Of Electricity : Electricity is a type of energy that consists of the movement

of electrons between two points when there is a potential difference between them,
making it possible to generate what is known as an electric current. Let's see a practical
example to understand it better.
2. Definition Of Current : Current is the rate at which electrons flow past a point in a
complete electrical circuit. At its most basic, current = flow.
3. Definition Of Circuit in Series : In a series circuit, which is also known as a series
connection, the circuit elements are arranged in a single path. This means that, if there are
three resistors in series, the same current must flow through all 3. In a series circuit, the
current is the same in all three resistors.

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Science exam notes
4. Definition Of Circuit in Parallel : an electrical path that branches so that the current
divides and only part of it flows through any branch. The voltage, or potential difference,
across each branch of a parallel circuit is the same, but the currents may vary.

5. Definition Of Conventional Current : Moves or flows from +VE to – VE

6. Conventional Current Flow : the conventional current flow is from the positive
terminal to the negative terminal and indicates the direction in which positive charges
would flow.
7. Electron Flow : The electron flow is from negative to positive terminals. Electrons are
negatively charged and are therefore attracted to the positive terminal. ( Unlike Charges
Attract )

8. Electric Circuit : Is a closed path for the flow of electrons it consists of

;
- Source of electricity
- Wires to conduct the flow of electrons ( electric current )
- Objects ( resistors or loads ) along the path that require electricity to operate ( eg.
lamps )

9. What's The Difference Between an Open & Closed Circuit ?

- A CLOSED circuit is one in which the pathway of the electrical current is
complete and unbroken.
- An OPEN circuit is one in which the pathway of the electrical current is broken.
A switch is a device in the circuit in which the circuit can be closed ( turned on )
or open ( turned off ).

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10. Resistance
VIR FORMULA.

VIR FORMULA IS
RESISTANCE = VOLTAGE DIVIDED BY CURRENT.
VOLTAGE = RESISTANCE MULTIPLIED BY CURRENT
CURRENT = VOLTAGE DIVIDED BY RESISTANCE

BIOLOGY
MAINTAINING LIFE.

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Science exam notes
1. Maintaining Life In Plants .
- How root hairs absorb water :
Plants, like all living things, are made mostly of water. Plants need to absorb water almost all of
the time. They do this through their roots. The roots absorb the water from the soil. Soil is made
up of tiny particles of rock. The particles are usually irregularly shaped, and all sorts of diffrent
sizes. They do not pack together tightly. There are spaces between them, which are filled with air
and water. Root hair cells provide a really big surface through which water and minerals can be
absorbed into the plant. Water moves into the root hair through the soil. It passes through the cell
wall and the cell membrane, and into the cytoplasm. Minerals including magnesium and nitrate
also move into the root hair cell along with the water. Magnesium and nitrate are in the form of
ions dissolved in the water between the soil particles.
- How water moves up the plant :

It moves up through a process known as transpiration. This is when water leaves through
the stomata, creating a negative hydrostatic pressure which pulls the water up through the
xylem. The properties of water allow this to happen

- How water moves through leaves.

During transpiration, water evaporates from tiny holes in the surfaces of leaves into the
air. These tiny holes are called stomata. As water molecules evaporate from plant leaves,
they attract the water molecules still in the plant, helping to pull water up through the
stems from the roots.

- Why do plants need water

a. For support : plant cells contain lots of water, especially inside the vacuoles. A plant cell
which has plenty of water is strong and firm. When all the other cells in the plant are like
this they press on one another they make the whole plant firm and well supported.
b. For Transport: as water moves through the xylem vessels, it carries dissolved mineral
salts.
c. For Cooling : when water evaporates, it takes heat away from it. So when water
evaporates it cools down the cell.

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Science exam notes
d. For Photosynthesis : it is one of the reactants for photosynthesis. In photosynthesis
plants change water and carbon dioxide to glucose and oxygen.

2. Excretion In Humans:
- Excretion is the process where all the metabolic wastes are removed from the body.
Excretion in humans is carried through different body parts and internal organs in a series
of processes. Diffusion is the most common process of excretion in lower organisms.

3. The Parts :
- The KIDNEY are organs that serve to filter the blood
- The URETER are tubes that carry urine from the kidney to the urinary bladder
- The URINARY BLADDER temporarily stores urine until it is released from the body.
- The URETHRA is the tube that carries urine from the urinary bladder to the outside of
the body

4. A Healthy Pregnancy:

- FETUS : a baby before it's born.

- Fetus also carries out all the life processes within the mothers body.
- A fetus relies on its mother to supply nutrients and excrete waste.
- A healthy mother helps to keep the fetus healthy.
- Substances needed by the fetus are brought to the fetus by the mothers blood.
- Fetal blood does not mix with the mothers blood though they come very close to each
other.
- Substances which need to be excreted from the fetal body are also excreted through the
mothers blood.
- Exchange of substances occurs through diffusion.

5. Diet :
➔ Protein
- Fetal growth and development of cells.

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Science exam notes
- Required by the mother for the growth and repair of her own cells and
strengthening her muscles.
- Mothers need extra protein for making hemoglobin as she needs more
oxygen which needs to be given to the fetus as well as used for her own
respiration.

➔ Carbs
- Provides energy for both the mother and the fetus.
- Required for respiration in both the mother as well as the fetus’s cells.
- Too much carbs results in being converted to fats which is unhealthy.

➔ Vitamins and Minerals

- Iron for hemoglobin production
- Calcium for mothers healthy teeth and bones as well as well as bone
development in the fetus
- Mothers also need to take in alot of vitamins.

➔ Smoking Cigarettes and Drugs

- Carbon monoxide, nicotine and tar
- Carbon monoxide diffuses from the mothers circulation into the fetus’s
circulation and reduces the oxygen carrying capacity of both mother and
the fetus as it gets less oxygen for respiration.

PHYSICS
RATES OF REACTION

● It is shown using a curved graph

● Definition : 2 or more chemicals combined to make a new one.

● Mg (s) + 2 HCL (ag) → MgCl2 (s) + H2(g)

● Magnesium + Hydrochloric Acid → Magnesium Chloride + Hydrogen Gas.

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● Changes observed when a chemical reaction takes place

- Colour
- Temperature
- Mass
- Formation of gas bubbles
- Odour or smell
● The rate of reaction changes because of ; collision

1. Surface area and the rate of reaction.

32 or

9x9

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Science exam notes

1 Cube .

An increase in the total surface area results in an increase in the rate of a reaction.

PHYSICS
FORCES AND ENERGY

Mass, Volume and Density:

polystyrene iron nails

Less particles – larger volume More particles - Smaller volume

Hollow and filled with air Solid – No air spaces

Calculating the Volume of a Regular block of material :

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Science exam notes

Calculating the Volume of an Irregular Solid :

Calculating the Volume of an Irregular Solid :

Read off the level on the scale before adding the irregular solid, and again after the solid has
been put into the measuring cylinder. Volume of irregular solid = Volume after – volume before
235 ml – 155 ml = 80 ml = 80cm3

Formula :

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Science exam notes

Let’s compare the mass of 1 cm3 Sodium, Iron and Polystyrene:

- A solid block of Sodium measuring 1 cm x 1 cm x 1 cm (volume = 1 cm3 ) has a mass of
1 cm3 of 0.97 g
- A solid block of Iron measuring 1 cm x 1 cm x 1 cm (volume = 1 cm3 ) has a mass of 1
cm3 of 7.87 g
- A solid block of Polystyrene measuring 1 cm x 1 cm x 1 cm (volume = 1 cm3 ) has a
mass of 1 cm3 of 0.05 g
- The mass of Polystyrene < Sodium < Iron
- The measure of mass in a fixed volume is known as density. The unit for density is g/cm3
- If the mass is in g and the volume is in cm3 , then the density will be given in g/cm3
- If the mass is in kg and the volume is in m3 , then the density will be given in kg/m3
- Density = Mass / Volume

Calculating the Density of Iron

Mass = 7.87 g ; Volume = 1 cm3
Density = 7.87 / 1 = 7.87 g/cm3

Calculating the Density of Polystyrene :

Mass = 0.05 g ; Volume = 1 cm3
Density = 0.05 / 1 = 0.05 g/cm3

Calculating the Density of Sodium:

Mass = 0.97 g ; Volume = 1 cm3
Density = 0.97 / 1 = 0.97 g/cm3

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Science exam notes

- As particles in a material are packed closer together, the density of the material increases.
So, the materials with the highest densities are solids.
- For elements, usually as atomic number increases, the density also increases. Osmium
(atomic no = 76) is denser than Iron (atomic no = 26).
- A collapsed star is known as a neutron star. Neutron stars are the densest stars in the
universe. They are compact stars thought to be composed primarily of neutrons. The
forces in collapsed stars are so large that atoms are compressed into very small spaces.
The material is called neutronium and has a density of 1014 g/cm3. A sand grain size of
neutron star material would have the mass of a skyscraper.

Floating and Sinking :

- If something is denser than water, it will sink in water.
- If something is less dense than water, it will float in water
- Why do Ships Float
- Floating and Sinking Video
Heat :

- Thermal Energy / Heat can be stored, transferred, or dissipated.

- When the thermal energy of an object increases, the energy of the particles increases, and
they vibrate faster.
- Heat is a measure of the total thermal energy of the particles in the object.
- Heat / Thermal energy is measured in joules (J).
- Same volume of water in both glasses. Same number of particles.
- The water in one glass is at a higher temperature means the thermal energy is greater.
- Higher the temperature, means the particles are moving faster
- Hence the total thermal energy of the particles is higher in the glass where the water is at
a higher temperature.

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Science exam notes
- The volume of water in both glasses is different. Hence more particles in one glass.
- The water in both glasses is at the same temperature.
- The total thermal energy in the glass with more particles is greater than in the glass with
less volume of water

Temperature :

- Temperature is different from heat / thermal energy.

- Temperature gives information on the direction in which thermal energy is transferred.
- It also tells us the average energy of the particles in the object.
- Temperature is measured in kelvin (K), degrees Fahrenheit (°F) & degrees Celsius (°C)

- Temperature of this Ice-Cream = -20⁰C

- Temperature of the air = 24⁰C
- Temperature difference = 44 ⁰C
- Thermal energy / Heat is transferred from the air to the ice
cream.
- The larger the temperature difference between two objects, the
faster the thermal energy transfer.
- Temperature is a good way of comparing particle energy between
objects of different sizes and different materials.

- SOUP IS AT A HIGHER
TEMPERATURE THEN THE WATER.
Heat and Temperature in a Sparkler :

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Science exam notes

- Temperature of the spark? - 1000⁰C

- Heat / Thermal energy of the spark?

HEAT TEMPERATURE

It is a form of energy, which It is a measure of the hotness or coldness of an

is transferred from one place object.
to another owing to a
temperature difference
between them.

Sum of the kinetic energy of Average of the kinetic energy of particles of the
particles of the object object

Calorimeter Thermometer

joules (J) kelvin (K), degrees Fahrenheit (°F) & degrees

Celsius (°C)

Absolute Zero:

- As the temperature decreases the vibration of the particles in an object will decrease.
- A scientist called Kelvin predicted that the particles would eventually stop vibrating if
the temperature was low enough. As a result that would be the lowest possible
temperature.
- This temperature is known as Absolute zero = - 273 ⁰C
- It is not possible to achieve absolute zero. However, scientists have come quite close to
achieving this.

Energy is Conserved :

- ELECTRICAL LAMP :

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Science exam notes

- CAR ENGINE :

Feeling Heat :
- Thermal Energy always moves from hot to cold, till an equilibrium has reached.

Feeling Cold & Dissipation :

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Science exam notes

WHY DO WE FEEL HEAT - VIDEO

Heat & Particle Movement :

Transfer of Heat - Conduction

Conduction: energy is transferred by the direct contact of particles.

- Does not involve actual movement of particles of the material.

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Science exam notes
- Transfer of heat by conduction occurs easily in solids, less easily in liquids, hardly at all
in gasses and not at all in vacuum.
- The amount of energy transferred depends on how conductive the material is.
- Materials that allow heat to be easily conducted through them are called conductors.
Metals are good conductors.
- Materials that do not allow heat to be conducted through them are called insulators.
Plastic, wood, wool, air etc are examples of insulators.

Transfer of Heat - Convection :

Convection: energy is transferred by the actual movement of particles resulting in heat

transfer.
➢ Transfer of heat by convection occurs only in liquids & gasses.
➢ As the particles are heated their density decreases. They rise up and their place is
taken by the cooler and denser particles. This sets up a current called convection
current.

BIOLOGY
GENES AND INHERITANCE

CHROMOSOMES :
- Thread like structures that carry genetic information.

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Science exam notes

- Different organisms have different numbers of chromosomes.

- Ex: Humans: 46 chromosomes , Dog :78 chromosomes, Mango plant: 40 chromosomes.
- Scientists number chromosomes in the cell according to how long the chromosomes are.
- Ex : In humans the longest chromosome is Chromosome 1, then Chromosome 2 and so
on…

- Each chromosome contains hundreds of genes.

- Genes are arranged in a particular sequence along the chromosomes.
- Each gene controls a particular characteristic.
- Genes determine all characteristics.
- Each species contains a different number of genes making them different.
- Genes make each individual unique.

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DNA :

- Full form : Deoxyribonucleic Acid

- Each chromosome is made of a long strand of DNA.
- Therefore, Genes are also made of DNA.
- The DNA in genes help determine the characteristics of organisms.
- It contains the complete set of instructions to make a cell functional.
- DNA molecule is shaped like a twisted ladder.
- This is a double helix shape.
- These twists cannot be seen using a microscope.
- ONE GENE could be about 2500 of these twists along the length of the DNA.

GAMETES

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Science exam notes

SPERM OVUM OR EGG

Most cells in a human body contain 46 chromosomes.

Every human being began life as a single cell. This cell was formed when
a sperm cell joined with an egg cell. Sperm cells and egg cells are specialised cells known as
gametes. A sperm cell is a male gamete, and an egg cell is a female gamete.

FERTILISATION :

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Science exam notes

SEX CHROMOSOMES

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Science exam notes

INHERITANCE : PASSING OF DNA ( GENETIC INFORMATION ) FROM PARENT TO

OFFSPRING.

VARIATION :
Differences between the individuals belonging to the same species are called Variation.
- Gametes contain DNA which contain genes .
- These genes affect different characteristics like horn size, Horn length, fur colour,
presence or absence of horns, tail shape , etc
- Different sperm cells and egg cells will contain different versions of these genes.
- Each gene is different because its DNA is different.
- After fertilisation, the zygote produced has a new combination of DNA.
- The combination is NOT exactly the same as in the parents or siblings.

NATURAL SELECTION :

- In every species there is variation among individuals.

- Some of these variations are caused by differences in their genes.
- Some individuals have features that make them more likely to survive than other
individuals that do not have these features.
- These individuals with advantageous features are more likely to reproduce and pass on
their genes to the next generation.

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Science exam notes
- Over many generations the gene with the advantageous features becomes more common
and the other becomes less common.

BACTERIA AND ANTIBIOTICS

EXTINCTION :

Changes in the environment can cause a population to become extinct, if the species cannot
change over time.

CHEMISTRY
REACTIVITY

REACTION OF METAL WITH DILUTE ACID :.

Metal + dilute acid → salt + hydrogen gas

Eg:
1. Magnesium + Hydrochloric Acid → magnesium chloride + hydrogen.
2. Calcium + Hydrochloric Acid → Calcium Sulfate + Hydrogen

Displacement Reactions:

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Science exam notes

A metal higher up in the reactivity series will displace any metal lower in the series from their
compounds.

Eg:
1. Zinc Sulphate + Silver → NO REACTION
( SILVER CANNOT REPLACE ZINC AS IT IS LOWER THAN ZINC IN THE
REACTIVITY SERIES)
2. Silver Sulfate + Zinc → Zinc Sulphate + Silver ( REACTIVE )

REACTIVITY SERIES : Mnemonic :

Potassium, K PLEASE
Sodium, Na SEND
Calcium, Ca CUTE
Magnesium, Mg MONKEYS
Zinc, Z ZEBRAS
Iron, Fe INTO
Copper, Cu CAGES
Silver, Ag SECURLY
Gold, Au GUARDED
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS :

The law of conservation of mass states that in a chemical reaction mass is neither created nor
destroyed. For example, the carbon atom in coal becomes carbon dioxide when it is burned. The
carbon atom changes from a solid structure to a gas but its mass does not change.

PHYSICS
SOUND AND SPACE

What Is Sound ?

- Sound is a form of energy that travels in the form of vibrations.

- Sound is a series of waves ( sound waves ) caused by vibrations.

> LONGITUDINAL WAVES :

> OSCILLOSCOPE : allows the study of the frequency and loudness of a sound.

Amplitude :
- Loudness

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Science exam notes
- Displacement

Frequency :
- Pitch

FORMATION OF THE MOON :

1. WHERE DID THE MOON COME FROM : The giant-impact theory is most widely
accepted today. This proposes that the Moon formed during a collision between the Earth
and another small planet, about the size of the planet Mars. The debris from this impact
collected in an orbit around Earth to form the Moon.
2. COLLISION THEORY FOR FORMATION OF THE MOON : Earth's Moon is thought
to have formed in a tremendous collision. A massive object ― named Theia after the
mythological Greek Titan who was the mother of Selene, goddess of the Moon ―
smashed into Earth, flinging material into space that became the Moon.
3. NEBULAE : In astronomy, all luminous flat objects in the celestial sphere were
originally referred to as nebulae or nebulae. This also included star nebulae, i.e. galaxies
and star clusters, as they appear as nebulae at low resolution in a telescope or with the
naked eye.
4. STELLAR NURSERIES : An area of ​outer space within a dense nebula in which gas and
dust are contracting, resulting in the formation of new stars .
5. MOVEMENT OF TECTONIC PLATES : The plates can be thought of like pieces of a
jigsaw puzzle that rest on the hot, molten rock of Earth's mantle and fit perfectly against
one another. The heat from radioactive processes within the planet's interior causes the
plates to move, sometimes toward and sometimes away from each other.
6. EVIDENCE FOR TECTONIC PLATES: Earthquakes, mountain building and volcanic
activity occur mostly at the boundaries of the moving plates. Only shallow earthquakes

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occur where plates diverge at mid-ocean ridges, whereas earthquakes extend to great
depth where plates converge at subduction zones
7. VIDEO LINKS : What Is a Nebula? (youtube.com)
Theia: When the Earth Destroyed its Sibling Planet | Our Universe | Netflix ,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c7nyan0wnkQ,

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