PowSysAnaly 6e Ch03

Power System Analysis and Design, 6e Glover, Overbye, Sarma
Chapter 3:
Power
Transformers
© 2017 Cengage Learning® . May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
website, in whole or in part.
0
Transformers Overview
⚫ Power systems are characterized by many different
voltage levels, ranging from 765 kV down to 240/120
volts.
⚫ Transformers are used to transfer power between
different voltage levels.
⚫ The ability to inexpensively change voltage levels is a
key advantage of ac systems over dc systems.
⚫ In this section we’ll develop models for the transformer
and discuss various ways of connecting three phase
transformers.
© 2017 Cengage Learning® . May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in
whole or in part. 1
Ideal Transformer
⚫ First we review the voltage/current relationships for an
ideal transformer
– no real power losses
– magnetic core has infinite permeability
– no leakage flux
⚫ We’ll define the “primary” side of the transformer as the
side that usually takes power, and the secondary as the
side that usually delivers power.
– primary is usually the side with the higher voltage,
but may be the low voltage side on a generator step-
up transformer.
whole or in part. 2
Ideal Transformer Relationships
Assume we have flux m in magnetic material. Then

1 = N1m 2 = N 2m
d 1 dm d 2 dm
v1 = = N1 v2 = = N2
dt dt dt dt
dm v1 v2 v1 N1
= = → = = a = turns ratio
dt N1 N2 v2 N2
whole or in part. 3
Current Relationships
To get the current relationships use ampere's law
mmf =  = + '
H dL N i
11 N i
22
H  length = N1i1 + N 2i2'

B  length
= N1i1 + N 2i2'

Assuming uniform flux density in the core
  length
= N1i1 + N 2i2'
  area
whole or in part. 4
Current/Voltage Relationships
If  is infinite then 0 = N1i1 + N 2i2' . Hence
i1 N2 i1 N2 1
'
= − or = =
i2 N1 i2 N1 a
Then
a 0  v
v1     2
i  = 1  
 1 0   i2 
 a
whole or in part. 5
Impedance Transformation Example

Calculate the primary voltage and current for an impedance
load on the secondary
 a 0   v2 
v1   
i  = 1 v 
 1 0  2 
 a  Z 
1 v2
v1 = av2 i1 =
aZ
v1
= a2 Z
i1
whole or in part. 6
Real Transformers
⚫ Real transformers
– have losses
– have leakage flux
– have finite permeability of magnetic core
1. Real power losses

– resistance in windings (i2 R)
– core losses due to eddy currents and hysteresis
whole or in part. 7
Transformer Core Losses

Eddy currents arise because of changing flux in core.
Eddy currents are reduced by laminating the core
Hysteresis losses are proportional to area of BH curve

and the frequency
These losses are
reduced by using
material with a
thin BH curve
whole or in part. 8
Effect of Leakage Flux

Not all flux is within the transformer core
1 = l1 + N1m
2 = l 2 + N 2m
Assuming a linear magnetic medium we get
l1 Ll1i1 l 2 Ll 2i 2'
di1 d m
v1 = r1i1 + Ll1 + N1
dt dt
'
di d m
v2 = r2i2 + Ll 2
' 2
+ N2
dt dt
whole or in part. 9
Effect of Finite Core Permeability

Finite core permeability means a non-zero mmf
is required to maintain m in the core
N1i1 − N 2i2 = m
This value is usually modeled as a magnetizing current
 m N 2
i1 = + i2
N1 N1
N2  m
i1 = im + i2 where i m =
N1 N1
whole or in part. 10
Transformer Equivalent Circuit

Using the previous relationships, we can derive an
equivalent circuit model for the real transformer
This model is further simplified by referring all

impedances to the primary side
r2' = a 2r2 re = r1 + r2'
'
x2 = a x2 2
xe = x1 + '
x2
Simplified Equivalent Circuit
Calculation of Model Parameters

⚫ The parameters of the model are determined based upon
– nameplate data: gives the rated voltages and power
– open circuit test: rated voltage is applied to primary
with secondary open; measure the primary current and
losses (the test may also be done by applying the
voltage to the secondary, calculating the values, then
referring the values back to the primary side).
– short circuit test: with secondary shorted, apply
voltage to primary to get rated current to flow;
measure voltage and losses.
Transformer Example
A single phase, 100 MVA, 200/80 kV transformer has
the following test data:
⚫ open circuit: 20 amps, with 10 kW losses
⚫ short circuit: 30 kV, with 500 kW losses
Determine the model parameters.
Transformer Example, cont’d

From the short circuit test
100MVA 30 kV
I sc = = 500 A, R e + jX e = = 60 
200kV 500 A
Psc = Re I sc
2
= 500 kW → R e = 2 ,
Hence Xe = 602 − 22 = 60 
From the open circuit test
200 kV 2
Rc = = 4M 
10 kW
200 kV
R e + jX e + jX m = = 10,000  X m = 10,000 
20 A
Residential Distribution Transformers

Single phase transformers are commonly used in
residential distribution systems. Most distribution
systems are 4 wire, with a multi-grounded, common
neutral.
Per Unit Calculations

⚫ A key problem in analyzing power systems is the large
number of transformers.
– It would be very difficult to continually have to refer
impedances to the different sides of the transformers
⚫ This problem is avoided by a normalization of all
variables.
⚫ This normalization is known as per unit analysis.
actual quantity
quantity in per unit =
base value of quantity
Per Unit Conversion Procedure, 1

1. Pick a 1 VA base for the entire system, SB
2. Pick a voltage base for each different voltage level, VB.
Voltage bases are related by transformer turns ratios.
Voltages are line to neutral.
3. Calculate the impedance base, ZB= (VB)2/SB
4. Calculate the current base, IB = VB/ZB
5. Convert actual values to per unit
Note: per unit conversion affects magnitudes, not

the angles. Also, per unit quantities no longer have
units (i.e., a voltage is 1.0 p.u., not 1 p.u. volts)
Per Unit Solution Procedure
1. Convert to per unit (p.u.) (many problems

are already in per unit)
2. Solve
3. Convert back to actual as necessary
Per Unit Example

Solve for the current, load voltage and load power in the
circuit shown below using per unit analysis with an SB of 100
MVA, and voltage bases of 8 kV, 80 kV and 16 kV.
Original Circuit
Per Unit Example, cont’d

2
8kV
Z BLeft = = 0.64
100MVA
2
80 kV
Z BMiddle = = 64
100MVA
2
16 kV
Z BRight = = 2.56
100MVA
Same circuit, with

values expressed
in per unit.
1.00
I = = 0.22 − 30.8 p.u. (not amps)
3.91 + j 2.327
VL = 1.00 − 0.22 − 30.8 
=  −  p.u.
2
VL
SL = = = 0.189 p.u.
*
VL I L
Z
SG = 1.00 0.2230.8 = 30.8 p.u.

To convert back to actual values just multiply the
per unit values by their per unit base
VL Actual
= 0.859 − 30.816 kV = 13.7 − 30.8 kV
S LActual = 0.1890100 MVA = 18.90 MVA
SGActual = 0.2230.8100 MVA = 22.030.8 MVA
100 MVA
IBMiddle
= = 1250 Amps
80 kV
Middle = 0.22 − 30.8 Amps = 275 − 30.8 
I Actual
Three Phase Per Unit

Procedure is very similar to 1 except we use a 3
VA base, and use line to line voltage bases
3
1. Pick a 3 VA base for the entire system, S B
2. Pick a voltage base for each different voltage level, VB.
Voltages are line to line.
3. Calculate the impedance base
VB2, LL ( 3 VB, LN )2 VB2, LN

ZB = = =
S B3 3S1B S1B
Exactly the same impedance bases as with single phase!
Three Phase Per Unit, cont'd

4. Calculate the current base, IB
S B3 3 S1B S1B

I3B = = = = I1B
3 VB, LL 3 3 VB, LN VB, LN
Exactly the same current bases as with single phase!
5. Convert actual values to per unit
Three Phase Per Unit Example

Solve for the current, load voltage and load power
in the previous circuit, assuming a 3f power base of
300 MVA, and line to line voltage bases of 13.8 kV,
138 kV and 27.6 kV (square root of 3 larger than the 1f
example voltages). Also assume the generator is Y-
connected so its line to line voltage is 13.8 kV.
Convert to per unit

as before. Note the
system is exactly the
same!
3 Per Unit Example, cont'd

1.00
I = = 0.22 − 30.8 p.u. (not amps)
3.91 + j 2.327
VL = 1.00 − 0.22 − 30.8 
=  −  p.u.
2
VL
SL = = = 0.189 p.u.
*
VL I L
Z
SG = 1.00 0.2230.8 = 30.8 p.u.
Again, analysis is exactly the same!

3 Per Unit Example, cont'd

Differences appear when we convert back to actual
values
Actual
V L,LN = 0.859 − 30.816 kV = 13.74 − 30.8 kV
Actual
V L,LL = 0.859 − 30.8 30 27.6 kV = 23.8 − 0.8 kV
SLActual = 0.1890 300 MVA = 56.70 MVA
SGActual = 0.2230.8 300 MVA = 66.030.8 MVA
300 MVA
IMiddle
B = = 1250 Amps (same current!)
3138 kV
Middle = 0.22 − 30.8 Amps = 275 − 30.8 
IActual
3 Per Unit Example 2

⚫ Assume a 3 load of 100 + j50 MVA with VLL of 69 kV is
connected to a source through the below network:
What is the supply current and complex power?
Answer: I = 467 amps, S = 103.3 + j76.0 MVA

Per Unit Change of MVA Base

⚫ Parameters for equipment are often given using power rating
of equipment as the MVA base
⚫ To analyze a system, all per unit data must be on a common
power base
Z OriginalBase
pu → Z actual → Z NewBase
pu
2 2
Vbase Vbase
Hence ZOriginalBase
pu  OriginalBase
/ NewBase
= Z pu
NewBase
S Base S Base
NewBase
S Base
OriginalBase
Z pu  OriginalBase = Z pu
NewBase
S Base
Per Unit Change of Base Example

⚫ A 54 MVA transformer has a leakage reactance of 3.69%.
What is the reactance on a 100 MVA base?
100
X e = 0.0369  = 0.0683 p.u.
54
Transformer Reactance
⚫ Transformer reactance is often specified as a percentage,
say 10%. This is a per unit value (divide by 100) on the
power base of the transformer.
⚫ Example: A 350 MVA, 230/20 kV transformer has leakage
reactance of 10%. What is p.u. value on 100 MVA base?
What is the value in ohms (230 kV)?
100
X e = 0.10  = 0.0286 p.u.
350
2302
0.0286  = 15.1 
100
Distribution Transformer
LTC
Radiators
W/Fans
115 – 35 kV distribution transformer
Source: Tom Ernst, Minnesota Power
230/115 kV Transformer
230 kV surge 115 kV surge
arrestors arrestors
Oil Cooler
Oil
Radiators
pump
W/Fans
Three Phase Transformers

⚫ There are 4 different ways to connect 3 transformers
Y-Y D-D
Usually 3 transformers are constructed so all windings share

a common core
3 Transformer Interconnections
D-Y Y-D
Y-Y Connection
Magnetic coupling with An/an, Bn/bn & Cn/cn

VAn VAB IA 1
= a, = a, =
Van Vab Ia a
Y-Y Connection: 3 Detailed Model
Y-Y Connection: Per Phase Model
Per phase analysis of Y-Y connections is exactly the

same as analysis of a single phase transformer.
Y-Y connections are common in transmission systems.
Key advantages are the ability to ground each side

and there is no phase shift introduced.
D-D Connection
Magnetic coupling with AB/ab, BC/bb & CA/ca

VAB I AB 1 I A 1
= a, = , =
Vab I ab a I a a
D-D Connection: 3 Detailed Model
To use the per phase equivalent we need to use

the D-Y load transformation
D-D Connection: Per Phase Model
Per phase analysis similar to Y-Y except impedances are

decreased by a factor of 3.
Key disadvantage is D-D connections can not be grounded;
not commonly used.
D-Y Connection
Magnetic coupling with AB/an, BC/bn & CA/cn
D-Y Connection V/I Relationships

VAB VAB
= a, = Van → Vab = 3 Van30
Van a
VAB30 VAn30
Hence Vab = 3 and Van = 3
a a
For current we get
I AB 1
= → I a = a I AB
Ia a
1
I A = 3 I AB − 30 → I AB = I A30
3
1
 a = a I A30
3
D-Y Connection: Per Phase Model
Note: Connection introduces a 30 degree phase shift!
Common for transmission/distribution step-up since

there is a neutral on the high voltage side.
Even if a = 1 there is a sqrt(3) step-up ratio

Y-D Connection: Per Phase Model
Exact opposite of the D-Y connection, now with a

phase shift of -30 degrees.
Load Tap Changing Transformers

⚫ LTC transformers have tap ratios that can be varied to
regulate bus voltages
⚫ The typical range of variation is 10% from the nominal
values, usually in 33 discrete steps (0.0625% per step).
⚫ Because tap changing is a mechanical process, LTC
transformers usually have a 30 second deadband to avoid
repeated changes.
⚫ Unbalanced tap positions can cause "circulating vars"
Phase Shifting Transformers

⚫ Phase shifting transformers are used to control the phase
angle across the transformer
⚫ Since power flow through the transformer depends upon
phase angle, this allows the transformer to regulate the
power flow through the transformer
⚫ Phase shifters can be used to prevent inadvertent "loop
flow" and to prevent line overloads.
ComED Control Center
ComED Phase Shifter Display
Autotransformers
⚫ Autotransformers are transformers in which the primary
and secondary windings are coupled magnetically and
electrically.
⚫ This results in lower cost, and smaller size and weight.
⚫ The key disadvantage is loss of electrical isolation
between the voltage levels. This can be an important
safety consideration when a is large. For example, in
stepping down 7160/240 V we do not ever want 7160 on
the low side!
Load Models
⚫ Ultimate goal is to supply loads with electricity at constant
frequency and voltage
⚫ Electrical characteristics of individual loads matter, but
usually they can only be estimated
– actual loads are constantly changing, consisting of a
large number of individual devices
– only limited network observability of load
characteristics
⚫ Aggregate models are typically used for analysis
⚫ Two common models
– constant power: Si = Pi + jQi
– constant impedance: Si = |V|2 / Zi
Generator Models
⚫ Engineering models depend upon application
⚫ Generators are usually synchronous machines
⚫ For generators we will use two different models:
– a steady-state model, treating the generator as a
constant power source operating at a fixed voltage; this
model will be used for power flow and economic
analysis
– a short term model treating the generator as a constant
voltage source behind a possibly time-varying
reactance
Load Tap Changing Transformers

⚫ LTC transformers have tap ratios that can be varied to
regulate bus voltages
⚫ The typical range of variation is 10% from the nominal
values, usually in 33 discrete steps (0.0625% per step).
⚫ Because tap changing is a mechanical process, LTC
transformers usually have a 30 second deadband to avoid
repeated changes.
⚫ Unbalanced tap positions can cause "circulating vars"
Phase Shifting Transformers

⚫ Phase shifting transformers are used to control the phase
angle across the transformer
⚫ Since power flow through the transformer depends upon
phase angle, this allows the transformer to regulate the
power flow through the transformer
⚫ Phase shifters can be used to prevent inadvertent "loop
flow" and to prevent line overloads.
Phase Shifting Transformer Picture

Costs about $7 million,
weighs about 1.2
million pounds
230 kV 800 MVA Phase Shifting

Transformer During factory testing

PowSysAnaly 6e Ch03

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Power System Analysis and Design, 6e Glover, Overbye, Sarma

Ideal Transformer Relationships

Assume we have flux m in magnetic material. Then

H  length = N1i1 + N 2i2'

Impedance Transformation Example

1. Real power losses

Transformer Core Losses

Hysteresis losses are proportional to area of BH curve

Effect of Leakage Flux

Effect of Finite Core Permeability

Transformer Equivalent Circuit

This model is further simplified by referring all

Simplified Equivalent Circuit

Calculation of Model Parameters

Transformer Example, cont’d

Residential Distribution Transformers

Per Unit Calculations

Per Unit Conversion Procedure, 1

Note: per unit conversion affects magnitudes, not

Per Unit Solution Procedure

1. Convert to per unit (p.u.) (many problems

Per Unit Example

Per Unit Example, cont’d

Same circuit, with

Per Unit Example, cont’d

Per Unit Example, cont’d

Three Phase Per Unit

VB2, LL ( 3 VB, LN )2 VB2, LN

Three Phase Per Unit, cont'd

S B3 3 S1B S1B

5. Convert actual values to per unit

Three Phase Per Unit Example

Convert to per unit

3 Per Unit Example, cont'd

Again, analysis is exactly the same!

3 Per Unit Example, cont'd

3 Per Unit Example 2

What is the supply current and complex power?

Answer: I = 467 amps, S = 103.3 + j76.0 MVA

Per Unit Change of MVA Base

Per Unit Change of Base Example

Three Phase Transformers

Usually 3 transformers are constructed so all windings share

Magnetic coupling with An/an, Bn/bn & Cn/cn

Y-Y Connection: 3 Detailed Model

Y-Y Connection: Per Phase Model

Per phase analysis of Y-Y connections is exactly the

Y-Y connections are common in transmission systems.

Key advantages are the ability to ground each side

Magnetic coupling with AB/ab, BC/bb & CA/ca

D-D Connection: 3 Detailed Model

To use the per phase equivalent we need to use

D-D Connection: Per Phase Model

Per phase analysis similar to Y-Y except impedances are

Magnetic coupling with AB/an, BC/bn & CA/cn

D-Y Connection V/I Relationships

D-Y Connection: Per Phase Model

Note: Connection introduces a 30 degree phase shift!

Common for transmission/distribution step-up since

Even if a = 1 there is a sqrt(3) step-up ratio

Y-D Connection: Per Phase Model

Exact opposite of the D-Y connection, now with a

Load Tap Changing Transformers