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AREEKODE

NEURAL CONTROL AND

COORDINATION
In Our body all activities are controlled and
coordinated by two systems namely
● Nervous system and
● Endocrine system
The neural system provides an organised network
of point-to-point
point connections for a quick
coordination. The endocrine system provides
chemical integration through hormones
NEURAL SYSTEM
The neural system of all animals is
composed of highly specialised cells called neurons
which can detect, receive and transmit different
kinds of Stimuli
 In hydra Neural systemstem is represented by a
network of neurons
 The neural system of insects represented by
number of ganglia and neural tissues.
Human Neural system
The human neural system is divided into two parts
(i) Central neural system (CNS)
(ii) Peripheral neural system (PNS)
i) Central Neural system (CNS)
 it include brain and the spinal cord
 It is the site of information processing and
control.
(b) Efferent fibres
It transmits regulatory impulses from the
CNS to the concerned peripheral
tissues/organs.
CNS-------(impulse)-----
----->Tissues/Organ
 The PNS is divided into two divisions called
I. Somatic neural system and
II. Autonomic neural system.
system
i) Somatic neural system /SNS/Voluntary
/SNS/ neural
system
 It relays impulses from the CNS to skeletal
muscles
CNS-----------Impulse-----------------
----------------->Skeletal Muscle
ii)Autonomic neural system/ANS/Involuntary
neural system
 It transmits impulses from the CNS to the
involuntary organs and smooth muscles of
the body.
CNS--Impulse--->Involuntary organ/smooth muscles
 The autonomic neural system is further
classified into sympathetic neural system and
parasympathetic neural system.
system
 Sympathetic neural system prepares the body
to face an emergency
 Parasympathetic neural system acts when body
is relaxing after an emergency

(ii) Peripheral neural system (PNS)

 it comprises of all the nerves of the body
associated with the CNS (brain and sspinal
cord).
 The nerve fibres of the PNS are of two types
(a) Afferent fibres
(b) Efferent fibres

(a) Afferent fibres

It transmit impulses from tissues/organs to
the CNS
Tissues/Organs-----(impulse)--------
-------->CNS

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Structure of Neuron Types of Neurons
 Neurons are the structural and functional (A)Based on the number of axon and dendrites,
units of neural system. the neurons are divided into three types
 Human neural system contains atleast 10
billions neurons i) Multipolar Neuron :
 Neuron is a microscopic structure composed of This type of neuron has one axon and two
three major parts, namely, or more dendrites
a)Cell body, eg: This type of Neuron is found in the cerebral
b)Dendrites and cortex
c)Axon

ii)Bipolar Neuron:
This type of neuron has one axon and one
dendrite,
eg: This type of neurons are found in the retina of
eye

iii) Unipolar Neuron :

a) The cell body/Soma/cyton
it contains cytoplasm with typical cell
organelles and certain granular bodies called
Nissl’s granules.
b) Dendrites
Short fibres which branch repeatedly and
project out of the cell body also contain Nissl’s
granules and are called dendrites.
 These fibres transmit impulses towards the cell
body.
c) Axon
 The axon is a long fibre, the distal end of which is
branched (Axonites)
 Each branch terminates as a bulb-like structure
called synaptic knob which possess synaptic
vesicles containing chemicals called
neurotransmitters
Eg: Acetyl choline, Dopamine etc.
 The axons transmit nerve impulses away from
the cell body to a synapse or to a neuro-muscular
junction .
This type of neuron has cell body with one
axon only;
Eg: This type of neuron found usually in the
embryonic stage
(B)Based on the presence or absence of Myelin
sheath around Axon
Neurons can be classified into myelinated and non
myelinated Neuron
i) Myelinated neuron
 The myelinated nerve fibres are enveloped with
Schwann cells, which form a myelin sheath
around the axon.
 The gaps between two adjacent myelin sheaths
are called nodes of Ranvier.
 Myelinated nerve fibres are found in spinal cord
and cranial nerves
b) Nonmyelinated Neuron
 The non-myelinated nerve fibre is enclosed by a
Schwann cell that does not form a myelin sheath
around the axon.
 This type of Neuron is commonly found in
autonomous and the somatic neural systems.

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Generation and Conduction of Nerve
Impulse
Conduction of Nerve Impulse across nerve
fibers can be explained in 3 steps
a)Maintenance of resting membrane potential
b) Initiation of action potential
c) Propagation of action potential
a)Maintenance of resting membrane potential
 A resting neuron is one that has not been
stimulated.
 The membrane of resting neurons are called
polarized membrane.
 In such neuron the outer side is +ve charge and
inner side is negative charge.. This differential
electrical potential existing across the
membrane of a resting neuron is called Resting
membrane potential.
AREEKODE
b) Initiation of action potential
 When a stimulus is applied at a site on the
polarised membrane, the membrane at that
site becomes freely permeable to Na+ (sodium
potassium pump stops ).
 This leads to a rapid influx of Na+ followed by
the reversal of the polarity at that site, i.e., the
outer surface of the membrane becomes
negatively charged and the inner side becomes
positively charged.
 The polarity of the membrane at the point of
stimulus
timulus is thus reversed and hence
depolarised.
 The electrical potential difference across the
plasma membrane at that site called the action
potential,, which is in fact termed as a nerve
impulse

 Thee resting membrane potential results from

the following 2 factors c)Propagation of action potential
a)Axonal membrane is comparatively
omparatively more
permeable to potassium ions (K+ ) and nearly
impermeable to sodium ions (Na+ ). Similarly, the
membrane is impermeable to negatively charged
proteins present in the axoplasm. Consequently,
the axoplasm inside the axon contains high  At sites immediately ahead, the axon (e.g., site
concentration
ntration of K + and negatively charged B) membrane has a positive charge on the
proteins and low concentration of Na+ . In outer surface and a negative charge on its inner
contrast, the fluid outside the axon contains a low surface.
concentration of K + , a high concentration of Na+
 As a result, a current flows on the inner surface
and thus form a concentration gradient
from site A to site B.
b)Presence of an active Na+-K+ K+ pump In the
 On the outer surface current
curren flows from site B
membrane of the resting neuron, which activeactively
to site A to complete the circuit of current
carries out more Na+ and has higher permeability
flow.
for K+ions (3Na+ for 2K+)
 Hence, the polarity at the site is reversed, and
an action potential is generated at site B.
 The above 2 factors acting together results in a
 Thus, the impulse (action potential) generated
higher concentration of +ve ions on the
at site A arrives at site B.
outerside of the membrane and –ve charge
 The sequence is repeated along the length of
inside the cell.
the axon and consequently the impulse is
conducted

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 It is quickly followed by a risee in permeability to
K+ . Within a fraction of a second, K+ diffuses
outside the membrane and restores the resting
potential of the membrane at the site of
excitation and the fibre becomes once more
responsive to further stimulation.
Transmission of Impulses
 A synapse is a junction formed by the
membranes of a pre-synaptic
synaptic neuron and a
post-synaptic
synaptic neuron, which may or may not
be separated by a gap called synaptic cleft.
AREEKODE
⮚ Impulse transmission across an electrical
synapse is always faster than that across
acro a
chemical synapse.
⮚ Electrical synapses are rare in our system.
ii) Chemical synapse :
⮚ The membranes of the pre-
pre and post-synaptic
neurons are separated by a fluid-filled
fluid space
called synaptic cleft.
⮚ Chemicals called neurotransmitters are
involved in the transmission of impulses at
these synapses.
⮚ The axon terminals contain synaptic vesicles. It
is filled with these neurotransmitters.
neurotransmitters When an
impulse (action potential) arrives at the axon
terminal, it stimulates the movement of the
synaptic vesicles towards the membrane
where they fuse with the plasma membrane
and release their neurotransmitters in to the
synaptic cleft.
⮚ The released neurotransmitters bind to their
specific receptors,, present on the post-
synaptic membrane.
⮚ This binding opens ion channels allowing the
entry of ions which can generate a new
potential in the post-synaptic
synaptic neuron.
⮚ The new potential developed may be either
excitatory or inhibitory.

Difference between Electrical synapse and

chemical synapse
Electricalsynapse Chemical synapse
Here the membranes of The membranes of the
There are two types of synapses, namely
namely, electrical pre- and post-synaptic pre-
pre and post-synaptic
synapses and chemical synapses. neurons are in very neurons are separated
close proximity by a fluid-filled
fluid space
I) Electrical synapses; called synaptic cleft
⮚ Here the membranes of pre- and post
post-synaptic Electrical current can Chemicals called
neurons are in very close proximity.. flow directly from one neurotransmitters are
neuron into the other involved in the
⮚ Electrical current can flow directly
rectly from one
across these synapses transmission of impulses
neuron into the other across these synapses.
at these synapses
⮚ Transmission of an impulse across electrical Electrical synapses are Chemical synapse are
synapses is very similar to impulse conduction rare in our system. common in our system
along a single axon.
Impulse transmission Impulse transmission
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across an electrical across an Chemical
synapse is always faster synapse is always
than that across a slower than that across
chemical synapse a electrical synapse

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AREEKODE

CENTRAL NEURAL SYSTEM

CNS include Brain and spinal cord

A) BRAIN
 The brain is the central information processing
organ of our body,
 Brain acts as the ‘command command and control
system’.
Functions of brain :
 It controls the voluntary movements,
 Balance of the body,
 Functioning of vital involuntary organs
(e.g., lungs, heart,
art, kidneys, etc.),
 Thermoregulation, hunger and thirst,
(i)Fore brain
 Circadian (24-hour)
hour) rhythms of our body,
The forebrain consists of cerebrum,
cerebrum thalamus and
 Activities of several endocrine glands
hypothalamus.
 Human behavior. a) Cerebrum:
 Processing of vision, hearing, speech,  Cerebrum forms the major part of the
memory, intelligence, emotions and human brain.
thoughts.  A deep cleft divides the cerebrum
longitudinally into two halves, which are
 The human brain n is well protected by the skull. termed as the left and right cerebral
 Inside the skull,l, the brain is covered by cranial hemispheres.. The hemispheres are
meninges consisting of 3 Layers connected by a tract
ract of nerve fibres called
a)Dura mater-Outer Layer corpus callosum.
b)Arachnoid- a very thin middle layer  Cerebrum is the seat of mind and
c)Pia mater- an inner layer (which is in intelligence
contact with the brain tissue).  Each cerebral hemisphere has two Parts
The brain can be divided into three major Cerebral cortex-Outer
Outer region
parts: (i) forebrain, (ii) midbrain,, and (iii) hindbrain Cerebral medulla-Inner
Inner region

Cerebral cortex
 Outer region of each cerebral hemisphere is
cerebral cortex.
 The cerebral cortex is called as the grey
matter due to its greyish appearance.
appearance
 The neuron cell bodies are concentrated
here giving the grey colour.
 The cerebral cortex contains 3 areas
i) Motor areas :
They control voluntary movement
ii) Sensory areas
They concerned with reception and
interpretation of the sense of vision and

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AREEKODE
hearing,smell,taste and various sensation groups of neurosecretory
neurosecretor cells, which secrete
of the skin such as touch,pain,pressure
touch,pain,pressure. hormones called hypothalamic hormones
Eg:
iii)Association area Relaeasing hormone (Eg.GnRH)
They are Large regions that are neither Inhibitoryhormone(Eg.Somatostatin)
clearly sensory nor motor in function. ADH(Oxytocin )
These regions called as the association
areas are responsible for complex
omplex functions (ii) Midbrain
like intersensory associations, memory and  It is located between the
communication. thalamus/hypothalamus of the forebrain and
pons of the hindbrain.
Cerebral Medulla
 A canal called the cerebral aqueduct passess
 The Inner region of cerebral hemisphere is through the midbrain.
called cerebral medulla
 The dorsal portion of the midbrain consists
 Fibres of the tracts are covered with the mainly of four round swellings (lobes) called
myelin sheath,, They give an opaque white corpora quadrigemina..
appearance to the layer and, hence, is called
 Midbrain and hindbrain form the brain stem
the white matter.

Limbic system III) Hindbrain

Hindbr
It comprises pons, cerebellum and medulla (also
 The inner parts of cerebral hemispheres and a
called the medulla oblongata).
oblongata
group of associated deep structures like
a) Pons (Latin: Bridge)
amygdala, hippocampus,, etc., form a complex
it consists of fibre tracts that interconnect
structure called the limbic lobe or limbic
different regions of the brain.
system.
b) Cerebellum :
 Alongng with the hypothalamus, it is involved in
it has very convoluted surface in order to
the regulation of sexual behavior, expression
provide the additional
ional space for many more
of emotional reactions
neurons.. It Concerend with muscular
e.g.,
coordination, maintain posture,orientation
Excitement,
and equilibrium of the body.
body Cerebellar cortex
Pleasure,
is grey matter and medulla white matter..
Rage and fear
c) The medulla :
and motivation.
Medulla connected to the spinal cord. The
medulla contains centres which control
b) Thalamus
respiration, cardiovascular reflexes
The cerebrum wraps around a structure
,peristalsisi, vomiting, and gastric secretions
called thalamus, which is a major coordinating
(Involuntary functions)
centre for sensory and motor signaling
signaling.
Sense Organs
c) Hypothalamus
 Hypothalamus located at the base of the
Nose
thalamus.  The nose contains mucus-coated
mucus receptors which
are specialised for receiving the sense of smell and
 The hypothalamus contains a number of
called olfactory receptors.
centres which control body temperature, urge
 These are made up of olfactory epithelium that
for eating and drinking.. It also contains several consists of three kinds of cells.
cells

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 The neurons of the olfactory epithelium extend from Previous Years question Papers
the outside environment directly into a pair of broad 1. Name the fluid filled space that separate the
bean-sized organs, called olfactory bulb, which are membranes of pre and post synaptic neurons at a
extensions of the brain’s limbic system. chemical synapse. (HSE-MARCH-2023)(1)
2. Complete the illustration appropriately.
Tongue (HSE-MARCH-2023)(3)
 Both nose and tongue detect dissolved chemicals.
 The chemical senses of gustation (taste) and
olfactory (smell) are functionally similar and
interrelated.
 The tongue detects tastes through taste buds,
containing gustatory receptors. With each taste of
food or sip of drink, the brain integrates the
differential input from the taste buds and a complex
flavour is perceived
Name 3 layers of Cranial meninges that protects brain.
Outer layer (d) ________
Middle layer (e) ________
Inner layer (f) ________

3. Diagramatic representation of impulse through

an axon is given Explain how an action potential
develops. (HSE-JUNE-2022)(2)

4. The largest part of human brain

(HSE-SAY-JAN 2022)(1)
5. Distinguish between : (HSE-SAY-JAN-2022)(2)
(a) Phototopic vision and scotopic vision
(b) Olfactory receptors and gustatory receptors
6. Name the following : (HSE-Sept-2021)(1)
(a) Structure which connects two cerebral
hemispheres.
(b) Four rounded swellings in midbrain.
7. The region of human brain which control the
functions such as body temperature, urge for
eating and drinking (HSE Dec-2020)(1)
a)Hypothalamus b)Cerebrum
c)Association areas d)Thalamus
8. Identify the type of receptor for the following
stimulus (HSE Dec-2020)(2)
a)Receptor for sense of smell
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b) Receptor for sense of taste
c)Name the bean shaped structure associated
with limbic system of brain sense the smell
9. Complete the schematic diagram

(HSE-DEC-2020)(3)

10. Which of the part of brain control respiration and

gastric secretions? (HSE-July-2019)(1)
(a) Cerebrum (b) Cerebellum
(c) Medulla (d) Hypothalamus
15. Complete the given flow chart (HSE-March-2018)(2)
11. Distinguish between the following :
(a) Electric synapse and Chemical synapse
(b) Rods and cone (HSE-July-2019)(2)
12. Prepare a flow chart showing the parts of human
brain, by using the details given below
(HSE-July-2019)(3)

13. a)Identify the below stages of nerve impulse

conduction. (HSE-Model-2019)(3)
(b) Name the ions involved in this process.
(c) How RMP is maintained

16. In…(a) type of synapse the membranes of pre

14. Complete the flow chart given below synaptic and post synaptic neurons are in very
(HSE-Aug-2018)(3) close proximity
In…(b)..type of synapse the membrane of pre
synaptic and post synaptic neurons are
separated by a fluid filled space
a)Name the type of synapse A and B
b)name the fluid filled space in the synapse B
(HSE-Model-2018)(2)

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17. Nerve impulse transmission include generation
and propagation of action potential.
Write various stages or events in the
generation of action potential
(HSE-July-2017)(3)
OR
18. Observe the diagram and construct a flow chart
to show the mechanism of transmission of
nerve impulse across a chemical synapse
(HSE-July-2017)(3)

b) Which one of the above parts of brain that

controls gastric secretion?
21. Where do you find the following structure in
Human body? (HSE-SEPT-2015)(1)
a)Cochlea b)Neurotransmitter
22. Mention the function of the following structure
in Human body? (HSE-SEPT-2015)(2)
a) Hypothalamus b)axon
23. Write the function of part-1 and 4. Label part 2
and 3 in the following figure showing synapse
(No need to Copy the picture)
19. Answer the following (HSE-March-2017)(1) (HSE-March-2014)(3)
a)Cerebral hemispheres of Human Brain are
connected by…………………
i)Association area
ii)Corpus callosum
iii)Corpora quadrigemina
iv)Pons varoli

b)Observe the diagram and Label A,B,C and D

(HSE-March-2017)(2)

24. (HSE-Sept-2013)(3)

20. a)Complete the given table

(Parts of Human brain) (HSE-SEPT-2016)(2)

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25. (HSE-March-2013)(3)

26. Analyze the concept map given below and

fill the gap appropriately so as to explain
the concept of human brain
(HSE-Sept-2012)(3)

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