causedby momentary chargein generaforspeecl,tI'r.r.tnr*,-i;;?

t;qffi; ;;
excitationvoltagecontrolsare non-interactive
for smallchangesand can be

R
1.,
modelledandanalysed
F:tcl :tcfinrr
independently.
ri n
Furthermore,
r r rvrvr rhrirnvhr r
excitationvoltageeontrolis
tLhr cr v -r r, rr ci ^r rJ v r f i r r r o
rrlttw

field; while the power frequencycontrol is slow actingwith major time constant
n,rn..r,rhr ^6^,rri-+^-^.1
vrJrrJr-(lrrr urlLUultLtrlcu
:- rL^e ^$rL- -^-^--^-
r5 llla! ul ulc; ggirtcfalor

contributedby the turbine and generatormomentof inertia-this time constant

is much larger than that of the generatortield. Thus,the transientsin excitation
voltage control vanish much faster and do not affect the dynamics of power
frequencycontrol.

8.T
.INTRODUCTION

Powersystemoperationconsidcrcdso far was underconditionsof stcadyload.

However, both active and reactive power demandsare never steady and they
continually change with the rising or falling trend. Steam input to turbo-
generators(or water input to hydro-generators) must, therefore,be continuously
regulatedto match the active power demand,failing which the machinespeed
will vary with consequent change in frequency whieh may be highly
I
P+JQ
undesirable*(maximum permissiblechangein power fiequency is t 0.5 Hz). Fig. 8.1 schematicdiagramof loadfrequencyand excitation
Also the excitation of generatorsmust be continuouslyregulated to match the voltageregulatorsof a turbo-generator
reactive power demand with reuctive generation,otherwise the voltagesat
various system buses may go beyond the prescribed limits. In modern large Change in load demand can be identified as: (i) slow varying changes in
interconnected systems, manual regulation is not feasible and therefore meandemand,and (ii) fast random variations aroundthe mean. The regulators
automaticgenerationand voltage regulation equipment is installed on each mustbe dusignedto be insensitiveto thst randomchanges,otherwisethe system
generator. Figure 8.1 gives the schematic diagram of load frequency and will be prone to hunting resulting in excessivewear and tear of rotatins
excitation voltage regulatorsof a turbo-generator.The controllers are set for a machinesand control equipment.
particularoperatirrgcondition and they take care of small changesin load
denrandwithout fiequency and voltageexceedingthe prescribedlimits. With 8.2 LOAD FREOUENCY CONTROL (STNGLE AREA CASE)
the passage of time, as the change in lcad demand becomes large, the
contrcllersmust be reseteithernianuallyor automatically. Let us considerthe problemof controlling the power output of the generators
It has been shown in previous chaptersthat for small changesactive power of a closely knit electric areaso as to maintz,inthe scheduledfrequency. All the
is dependenton internalmachineangle 6 and is inderrendentof bus voltage: generatorsin such an areaconstitutea coherent group so that all the generators
.
whiie bus voitage is dependenton machine excitation (therefore on reactive speeoiip ancisiow riowii togetiierrnarntarnrng
^ - ^ ^ l - I ^ l - - - - . - l ^ - - - - ^ L - - - . r -
thelr reiarrvepower angies.Such
- ^ . _ _ _ : - , . r

- " - an area is defined as a control area. Tire boundariesof a coqtrol area will
Changein frequency causeschangein speedof the consumers' plant affecting generallycoincide with that of an individual Electricity Board Company.
productionprocesses.Further,it is necessaryto maintainnetworkfrequencyconstant To understandthe load fiequency control problem, let us consider a single
so that the powerstationsrun satisfactorily
in parallel,the variousmotorsoperating turbo-generatorsystem supplying an isolated load.
on the systemrun at the desiredspeed,correcttime is obtainedfrom synchronous
clocksin the system,andthe entertaining devicesfunctionproperly.
 W Modern power system Analys,s

Turbine Speed Governing System

Figure 8.2 shows schematicallythe speedgoverningsystem of a steamturbine. turbine. Its downward movement opens the upper pilot valve so that more steem
The systemconsistsof the following components: is admitted to the turbine under steady conditions (hence more steady power
. The reverse
Steam
Model of Speed Governing System

Assume that the system is initially operating under steady conditions-the

linkage mechanism stationary and pilot valve closed, stearnvalve opened by a
definite magnitude, turbine running at constant speedwith turbin" po*"r output
balancing the generator load. Let the operating conditions be characteizedby
Speed changer
=
"f" systemfrequency (speed)
P'c = generator output = turbine output (neglecting generator loss)

.IE = steam valve setting

We shall obtain a linear incremental model around these operating
conditions.
Pilot Let the point A on the linkage mechanism be moved downwards by a small
amount Aye.It is a commandwhich causesthe turbine power output to change
--t-\

value
and can therefore be written as
High
pressure oil Main Aye= kcAPc (8.1)
piston
where APc is the commanded increase in power. \
A The command signal AP, (i.e. Ayi sets into rnotion a bequenceof events-
I
rHydraulic amplifier the pilot valve moves upwards,high pressureoil flows on to the top of the main
(speed control mechanism) piston moving it downwards; the steam valve opening consequently increases,
the turbine generatorspeedincreases,i.e. the frequencygoes up. Let us model
Fig.8,2 Turbinespeedgoverningsystem these events mathematically.
Reprinted with permission
of McGraw-HiltBookCo., New York,from Olle l. Elgerd: Two factors contribute to the movement of C:
Electric Energy System Theory: An lntroduction, 1g71, p. 322.
(i) Ayecontributer - Aya or - krAyo(i.e. upwards) of - ktKcApc
[?J
\rll
(i) FIy ball speedgovernor: This is the heart of the system which sensesthe
(ii) Increase in frequency ff causes the fly balls to move outwards so that
changein speed(frequency).As the speedincreasesthe fly balls move outwards
B moves downwards by a proportional amount k'z Af. The consequent
and the point B on linkage mechanism moves downwards. The reversehappens
when the speeddecreases.
G) Hydraulic amplifier: It comprises a pilot valve and main piston movement of Cwith A remaining fixed at Ayo - . (+) orO, - + kAf
alrangement.Low power level pilot valve movement is converted into high
(i.e. downwards)
power level piston valve movement. This is necessaryin order to open or close
The net movement of C is therefore
the steamvalve againsthigh pressure steam.
(xl) Lintcage mechanism: ABC is a rigid link pivoted at B and cDE is AYc=- ktkcAPc+kAf (8.2)
anotherrigid link pivoted at D. This link mechanismprovides a movementto The movement of D, Ayp, is the amount by which the pilot valve opens. It is
the control valve in proportion to change in speed.It also provides a feedback contributedby Ayg and AyB and can be written as
the steamvalve movement (link 4).
,,fr9rn
Ayo=(h) Ayc+(;h) *,
 controt E
= ktayc + koAys 1
(g.3) E^,,^ri^- /o o\ :- . r .
riyLr.Lru' \o.o., rs rcpfesenleo ln tne ronn of a block diagram - t
The movement ay.o-d,epending upon its sign opensone of the ports of the pilot in Fig. 9.3.
valve admitting high pressure'o' into
thJ moving the main Ks9
piston and opening the steam valve "ynnJ.ithereby
by ayr. certain justifiable simprifying 1+ fsss 4Y5(s)
assumptions,which ean be rnade at this
.tugl, ur",
(i) Inertial reaction forces of main
pistoi and steam valve are negligible
compared to the forces exerteclon the
iirton by high pressureoil.
(ii) Because of (i) above, the
rate of oil admitted to the cylinder is
proportional to port opening Ayo.
The volume of oil admitted to the cylinder 4F(s)
is thus proportional to the time
integral o,f ayo. The movementay"i.s Flg. 8.3 ,Blockdiagramrepresentation
obtainedby dividing the oil volume by of speed governorsystem
the area of the cross-section of the-piston.Thus
The speed governing system of a hydro-turbine is more involved.
An
Avn= krfoeayrlat additional feedback loop provides temporary droop compensation
(8.4) to prevent
instability. This is necessitatedby the targe inertia or the penstoct gut"
It can be verified from the schematicdiagram which
that a positive movement ayo, regulates the rate of water input to the turbine. Modelling of a
causesnegative (upward)movement ayulccounting hyjro-turbine
for the n"gutiu" ,ign used regulating system is beyond the scopeof this book.
in Eq. (8.4).
Taking the Laplacetransformof Eqs. (g.2),(g.3) Turbine Model
and (g.4), we ger
AYr(s)=- k&cApc(") + krAF(s) Let us now relate the dynamic responseof a steam turbine in tenns
(8.5) of changes
Ayp(s)= kzAyd,s)+ koAyug) in power ouFut to changesin steamvalve opening ^4yr. Figure g.4a
(8.6) shows a
two stage steam turbine with a reheat unit. The dynamic *ponr"
is targely
influenced by two factors, (i) entrained steambetwein the inlet stbam
a y u ( g = - k s ol r U n (8.7)
valve and
first stageof the turbine, (ii) the storageaction in the reheaterwhich
causesthe
EliminatingAyr(s) andAyo(s), we can write output of the low pressurestageto lag behind that of the high pressure
'fttus, stage.
the turbine transfer function is characterizedby two time constants.
k'ktk'AP' (s)- k,krAF(s) For
AYu(s)- ') easeof analysisit will be assumedhere that the turbinl can be modelled
to have
(oo '' t Ssingle equivalent time constant.Figure 8.4b shows the transfer function model
"'tr ,/ of a sreamturbine. Typicaly the time constant lies'in the range
\ { o.i ro z.s
sec.

-lor,<,r-*^or",].i#) (8.8) -=-&

Steam valve

where

n= klct_
= speedregulationof the governor
K2

- gainof speed (a) Two-stage

steamturbine
K.,= governor
+y
.r.
, rs = l " = tlme constant of speed AYg(s)-FAPds)
- ;-;
KqkS r-- governor

(b) Turbinetransferfunctionmodel

Flg. 8.4
 #ph-Si po*", s),rt"r An"ly.i,
rrrroarrn
I Automatlc Generationand Voltage Control I
Generator Load Model
The increment
in powerinputto the generatbr-load
systemis =tAP6g)_
aPo(,)r.[#j (s.13)
APG _ APD
whele AP6 = AP,, incremental turbine
incremental loss to be negligible) and App is the load increment. 2H
This increment in power input to the syrtem is accountedfor in two ways: = pow€r systemtime constant
Bf"
(i) Rate of increase of stored kinetic energy in the generator
rotor. At
scheduledfrequency (fo ), the stored energy is
Kp,= =powersystem
gain
Wk, = H x p, kW = sec (kilojoules) +
where P, is the kW rating of the turbo-generator andH is defined as its inertia Equation (8.13) can be representedin block diagram form as in Fig. g.5.
constant.
The kinetic energy being proportional to square of speed(frequency), the laeo(s)
kinetic energy at a frequency of (f " + Arf ) is given by ^Po(s)
16---ffioro,

Flg.8.5 Blockdiagramrepresentation
of generator-load
model
=nr,(r.T) (8.e)
complete Block Diagrram Representation of Load Frequenry
Rate of change of kinetic energy is therefore Control of an Isolated Power System

=fffrr"n
$rr*"r (8.10)
(ii) As the frequency changes,the motor load changesbeing
sensitive to
speed,the rate of changeof load with respectto frequ"n.y, i.e. arot\ycan
be
regarded as nearly constant for small changes in frequency Af ard can
be
expressedas
AP(s)=trPn15;
@PDl?flAf=BAf (8.11)
wherethe constantB can be determinedempirically, B is positivofor a
predominantly motorload.
AP6(s)
Writing the powerbalanceequation,we have

f . P] *' d (< o f l +B A f
, r^== T- H
APc- aP

Dividingthroughoutbyp, andrearanging,we get

Flg. 8.6 Blockdiagrammodelof load frequencycontrol
(isolatedpowersystem)
AP6$u)- AP;q;u)= 1d / A ' ^ +' B(ptt)
(Afi n ' 7 ' - -af
-\
(8.i2)
f dt
Steady States Analysis
Taking the l,aplace transforrn, we can write AF(s) as
AP,G) -4PoG) The model of Fig. 8.6 shows that there are two important incrementalinputs to
4Fis; - the load frequency control system - APc, the change in speedchangersetting;
B*-'- s and APo, the change in load demand. Let us consider,,.4,.simplesituatiqn in
 Modern
which the sneerl .hqnrro' hoo .. g.-.^) ^-.-. .rL^ ^L^--^ I
'(rr cr rr^tr(r ucttrng af = o) and the load r'E .1uuy' cquauon glves tne steadystate changesin frequency
r.han.,oo

:,:il?:
steady
't::;

;3l i:inT:
;-::--::^

:: frequen-cy a2
rreego,,* ;, 2
; ;;;*;:r;;ffi; *' #ff:Tiil:
\7'e' c demand
changes in load demand. Speed regulation R
causedby
is-naturally so adjusted that
change system fora sudd.n.hung", changesin frequency are small (of the order of
ffi;ffi"ffi;ti'l; 5vo from no load to ruu load).
Therefore,the linear incrementalrelation (g.16)ican
anaount
*, be appliedfrom no load to
(, e.Apog):+)is obtainedas follows: full load' with this understanding,Fig. 8.7
shows the linear relationship
betweenfrequency and load for free governor operation
with speedchanger set
to give a scheduledfrequency of r00% at full toao.
aF@)l*,(s):o
: - AP^ The .droop, or slopeof this
( 'l
I
^f
- is -l
relationship
\ B+(t/R) )
Power system parameter B is generaily much smalrer*
than r/R (a typical
value is B = 0.01 pu Mwalz and l/R = U3) so
that B canbe neglected in
comparison.Equation (8.16) then simplifies to

(8.17)
rhedroop fjfli;], curve
isthusmainly determinedby R, the
"r,,fl",
speedgovernorregulation.

ap,=_
K
r^sorr, I ( = 1. I
*"r: (r^;)o",
Decrease
in system
load= BAf= (uffi)*,
It is also rccognized that Ko, = 7 / B , w h e r e B - Y ^
/P' (in PuMWunit change
ai Of course,the contribution of decreasein system load
in frequency). Now is much less than the
increase in generation. For typical values of B and
R quoted earlier
APo = 0.971 APo
4=-(#6)o,. (8.16) Decreasein system load = 0.029 ApD
consider now the steady effect of changing
speed changer setting

(Or"<rl- load demandremainingfixed (i.e. Apo= 0). The

+)with sready
fi roa
(J
state changein frequency is obtained as follows.
L

8.rog
.c
*For
102 at 250 MW machine with an operating load of 125
li\ dA^t | | MW. let the change in load
\r,, ruu-loLoao be i%o for IVo change in frequency (scheduledfrequency =
101 50 Hz). Then
(ii) 60% Load
a-:?:r?: :2.5
100 NNVtHz
0 af 0.s
Percent Load

Flg. 8.7 Steady

governor
"*-l?39-frequency
system
qharacteristicof a speed '=(#)b :
#:
o'ol PuMwgz
 uodernPowersystemAnalysis Autor"tic G"n"r"tionand Volt"g" Conttol
W F
I r t v (t ^ p s
ttsgttf AD
AF@lap,{s):o: xu'c (8.18)
( 1 +T , r s ) ( l * 4 sxl-
) * zors)+ KseKtK p,/R s

I
4,flr*uoyro,":_ t
KreKrKp, \
- lI
AP, (8.1e) Two generators rated 200 MW and 400 MW are operating in parallel. The
r l
I AP',:g
( 1 + K .sK tK ps/ R droop characteristicsof their governors are4Vo and 5Vo,respectivelyfrom no
load to full load. Assuming that the generatorsare operating at 50 Hz at no
If load, how would a load of 600 MW be sharedbetweenthem?What will be the
K rrK,= l system frequency at this load? Assume free governor operation.

Ar=( | \rc" (8.20)

Repeat the problem if both governorshave a droop of 4Vo.
" \ B+llR) Solution Since the generators are in parallel, they will operate at the same
frequency at steadyload.
If the speed changer setting is changedby AP, while the load demand
Let load on generator 1 (200 MW) = x MW
changesby APo, the steadyfrequencychangeis obtainedby superposition,i.e.
and load on generator 2 (400 MW) = (600 - x) MW
- APo) Reduction in frequency = Af
Ar = ( (8.21)
ru) 'o" Now
". frequency changecausedby load demandcan be
According to Eq. (8.2I) the af_ 0.04x 50
(i)
compensated by changingthe settingof the speedchanger,i.e. x 200
APc- APo, for Af = Q af 0.05x 50 (ii)
Figure 8,7 depicts two load frequency plots-one to give scheduled 600-x 400
frequencyat I00Vorated load and the other to give the samefrequencyat 6O7o EquatingAf in (i) and (ii), we get
rated load.
231 MW (loadon generatorr)
v -

-/A trltf /1 ^-l ^-

600-x= JOy lvlw (IUau ull Btrrltrriltur L)

- 0'0-1150
' = 50
Systemfrequency x 231 = 47.69 Hz
200
A 100 MVA synchronousgeneratoroperateson full load at at frequencyof 50
It is observed here that due to difference in droop characteristics of
Hz. The load is suddenly reducedto 50 MW. Due to time lag in governor
governors,generatorI gets overloadedwhile generator2 is underloaded.
system,the steamvalve beginsto closeafter 0.4 seconds.Determinethe change
It easily follows from above that if both governorshave a droop of.4Vo,they
in frequencythat occurs in this time.
will share the load as 200 MW and 400 MW respectively,i.e. they are loaded
Given H = 5 kW-sec/kVA of generatorcapacity.
corresponding to their ratings. This indeed is desirable from operational
Solution Kinetic energy stored in rotating parts of generatorand turbine
considerations.
= 5 x 100 x 1.000= 5 x 105 kW-sec
Dynamic Response
Excesspower input to generatorbefore the steam valve
beginsto close= 50 MW To obtain the dynamic responsegiving the change in frequency as function of
the time for a step changein load, we must obtain the Laplace inverse of Eq.
Excess energy input to rotating parts in 0.4 sec (8.14). The characteristicequationbeing of third order, dynamic responsecan
= 50 x 1,000 x 0.4 = 20,000 kW-sec r'
Onfy
r
Dg
| 1-!-- - I
ODIalneU
f-,-
luf
-
A
-^^^tC: ^
SPtrUfffU
---*^-:^^1
ll|'llll('llua1'I
^^^^
Ua1DE.
tI^.-,^,,^-
II(rwsYsIr
+L^
LfIs
^L^-^^+^--i^+in
r,Il<ll4ivLsllDrlv

Stored kinetic energy oo (frequency)2 equation can be approximated as first order by examining the relative
Frequency at the end of 0.4 sec magnitudesof the time constantsinvolved. Typical valuesof the time constants
of load frequency control system are rdlated as
+ zo,ooo
= 5ox I soo,ooo )t"= 5r rfz
\ 500,000 )
 Trr4T, <To,
Time (sec)------->
Typically* t, = 0.4 sec, Tt = 0.5 sec and -1
tI
Firstorderapproximatiorl
I
o

Flg' 8.8 Firstorderapproximate brockdiagramof road Dynamicresponse_of

changein frequencyfor a stepchangein load
frequencycontrotof an isolatedarea (APo= 0.01pu, 4s = 0.4 sec, | = 0.5 sLc, Io. = 2b sec, (" = 100,
R= 3)
Irning Tro = T, = 0: K*\ =1), the block diagram of Fig. 8.6
Iuld is
reduced to thlt of F'ig. 8.8, from which we can write The plot of change in frequency versus time for first order approximadon
^rirst
given above and the exact response are shown in Fig. a.g.
order
to, approximation is obviously a poor approximation.
AF(s)l*r(s):o = - .-.APo
(1+ KpslR)+ Zp.s" s
Gontrol Area Concept

- - "o{1:- =xaP, So far we have considered the simplified case of a single turbo-generator
supplying an isolated load. Consider now a practical system with number
, l, + ^ + r o ' 1 e
generating stations aird loads. It is possible to divide an extendedpower
of
L R4,J (say, national grid) into subareas(may be, State Electricity Boards)
system
in which
-ft{' - *,[-,,a[n#)]]*, g 22)
Ar(,)= the generatorsare tightly coupled together so as to form a coherent group,
all the generators respond in unison to changes in load o, ,p"rJ changer
i.e.

settings.Such a coherentareais called a control area in which the frequency

TakingR = 3, Kp, = llB = 100, = 20, Apo = is assumedto be the same throughout in static as well as dynamic conditions.
e, 0.01 pu
For purposes of developing a suitable control strategy, a control area can
be
Af (t) = - 0.029(I - ,-t:tt', (8.23a) reduced to a single speed governor, turbo-generator and load system. All the
control strategies discussedso far are, therefore, applibable to an independent
Aflrt"udystare= - 0.029 Hz
(8.23b) control area.

Proportional Plus fntegral Control

It is seen from the above discussionthat with the speed governing sysrem
installed on each machine, the steady load frequency charartitirti" fi agiven
speedchanger setting has considerabledroop, e.g. for the system being used for
the illustration above, the steadystate-droop in fieo=ueneywill be 2.9 Hz
[see
Eq. (8.23b)l from no load to tull load (l pu load). System frequency
specifications are rather stringent and, therefore, so much change in frequency
"For a 250 MW machinequoted
earlier,inertiaconstanrIl = SkW-seclkVA cannot be tolerated. In fact, it is expected that the steady change in frequency
will be zero. While steadystatefrequency can be brought back io the scheduled
', = 4 :o. 2 * 5
Bf 0.01x ==2osec
50
ffil PowersystemAnalys
Modern AutomaticGenerationand VoltageControl
I
t-
vaiue by adjus'ringspeedchangersetting,the systemcould under go intolerable in ihe above scheme ACE being zero uncier steaciyconditions*, 4 logical
dynamic frequency changes with changes in load. It leads to the natural design criterion is the minimization of II,CZ dr for a step disturbance. This
suggestion that the speed changer setting be adjusted automatically by integral is indeed the time error of a synchronous electric clock run from the
monitoring the frequency changes.For this purpose, a signal from Af is fed power supply. Infact, modern powersystems keep Eaekofintegra+e4tinae errsr
througfan integrator to the s diagram
all the time. A corrective action (manual adjustment apc, the speed changer
configuration shown in Fig. 8.10. The system now modifies to a proportional
setting) is taken by a large (preassigned)station in the area as soon as the time
plus integral controller, which, as is well known from control theory, gives zero
error exceeds a prescribed value.
steady state error, i.e. Af lrt""d",,ut,= 0. The dynamics of the proportional plus integral controller can be studied
numerically only, the systembeing of fourth order-the order of the system has
Integral APe(s) APp(s) increasedby one with the addition of the integral loop. The dynamic response
controller
of the proportional plus integral controller with Ki = 0.09 for a step load

l+t-r8-
I I t - +
AF(s)
disturbance of 0.01 pu obtained through digital computer are plotted in Fig.
8.11. For the sake of comparisonthe dynamic responsewithout integral control
t l action is also plotted on the samefigure.
AP6(s)

sensor
Frequency

-1
plus integralload frequencycontrol
Fig. 8.10 Proportional +I
I
t
The signal APr(s) generatedby the integral control must be of oppositesign o
r
x
to /F(s) which accounts for negative sign in the block for integral controller.
Now
Kn,
AF(s1=
Ko,
(r+%"s).
(** +). ( l * f , r s ) ( l + 4 s )
RKo,s(l+{rs)(l+ 4s)
+ {'s)(1 + 4sXl f zo's)R* Ko'(KiR f s) "+ (8.24)
Flg. 8.11 Dynamicresponseof loadfrequencycontroller with and without
integralcontrolaction(APo = 0.01pu, 4s = 0.4 sec, Ir = 0.5
obviousry sec, Ips= 20 sec, Kp.= 100,B - B, Ki= 0.-09)
Af l"t"^dy = so/F(s) : o
state
(8.25)
,
In contrast to Eq. (8.16) we find that the steady state changein frequency 8.3 IOAD FREOUENCY CONTROL AND ECONOMIC
has been reduced to zero by the additio4 of the integral controller. This can be DESPATCH CONTROL
argued out physically as well. Af reaches steady state (a constant value) only
rr.,lrsrr
wlMl uAp^
rc-
- Ap-
HrD =
- .ons-fant
vvuulqr!. Becarrs-e of fhe intes!'atins actiOn Of the Load freouencv
I
__J control
________ with
,.___ inteorel
_---_O eonfrnller qnhierrAe
'vu
?a?^
lvrv
craolrr
otvsuJ
ora+o
Dl4lg

controller, this is only possible if Af = 0.
In central load frequency control of a given control area, the change (error)
in frequencyis known as Area Contol Error (ACE). The additional signal fed
back in the modified control schemepresented above is the integral of ACE.
frequencyelTor and a fast dynamic response,but it exercisesno control over the
relative loadings of various generating stations (i.e. economic despatch) of the
control area. For example, if a sudden small increasein load (say, 17o) occurs
'Such
a control is known as isochronous control, but it has its time (integral of
frequency) error though steady frequency error is zero.
 f
Automatic
area, the road conrior ,changesthe speed changer _T---
1i..l1r_::ltrol
Dcrurgs -frequency command signai generated'oythe centrai economic despatch
or tne governors of all generating units of the area so that, computer.Figure
together,
theseunits match the load and the frequenry returns tp the scheduled 8'12 gives the schematicdiagram of both thesecontrolsior two
value (this typi.ut units of
action takesplace in a few seconds).However, in the,process a control area.The signal to changethe speedchan3ersetting
of this change the is lonstructed in
Ioadings of u@units accordancewith economic despatcherror,
change in a manner independent of [po (desired)- pJactual)]. suitabry
economi@ In fact, some units in the pro""r, may even modified by the signal representingintegral ncg at that instant
of time. The
get overloaded.Some control over loading of individual signal P6 (desired) is computed by the central economic despatch
units cafi be Lxercised computer
by adjustingthe gain factors (K,) includeJin the signal representing (CEDC) and is transmitted to the local econornic despatch
integral of controller (EDC)
the area cogtrol error as fed to individual unitr. However, installed at each station. The system thus operateswith economic
this is not desfatch error
satisfactory. only for very short periods of time beforJ it is readjusted.

"fnceot 8.4 TWO-AREA LOAD FREOUENCY CONTROL

An extendedpower system can be divided into a number of

load frequency
control areasinterconnectedby meansof tie lines. Without loss of generality
we
shall consider a two-area case connectedby a single tie line
aslilusnated in
Fi g. 8.13.

Speed

Fig.B.i3 Two interconnected

controrareas(singre
tie rine)
The control objective now is to regulatethe frequency of each
area and to
srnnultaneously regulatethe tie line power as per inter-areapower contracts.
As
in the caseof frequency, proportional plus integral controller will
be installed
so as to give zero steady state error in tie line power flow as compared
to the
contractedpower,
EDC - Economic despatch controller It is convenientlyhssumedthat each control area canbe represented
lr. by an
CEDC - Central economic despatch computer equivalentturbine, generatorand governorsystem.Symbols used
with suffix I
refer to area 7 and those with suffi x 2 refer to area 2.
Flg. 8-12 Control area load frequency and economic despatch In an isolated control area case the incremental power (apc _ apo)
control was
accountedfor by the rate of increaseof stored kinetic energy and increase
in
Reprinted (with modification) with permission of McGraw-Hill areaload causedby increasein fregueircy.since a tie line t *rport, power
Book Company, in
New York from Olle I. Elgerd: Electric Energy SystemsTheory: or out of an area, this fact must be accounted for in the incremental power
An Introd.uction,
I971,p. 345. balanceequation of each area.
Power transported out of area 1 is .eivenbv
''rrl''l
Ptie,r = sin ({ - q (8.26)
X,,
where
q'q - poweranglesof equivalentmachinesof thetwo
areas.
 I Automatic
Generation
and Vortagecontror
308 | Modefn Power SystemAnalysis
I Fil
I APti".r(s)
For incrementalchangesin { and 6r, the incre.mentaltie line power can be
expressed
as
AP,i,,r(pu)= Tp(Afi - 462) (8.27)
where
'Y:t'-Yf
T, = cos(f - E) - synchronizingcoefficient
PrrXrz
Fig. 8.14
Since incrementalpower anglesare integrals of incrementalfrequencies,we
can write Eq. (8.27) as The corresponding block diagram is shown in Fig. g.15.

AP,i,,r = 2*.(l Afrdt- (8.28)

I Urat) +
APti",r(s)
where Afi nd Af,, arc incremental frequency changes of areas 1 and 2,
respectively.
Similarly the incrementaltie line power out of area2 is given by -iE= --n7ri"l
AF1(s)
aPt;", z = 2ilzr([ yrat - ayrat) (8.2e)
[ Fig. 8. 15
where
For the control area 2, Ap6", r(s) is given by tEq. (g.Zg)l
rzr
LL
= tYr:J cos({L - E): [S]ti z: ar2rrz (s.30) - : gr r r ,
Przxzr "
\Prr)
apt i", z( s)= [ AFr ( s)- 4F, ( s) ] ( g: 35)
With referenceto Eq. (8.12), the incrementalpower balance equationfor which is also indicated Uy ,i. block diagramof Fig. 8.15.
area 1 can be written as \
Let us now turn our attentionto ACE (areacontrol error; in the presence
of
a tie line. In the case of an isolated control area, ACE is the change in area
APo,- APor= + *w)+ nrz|r* AP,,",t (8.31)
frequency which when used in integral control loop forced the steady state
Jr" or
frequencyelror to zero. In order that the steadystatetie line power error
It rnay be noted that all quantitiesother than fiequencyare in per unit in in a
two-areacontrol be made zeroanotherintegralcontrol loop (one for each area)
Eq.(8.3l). must be introducedto integratethe incrementaltie line power signal and feed
Taking the l-aplacetransf'ormof Eq. (8.31) and reorganizing,we get it backto the speedchanger.This is aeeomplished by a singleintegratingbloek
by redefining ACE as a linearcombinationof incrementalfrequenryand tie line
A F (s ) = IAP 6 1 G -) A P r,(s) - A P ti " ,,1r;] $.32) power. Thus, fbr control area I
" t$-
I + 4,,t,!
ACEI = APu".r+ brAf, ( 8. 36)
where as definedearlier [seeEq. (8.13)]
where the constant b, is called areafrequency bias.
Kp31= I/81
Equation (8.36) can be expressedin the Laplace transform as
Tpil = LHr/BJ" (8.33) ACEl(s) = APo., r(s) + b1AF1g) (8.37)
Comparedto Eq. (8.13) of the isolated control areacase,the only changeis Similarly, for the control are a 2, ACE2 is expressedas
ol the signal APri"J(s) as shown in Fig. 8.14.
the appearance
'-l'^Li-- fho T -^l-^a fL*lo4nl l oDfrnurrm ^ufr E^ /a ta\ tl h
ACEr(s) = APti".z(s)+ b2AF,(s) ( 8. 38)
I4ArrrS rrrw lsl/l4vv rrr LY. \v.L9), l rav c iro6 nr rosl^
o ,4P /"\
tie.I\.r/
ic nlrfoinerl
",
AS
Combining the basic block diagramsof the two control areascorresponding
to Fig. 8.6, with AP5rg) and Apr2(s) generatedby integrals of respective
=
AP,i.,1(s) - /4 (s)l (8.34) ACEs (obtainedthrough signalsrepresentingchangesin tie line power and local
ffroor(s) frequencybias) and employing the block diagramsof Figs. g.t+ to g.15, we
easily obtain the composite block diagram of Fig. g.16.
 WIU&| Modern Power svstem Analvsis

Let the step changesin loads APo, and APrrbe simultaneouslyappliedin

control areas 1 and 2, respectively.When steady conditions are reached,the
output signals of all integratingblocks will become constantand in order for
this to be so, their input signalsmust become zero. We have, therefore, from
F i e .8 . 1 6
KtL)
APu",, + b rAfr= block-
- O finputof integrating (8.39a)
\ ,r) trJ
o .Y
o
K'z) (U
- o finpot of integratingblock-
APti",, + brAfr= (8.3eb) oi -o
\ r l ra !t
o
I
il
g
Afr - Afz- =o finpurot
\ integrating
block
s -'4'\ ) (8.40) S A oy,
EF
N
o
o-
FromEqs.(8.28)and(8.29) 8 6
a(\ :pE
APn",, I.=constant .g
=-Tr, -. (8.41) q
<.1
o 6
=a c)
AP.i",z, Tzt; ar2 - ( d
E
E 9 o
*li o
HenceEqs.(8.39)- (8.41)aresimultaneously
satisfiedonly for ol. a
v'it
g t u
Q c l o
e.>
lr o
A P r i " , r =A P , : " , 2 = 0 (8.42) (g() o
o o G'
and Afi=Afz=0 F A 6
O E
Thus, under steady condition change in the tie line power and frequency of *5 o*
o
b 6
each area is zero. This has been achieved by integration of ACEs in the o
tr(') E
o
feedbackloops of each area. E g E
Dynamic responseis difficult to obtain by the transfer function approach (as H'.s (D
()
(U
used in the single area case)becauseof the complexity of blocks-and multi- tt)
* 3 CL
.9 5 u .n
input (APop APor) and multi-output(APri",1, Ap6",2, Afr Afr) situation.A d = o o
more organizedand more convenientlycarried out analysisis through the state o
' 8' 9
a 5 o
spaceapproach(a tirne domainapproach).Formulation of the statespacemodel oo. r\
for the two-area system will be illustrated in Sec. 8.5. *,n
EO- ai
o o
The results of the two-areasystem(APri", changein tie line power and,Af, o o cit
changein frequency) obtainedthrough digital computerstudy are shown in the lr
@

form of a dotted line in Figs. 8.18 and 8.19. The two areasare assumedto be d
identical with system parametersgiven by <; t
l! -ld
Trs= 0.4 sec, 7r = 0.5 sec, ?r, = 20 sec l+
5l
K o r =1 0 0 ,R = 3 , b = 0 . 4 2 5 , & = 0 . 0 9 , 2 f l r 2 = 0 . 0 5
u I f|:-
8.5 OPTTMAL (TWO-AREA) LOAD FREOUENCY CONTROL

Modern control theory is applied in this section to design an optimal load

frequencycontroller for a two-a3easystem.In accordancewith modern control
terminology APcr arrdAP62 will be referred to as control inputs q and u2.ln
the conventional approachul anduzwere provided by the integral of ACEs. In
 AutomaticGenerationand Voltagecontrot M&
itZ I rrrrodern
- SystemAnalysis
Power f*
ComparingFigs. 8.16 and 8.17,
moderncontrol theory approach ur and u2 wtll be createdby a linear
For formt'latingthe xt = Aft xq = Af. XS= JACEit
combinationof all the systemstates(full statefeedback).
statevariablernodel for this purpose the feedback
conventional loops are
.r2- AP,;1 x5 = AP52 t, = JACE, dt
resentedbv a se block as shown in
Fig. 8.17. State variables are defined as the outputsof all blocks baving either tt1= APg, u2 = /)Pa
We immediately notice that the systernhas nine
an integratoror artirne,constanf..
w1= AP" w2 = APp,
state variables.
For block 1
-1-+-r+--i, -f-.'f-- x1 + T. r r i, = K ^ t ( x z -
L P h
- w)
+I
\ . 1 Kprt Kprt -, Kprt
I
Optimal case (full state feedback)
, x, -z - ; - x t -;-wt
-
*f (8.43)

I
I
- l h l 4 l

o 'psl t psl t ptl t ptl

o
X

tt-
For block 2
( t'-2
x.2+ Tiliz= xt
-3 '
With integralcontrolaction
or * z =- + - r * * n
1 ,I For block 3
( 8. 445

F i g . 8 .1' 8 change in tie linepowerdue to step load(0.01pu) changein area1

t r + { , s r i ': = R- L r, r + rr , r
-21.--+-_'--';-;;7-1=a.-1-1=--1
r;+-.1
' - I- - ' 16 18 20
/' 8 12 14
* t=-
A
L / Time(sec)----- or r,- (8.45)
N
I ^h t* ,* * ,,
o
I
with integral control action For block 4
x
IL
X +n * Torz*+= Krrz(xs + ar2x7 - wz)

I Knrz at?K or2 Ko*2

Optimalcase (full state feedback) or iq= - T -- - y ' - a - _ - W ^
( 8. 46)
-
'\A'1--.{<
'' ' z
Tprz Tps2 Tps2 Tpsz

For block 5

Fig. 8.19 Change in frequencyof area 1 due to step load (0.01 pu) x s t 7,2i5 - x6
change in a.rea1 l 1
or is= 4
Y
r<
I - V
t 4 l
u ( 8. 47)
Ttz T,z
Before presenting the optimal design, we must formulate the state model.
This is achieved below by writing the differential equations ciescribing each For block 6
individual block of Fig. 8.17 in terms of state variables (note that differential . l
x s * I ,szx6- -; x4 + u2
I\2
equations are written by replacing s UV
' *1.
dt'
or io=-#*o-**u ( 8. 48)
'2t sg2 t sg2
'3i4',"1 ModernPower SystemAnatysis
T
For block 7 '-- co","".t""
it=2iTtzxt-2iTr2xa (8.4e) "
constructed as under from the state variables x, and -rnonly.
For block 8
ut=- Kirxs=- Kir IeCn,Ar
is= brx, + x.i (8.5O-)
For block 9 uz=- Ki{s=- Kiz la.Cerar
i9= b2xa- anxt ( 8 . s1 ) ln the optimal control schemethe control inputs u, anduz aregeneratedby
means of feedbacks from all the nine states with feedback constants to be
The nine equations(8.43) to (8.51) can be organizedin the following vector
determinedin accordancewith an optimality criterion.
matrix form
Examination of Eq. (8.52) reveralsthat our model is not in the standardform
*=Ax+Bu+Fw (8.s2)
where
employed in optimal control theory. The standardform is

x _ l x r x2 ... xg)r = state vector i=Ax+Bu

which does not contain the disturbance term Fw present in Eq. (g.52).
u = f u t u2fT= control vector
Furthermore,a constantdisturbancevector p would drive some of the system
w = l w t w2fT = clisturbancevector statesand the control vector z to constantsteadyvalues;while the cost function
while the matrices A, B and F are defined below: employedin optimal control requiresthat the systemstateand control vectors
have zero steady state values for the cost function to have a minimum.
I 2 3 4 5 7 8 9 For a constant disturbancevector w, the steady state is reachedwhen
Y
'tPsl
I
0 0 0 -bLoo * = 0
Tpst, Tprt Tprt
in Eq. (8.52);whichthengives
0 - 1 1 o o 0 0 0
Tt Ttr 0 = A . r r "+ B u r r + F w (8.s3)
1 - 1 Definingx and z as the sumof transientand steadystateterms,we can write
o o o 0 0 0
Rr4er Trst = ,
x x' * Ir" (8.54)
atzKprz
0 0 0 - 1 K p ' z 0 0 n = ut * z', (8.55)
A _ Tprz Tprz Tprz
Substitutingr and z from Eqs. (8.54) and (8.55) in Eq. (8.52), we have
--1- 1
0 o o i o 0 0 0 i' = A (r/ + x"r) + B(at + usr)+ Fw
Ttz 7,,
I By virtue of relationship(8.53),we get
6 0 o o - 1 0 0 0 0
RzTrsz TreZ *' = Axt + But ( g. 56)
7 2 irrz 0 0 -2ilr2 0 0 0 0 0 This represents system model in terms of excursion of state and conhol
8 bL 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 vectors fiom their respectivesteadystate values.
9 0 0 0 b 2 0 0 -atz 0 0 For full state feedback, the control vector z is constructed by a linear
combination of all states.i.e.
[I o o TI o o o 00.l u=- Kx (8.57a)
-ss1 I
Br = | I where K is the feedback matrix.
l o oo o o +
I
L
aco)
'O-
0 0l
J
I
Now
ttt+ Itrr=- l( (r/+ rr")
Kprt For a stable system both r/ and ut go to zero, therefore
- 0
,;T Tprt ur, = _ Kx*
Hence
/= -
tt Ikl (8.s7b)
 Modern Power SystemAnalysis AutomaticGeneration
Examinationof Fig. 8.17 easily reveals the steady state values of state and
control variablesfor constantvaluesof disturbanceinputs w, andwr. These are
b ? o0 0 0 0 4 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Ilrr=X4"r= /7r" = 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
-arzbz 0 0
ulr, = wl
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
r5rr= x6rr= lv2 (8.s8) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
uzr, = wz 4 0 0 - a n b z 0 0 Q+a?)o o
Igr, = COnstant 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
I9r, = Constant
= symmetric matrix
The values of xr* and xe* depend upon the feedback constants and can be
determined from the following steady state equations: R - kI = symmetric matrix
utrr= kttxtr, + ... + ftt8r8", * kt*sr, = wl

r,t2ss= k2txlr, + ... + kzgxgr.,

* kz*gr, = wz (8.se)
The feedbackrnatrix K in Eq. (8.57b) is to be determined so that a certain
performance index (PI) is minimized in transferring the system from an
arbitrary initial state x' (0) to origin in infinitie tirne (i.e. x' (-) = 0). A K = R-rBrS (8.63)
convenient PI has the quadratic form The acceptablesolution of K is that for which the systemremainsstable.
SubstitutingEq. (8.57b) in Eq. (8.56), the systemdynamicswith foedback
' Pr= + u'r Ru'dt is
;ll '.'' Qx'
(8.60)
definedbv
The manices Q arrd R are defined for the problem in hand through the i' = (A - BIgx, (g.64)
following designconsiclerations: Fol stability all thc cigenvaluesof the matrix (A - Bn shouldhave
negative
(i) Excursions of ACEs about the steadyvalues (r,t + brx\; - arrxt, + bzx,q) real parts.
are minimized. The steady values of ACEs are of course zero. For illustration we considertwo identical control areaswith the
following
syste|llparameters:
(ii) Excursionsof JnCg dr about the steadyvalues (xts, xte)are nrinimized.
The steaclyvaluesof JeCg dt are,of course,constants. 4r* = 0'4 scc; T'r= 0.5 sec; 7'r* = 20 sec

(iii) Excursionso1'the contt'ol vector (ut1,ut2) about the steadyvalue are /l = 3: (n* = l/lJ = 100
rninirnized.The steadyvalueof the controlvectoris, of course,a constant. b = O . 425;Ki = 0. 09; up = I ; 2iln = 0. 05
' This nrinimizationis intendedto indirectlylimit the controleffbrt within
the physical capability of components.For example, the steam valve
catmot be openedmore than a certain value without causingthe boiler
presisureto drop severely.
With the abovereasoning,we can write the PI as

pr= * fU-+ + h,.r,,)2+ (- tt,2xt,+ brxta)z 0.52tt6 l.l4l9 0.68l3 - 0.0046-0.021| -0.0100-0.7437 0.gggg0.00001
+ (.r,?+ ,,]) ^f, = [
2Jtt'
L-o.tl046-0.o2tl-0.0100 0.5286 t.t4rg 0.6813 0.74370.0000 0.gggsl
+ kfu'l+ u,|11
at (8.61)
From the PI of Eq. (8.51), Q md R can be recognizedas
'*Refer
Nagrath and Gopal [5].
 iiii'f:l Modernpowerrystemin4gs
As the control areasextend over vast geographical regions, there are two
c= vR.f- vr '_-
ways of obtaining full state information in each area for control purposes.
(i) Transport the state information of the distant area over communication The error initiates the corrective action of adjusting
the alternator excitation.
channels.This is, of course,expensive. Error wave form is suppressedcarrier modulated,
tt" carrier frequency being
the system frequency of 50 Hz.

Load change
Change in voltage
caused by load

tG
1+Iers

skrt

8.6 AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE CONTROL Fig. 8.21 Brockdiagramof arternator

vortagereguratorscheme
Figure 8.20 gives the schematic diagram of an automatic voltage regulator Error amplifier: It demodulatesand amplifies the
of error signal. Its gain is Kr.
a generator.It basicallyconsistsof a main exciter which excites the alternator scR power amplffier and exciter
fierd: It provides the n"."rriry power
field to control the output voltage. The exciter field is automaticallycontrolled amplification to the signal for controlling thl exciter
n"ro.- arr*;"g ,rr"
through error e = vr"r - vr, suitably amplified through voltage and power amplifier time constant to be small enoughio be neglected,
the ovelail fansfer
amplifiers. It is a type-0 system which requiresa constant error e for aspecified function of these two is
voltage at generatorterminals. The block diagram of the systemis given
in K,
l* T"rs
where T"yis the exciter field time constant.
Alternator; Its field is excited by the main exciter voltage
vu. Under no road
L it producesa voltage proportional to field current.The
no load transferfunction
o is
A
D Ks
7*T*s
where
Potential
T*= generatorfield time constant.
The load causes a voltage drop which is a complex function
of direct and
Fig. 8.20 Schematicdiagramof alternatorvoltageregulatorscheme quadratureaxis currents.The effect is only schematically
reBresented hv hlock
G.. The exact load model of the alternatoris beyond ,t" ,iop"
Fig. 8.21. The function of important componentsand their transferfunctions ;rhtJ;;:
is stabitizing transformer: T4*d
given below: are large enough time constantsto impair
Potential transformer: It gives a sample of terminal voltage v.. the system's dynamic response.-lq
Itjs weil known that the dynami. r"rpoor" of
Dffirencing device; It gives the actuating error a control system can be improved by the internal derivative feedback
loop. The
derivative feedback in this system is provided by means
of a stabiyzing
transformer excited by the exciter output voltage vE. The
output of the
 320' l
I
Modern Power SystemAnalysis Automatic and VoltageControl
Generation ------_-----l Jffif
I E

transformeris fccl ncgativclyat the input terminalsof thc SCR power

stabiliz,ing The bandedvaluesimposedhy the limitersareselectedto resffictthe generation
amplifier. The transferfunction of the stabilizing transfo"meris derived below. rate by l}Vo per minute.
Since the secondaryis connectedat the input ternfnals of an amplifier, it can I
be assumedto draw zero current. Now
dt
vr = Rr i., + LrJilL
' d t I.g 9t",

u't +/
_+(
'rr= MY A
dt l-
-t*9r"'--l
Taking the Laplace transform, we get

%,(s) _ sM sMlRt
VuG) R, * s,Lt l*Irs

sK", Fig.8.22 Governormodelwith GRC

1 +{ , s The GRCs result in larger deviationsin ACEs as the rate at which generation
Accurate staterrariablemodels of loaded alternator around an operating point can cha-ngein the area is constrainedby the limits imposed. Therefore, the
are available in literature using which optimal voltage regulation schemescan duration for which the power needsto be imported increasesconsiderably as
be devised.This is, of course,beyondthe scopeof this book. cornparedto the case where generationrate is not constrained.With GRCs, R
should be selectedwith care so as to give the best dynamic response.In hydro-
8.7 LOAD FREOUENCY CONTROL WITH GENERATION thennal system,the generationrate in the hydro area norrnallyremainsbelow
RATE CONSTRAINTS (GRCs) the safe limit and therefore GRCs for all the hydro plants can be.ignored.

frcquencycontrolproblcmdiscussedso far doesnot consiclerthe effect

The l<-racl 8.8 SPEED GOVERNOR DEAD-BAND AND ITS EFFECT
of the restrictionson the rate of changeof power generation.In power systems ON AGC
havingsteamplants,powergeneration canchangeonly at a specifiedmaximum
rate. The generationrate (fiom saf'etyconsiderationso1 the equipment)for The eff'ectof the speed governor dead-bandis that for a given position of the
reheat units is quit low. Most of the reheatunits have a generatiol rate around governor control valves, an increase/decrease in speed can occur before the
3%olmin. Some have a generation rate between 5 to 7jo/o/min.If these positionof the valve changes.The governordead-bandcan materiallyaffect the
constraintsarc not consirlcrcd,systerttis likely to c:ha.sc largc tttottrclttrry system response.ln AGC studies, the dead-band eff'ect indeed can be
disturbances,Thrs results in undue wear and tear of the controller. Several significant,sincerelativcly small signalsare under considerations.
methoclshave been proposecl to consider the effect of GRCs for the clesignof TlLespeedgovernorcharacterristic.thoughnon-lirrear, hasbeenapproxinraaed
automatic generation controllers.When GRC is considered, the systeln dynamic by linear characteristicsin earlier analysis. Further, there is another non-
rnodelbecomesnon-linearand linearcontroltechniquescannotbe appliedfor iinearity introducedby the dead-bandin the governor operation.Mechanical
the optimizationof the controllersetting. f'riction and backlashand also valve overlapsin hydraulic relays cause the
If the generationratesdenotedby P", are included in the statevec:tor,the governor dead-band.Dur to this, though the input signal increases,the speed
systermorder will be altered.Insteadof augntentingthem, while solving the governor may not irnmediately react until the input reachesa particular value.
stare equations,it may be verified at each step if the GRCs are viclated. Similar a.ctiontakesplace when the input signal decreases. Thus the governor
Another way of consicieringGRCs for both areas is to arjri iinriiers io ihe dead-bandis defined as the total rnagnitudeof sustainedspeedchangewithin
governors[15, 17] as shown in Fig. 8.22, r.e., the maximum rate of valve which there is no change in valve position. The limiting value of dead-bandis
openingor closingspeedis restrictedby the limiters.Here 2", tr,r,, iS the power specifiedas 0.06Vo.It was shown by Concordia et. al [18] that one of the
rate limit irnposedby valve or gate control. In this model effects of governor dead-bandis to increasethe apparentsteady-statespeed
l A Y E l . - -g u , n r (8.6s) regulation R.
 lFFf ModrrnPo*., svrt.t Analuri,
The effect of the dead-bandmay be included in the speed governor control
loop block diagramas shown in Fig. 8.23.Consideringthe worst caseforthe
dead-band,(i.e., the system starts responding after the whole dead-band is
traversed)and examiningthe dead-bandblock in Fig. 8.23,the following set of
ly define the behaviourolthe dead.band [9]- Discrete-Time Control Model
The continuous-timedynamic systemis describedby a set of linear differential
equations
x=Ax+Bu+ fp (8.67)
where f u, P are state, conhol and disturbance vectors respectively and A,B
and f are constantmatrices associatedwith the above vectors.
The discrete-timebehaviourof the continuous-timesystemis modelled by the
system of first order linear differenceequations:

Speed governor
x(k+1)=Qx(k)+Vu(k)+jp&) (8.68)
Dead-band where x(k), u(k) and p(k) are the state,control and disturbancevectors and are
specifiedat t= kr, ft = 0, 1,2,... etc.and ris the samplingperiod.
controlloop
in speed-governor
Flg. 8.23 Dead-band 6, tl,nd
7 Te the state, control and disturbance transition matrices and they are
evaluatedusing the following relations.
u(r+1)= 7(r) 1: _ x, 1 dead-band
"(r+1)
- _ dead-band; if x('+l) - ,(r) I g (8.66) d= eAT
"(r+l)
- tf Xr*l _ xt < 0
{=({r_ln-tr
"(r+1). j=(eAr-DA-tf
(r is the step in the computation)
where A, B and,I are the constantmatrices associatedwith r, ,,LO p vectors
Reference[20] considersthe effect of governor dead-bandnonlinearity by using in the conespondingcontinuous-timedynamic system. The matrix y'r can be
the describingfunction approach[11] and including the linearised equationsin evaluatedusing various well-documentedapproacheslike Sylvestor's expansion
the state spacemodel. theorem, series expansion techniqueetc. The optimal digital load frequency
The presenceof governordead-bandmakesthe dynamicresponseoscillatory. controller designproblem is discussedin detail in Ref [7].
It has been seen [9J that the governor dead-banddoes not intluence the
selectionof integral controller gain settingsin the presenceof GRCs. In the 8.10 DECENTRALIZED CONTROL
presenceof GRC and deadband even for small load perturbation,the system
becomeshighly non-linear and hencethe optimization problem becomesrather In view of the large size of a modern power system, it is virtually impossible
complex. to implement either the classicalor the modern LFC algorithm in a centralized
manner.ln Fig. 8.24, a decentralizedcontrol schemeis shown.x, is usedto find
8.9 DIGITAL LF CONTROLLERS out the vector u, while x, aloneis employed to find out u". Thus.

In recent years,increasinglymore attentionis being paid to the questionof

digital implementation of the automatic generationcontrol algorithrns. This is
mainly due to the facts that digital control turns out to be more accurate and
rcliqhlc
r v^rEv^vt
nnrnnaef in qize less censifive to nnise end drift nnd more flexihle Tt

may also be implemented in a time shared fashion by using the computer

systemsin load despatchcentre,if so desired.The ACE, a signal which is used
for AGC is availablein the discreteform, i.e., there occurssampling operation
; betweenthe systemand the controller. Unlike the continuous-timesystem,the
control vector in the discretemode is constrainedto remain constant between
Flg. 8.24 Decentralized
control
i,i2[,:*.1 ModernPowerSystemAnalysis - Automatic and voltageControl
Generation ffi
4
x - (x1 x2)'
- aF(s)' 1' af (t)dr: liq, * '4F(s): hm/F(")]
ut=-ktxt I n,n,, tf^461dv
L JO ,t JO s-0 S s+0

u2-- kzxz
been shown possible using the modal control principle. Decentralized or
hierarchicalimplementationof the optimal LFC algorithmsseemsto have been
studied more widely for the stochasticcase since the real load disturbancesare
truely stochastic.A simple approachis discussedin Ref. [7].
It may by noted that other techniquesof model simplification are available
in the literatureon alternativetools to decentralizedcontrol. Theseinclude the
method of "aggregation", "singular perturbation", "moment matching" and
other techniques[9] for finding lower order models of a given large scale
system.
IEI/IS
PROB
8.4 For the two area load frequencycontrol of Fie. 8.16 assumethat inte
controller blocks are replacedby gain blocks, i.e. ACEI and ACE are fed
to the respective speedchangersthrough gains - K, and - Ko. Derive an
expressionfor the steadyvalues of changein frequency and tie line power
for simultaneouslyapplied unit step load disturbanceinputs in the two
areas.
8.5 For the two area load frequencycontrol employing integral of area control
error in each area (Fig. 8.16), obtain an expressionfor AP6"$) for unit
step disturbance in one of the areas.Assume both areas to be identical.
Comment upon the stability of the system for parameter values given
below:
4e = 0'4 sec; Z, = 0'5 sec; Zp. = 20 sec
K p r = 1 0 0 ;R = 3 ; K i = l ; b = 0.425

8 . 1 Two generatorsrated 200 MW and 400 MW are operating in parallel. ar2= I;2tTr, = 0.05
The droop characteristicsof their governors are47o and 5Vorespectively lHint: Apply Routh's stability criterion to the characteristicequation of
from no load to full load. The speedchangersare so setthat the generators the system.l
operate at 50 Hz sharing the full load of 600 MW in the ratio of their
ratings.If the load reducesto 400 MW, how will it be sharedamong the
generatorsand what will the s)/stemfrequency be? Assumefree governor NCES
REFERE
operatlon.
The speedchangersof the governorsare resetso that the load of 400 MW
Books
is sharedamong the generatorsat 50 Hz in the ratio of their ratings. What
are the no load frequencies of the generators? l. Elgcrd, O.1., Elccu'ic Energv.Sv,s/clrT'lrcorv: An ltttnxlut'lion. 2nd cdn. McCraw-
8 . 2 Consider the block diagrammodel of lcad frequencycontrol given in Fig. Hill, New York, 1982.
8.6. Make the following approximatron. 2. Weedy, B.M. and B.J. Cory Electric Pow'er Systems,4th edn, Wiley, New York,
(1 + Z.rs) (1 + Z,s) =- t + (7rg + T,),s= 1 + Z"c.r I998.

Solve for Af (l) with parametersgiveu below. Given AP, - 0.01 pu

a
1 Cohn, N., Control of Generation and Power Flou, on Interconnected Systents,
Wiley, New York, i971.
T"q= 0.4 + 0.5 = 0.9 sec; 70, = 20 sec
4 . Wood, A.J., and B.F. Woolenberg, Power Generation, Operation and Control,2nd
K r r K , = 1 ;K p r = 1 0 0 R
; =3 edn Wiley, New York, 1996.
5 . Nagarth, I.J. and M. Gopal, Control Systems Engineering, 3rd edn. New Delhi,
Coinparewith the exact responsegiven in Fig. 8.9.
2 0 0l .
8 . 3 For the load frequency control with proportional plus integral controller
oc olrn'rn.i- T i iLc6 . e 1n nhfain en AsnrAccinn fnr tha cfenrlrr cfrfp errnr in
6 . Handschin, E. (Ed.), Real Time Control of Electric Power Systems, Elsevier, New
clJ orlvYYll ll( L v. rvt vuLarrr
York 1972.
7 . Mahalanabis, A.K., D.P. Kothari and S.I Ahson, Computer Aided Power Systent
cycles,i.". f'41t)d
t ^ "
r; for a urrit stepAPr. What is the correspondingtime
, 1 , Analysis and Control, Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi, 1988.
lirnl*m
8 . Kirclrrnayer, L.K., Economic Control of lnterconnected Systems,Wiley, New York,
error in seconds(with respectto 50 Hz).lCommenton the dependenceof t959.
error in cycles upon the integral controller gain K,. 9 . Jamshidi, M., Inrge Scale System.s:Modelling and Control, North Holland, N.Y.,
1983.