PV cells connected in series and in parallel to form PV module.

PV cells generate DC electricity.

PV cells comprises an emitter, absorber, and metal contacts.

Description of PV cells: Sunlight hit the solar cells, some have sufficient energy to penetrate the cell. Sunlight that
reaches the P-N junction of the cell, minority carriers (containing electrons) are generated if the photon energy of sunlight
is sufficient.
Generation of minority carriers leads to the extraction of electrons to the outer circuit via the front metal contacts.
Electrons then flow to the load and later enter the solar cell again via back metal contact.

Fill Factor represents a measure of squareness of IV current.

Open circuit voltage vs Short circuit current vs current/voltage at maximum power

I_sc > I_mp , V_oc > V_mp, module efficiency symbol is n-like; G is irradiance

Irradiance increases, current increases proportionately, voltage increases slightly.

Temperature increases, current increases slightly, voltage decreases proportionately.

String consists of several PV modules being electrically connected to a series.

Array consists of one or more than one PV string.

Power = sum of power from all modules

Current = sum of current from every string
Voltage = sum of voltage from each module in a string

Bypass diode – connected in parallel with PV module to provide a path for current to flow in case faulty.
- If PV module in a string is faulty, it will behave as an open circuit
- Without it, whole string becomes fault, cannot drive the current out from the string even other modules
aren’t faulty
- With it connected in parallel, string current is able to bypass the faulty module, allow current to be
driven out from string

Blocking diode- connected at each string terminal – connected in series with a string to block any reverse current flow.
- PV string is faulty (not module), voltage across the string is substantially lower than the remaining
operational strings
- Voltage difference may result in reverse current being pumped into the faulty string.
- Installation of blocking diode prevent reverse current to flow into the faulty trin.
- Reverse current flow may damage the string if it exceeds maximum reverse current limit of PV module.

Chapter 4: Grid interactive inverter (different from standalone inverter)

V_dc -> Boost chopper & MPPT system -> DC/AC bridge inverter -> V_inv -> Coupling inductor -> I_inv + V_grid

Solar radiation impinges on PV array, DC voltage V_dc is produced, (affected by temperature, can change drastically)
Boost chopper raises and maintain the input voltage to the bridge unit with almost constant voltage.
Bridge unit converts DC voltage into AC sinusoidal form (V_inv).
V_in is forced to be leading V_grid until V_grid in phase with I_inv (unity power factor, zero phase difference) – forces
only active power transfer to the grid.
Amount of Power transfer to the grid is controlled by changing the magnitude of V_inv & Phase Angle.

MPPT – maximum power point tracker (input/MPP voltage window)

Principle: When V_dc within MPPT inverter operating voltage range, MPPT circuit keeps on tracking the maximum power
from the PV array until it achieved. So Output power from the PV array could be maximized

Adjustable power factor – transfer reactive power (not only active power) to the grid, inverter is set to lagging mode.

Rated power is highest power at which the inverter can be operated continuous without damaging.
Maximum power if the maximum power limit imposed by the inverter. Some inverters clamp excess power to this limit.