ELEC4310- Power Systems

Unbalanced Fault Analysis

Course Coordinator and Lecturer: Prof. Tapan Saha

(Room:47-406)
Telephone: 3365-3962
Email: saha@itee.uq.edu.au
System representation

• Power systems operates under balanced

steady state conditions before the fault
occurs.
• When an unbalanced fault occurs in the
system, system can’t be studied any more
with balanced steady state conditions.
• The method of symmetrical components, first
developed by C.L. Fortescue in 1918, is a
powerful technique for analysing unbalanced
three-phase systems.

2
Symmetrical components- Fortescue’s theorem

• Three unbalanced phasors of a three-phase system

can be resolved into three balanced systems of
phasors. The balanced sets of components are:
• Positive sequence components consisting of three
phasors equal in magnitude, displaced from each other
by 120o in phase, and having the same phase
sequence as the original phasors.
• Negative sequence components consisting of three
phasors equal in magnitude, displaced from each other
by 120o in phase, and having the phase sequence
opposite to that of the original phasors.
• Zero sequence components consisting of three
phasors equal in magnitude and with zero phase
displacement from each other.

3
 Symmetrical Components

⚫ The key idea of symmetrical component analysis is to

decompose the system into three sequence networks. The
networks are then coupled only at the point of the
unbalance (i.e., the fault)
⚫ The three sequence networks are known as the
–positive sequence (this is the one we’ve been using)
–negative sequence
–zero sequence

© 2012 Cengage Learning Engineering. All Rights Reserved. 4

Symmetrical components- Fortescue’s theorem
Some write Va0 or Va0 ; or use operator a or 

5
 Positive Sequence Sets

⚫ The positive sequence sets have three phase

currents/voltages with equal magnitude, with phase b lagging
phase a by 120°, and phase c lagging phase b by 120°.
⚫ We’ve been studying positive sequence sets

Positive sequence
sets have zero
neutral current

© 2012 Cengage Learning Engineering. All Rights Reserved.

6
 Negative Sequence Sets

⚫ The negative sequence sets have three phase

currents/voltages with equal magnitude, with phase b
leading phase a by 120°, and phase c leading phase b by
120°.
⚫ Negative sequence sets are similar to positive sequence
sets, except the phase order is reversed

Negative sequence
sets have zero
neutral current

© 2012 Cengage Learning Engineering. All Rights Reserved. 7

 Zero Sequence Sets

⚫ Zero sequence sets have three values with equal

magnitude and angle
⚫ Zero sequence sets have neutral current

© 2012 Cengage Learning Engineering. All Rights Reserved.

8
 Sequence Set Representation

⚫ Any arbitrary set of three phasors, say Ia, Ib, Ic, can be
represented as a sum of the three sequence sets
I a = I a0 + I a+ + I a−
I b = I b0 + I b+ + I b−
I c = I c0 + I c+ + I c−
where
I a0 , Ib0 , I c0 is the zero sequence set
I a+ , Ib+ , I c+ is the positive sequence set
− − −
I a , Ib , I c is the negative sequence set
© 2012 Cengage Learning Engineering. All Rights Reserved. 9
 Conversion from Sequence to Phase

Only three of the sequence values are unique,

Some books write operator
Ia0 , 𝐼𝑎+ , 𝐼𝑎− ; the others are determined as follows:

𝛼 = 1∠120° 𝛼 + 𝛼2 + 𝛼3 = 0 𝛼3 = 1

Ia0 = Ib0 = Ic0 (since by definition they are all equal)

𝐼𝑏+ = 𝛼 2 𝐼𝑎+ 𝐼𝑐+ = 𝛼𝐼𝑎+ 𝐼𝑏− = 𝛼𝐼𝑎− 𝐼𝑐+ = 𝛼 2 𝐼𝑎−

𝐼𝑎 1 1 1 1 1 1 𝐼𝑎0
𝐼𝑏 = Ia0 1 + Ia+ 𝛼 2 + 𝐼𝑎− 𝛼 = 1 𝛼 2 𝛼 𝐼𝑎+
𝐼𝑐 1 𝛼 𝛼2 1 𝛼 𝛼2 𝐼𝑎−

© 2012 Cengage Learning Engineering. All Rights Reserved. 10

 Conversion from Sequence to Phase, cont’d

Define the symmetrical components transformation

matrix
1 1 1
 
A = 1  2

1   2 
 
 Ia   I 0
a
 I 0

   +  +
Then I = I b = A  I a  = A  I  = A I s
 
 I c   −  −
 I a   I 
© 2012 Cengage Learning Engineering. All Rights Reserved. 11
Conversion form Phase to Sequence

By taking the inverse we can convert from the

phase values to the sequence values
−1
Is = A I
1 1 1
−1 1  2
with A = 1   
3
1  2  
 
Sequence sets can be used with voltages as well
as with currents

© 2012 Cengage Learning Engineering. All Rights Reserved. 12

 Symmetrical Component Example 1

 I a   100 
Let I =  I b  = 10 − Then
   
 I c   10 
1 1 1   100    
1 2
I s = A I = 1    10 − = 100 
−1
3    
1  2    10   0 
 
 100   0 
If I = 10 + → Is =  0 
   
10 −  100
© 2012 Cengage Learning Engineering. All Rights Reserved. 13
 Symmetrical Component Example 2

Va   0 
Let V = Vb  =   
   
Vc   −  
Then
1 1 1   0   0 
1 2
Vs = A V = 1      =  − 
−1
3    
1  2    −    6.12 
 

© 2012 Cengage Learning Engineering. All Rights Reserved. 14

 Symmetrical Component Example 3

 I 0   100 
 + 
Let I s =  I  = −10
 
 −    
 I   
Then
1 1 1   100    
 
I = AI s = 1  2
  −10 =   
   
1   2      − 
 

© 2012 Cengage Learning Engineering. All Rights Reserved. 15

 Use of Symmetrical Components
⚫ Consider the following Y-connected load:

I n = I a + Ib + I c
Vag = I a Z y + I n Z n
Vag = ( ZY + Z n ) I a + Z n Ib + Z n I c
Vbg = Z n I a + ( ZY + Z n ) Ib + Z n I c
Vcg = Z n I a + Z n Ib + ( ZY + Z n ) I c
Vag  Z y + Zn Zn Zn   Ia 
    
Vbg  =  Z n Z y + Zn Z n  Ib
 
V   Z Zn Z y + Z n   I c 
 cg   n

© 2012 Cengage Learning Engineering. All Rights Reserved. 16

 Use of Symmetrical Components

Vag  Z y + Zn Zn Zn   Ia 
    
Vbg  =  Z n Z y + Zn Z n  Ib
 
V   Z Zn Z y + Z n   I c 
 cg   n

V = Z I V = A Vs I = A Is
A Vs = Z A I s → Vs = A −1 Z A I s
 Z y + 3Z n 0 0
−1  
A ZA =  0 Zy 0
 0 0 Z y 

© 2012 Cengage Learning Engineering. All Rights Reserved. 17
Networks Are Now Decoupled

V 0   Z y + 3Z n 0 0  I 
0
 +   +
V  =  0 Zy 0  I 
 −   
 
V  0 0 Z y   I − 
 
Systems are decoupled
V 0 = ( Z y + 3Z n ) I 0 V+ = Zy I+
V − = Zy I−

© 2012 Cengage Learning Engineering. All Rights Reserved. 18

SEQUENCE NETWORKS:
Synchronous Machines
a Ia1 +
Z1 Ia1
Z1
+
+ Va1
Ean
- n Ean
Ebn
Reference
E cn - -
+ +
Z1 Z1 V a1 = Ean - Ia1Z1
b
c Ib1

Ic1
Positive seqience
network Ia2
a +
Ia2
Z2 Z2 Va2
reference
-

Z2 Z2 Va2 = -Ia2 Z2
b
Ib2
Negative sequence
c
Ic2 network
a +
Ia0 a
Zgo Ia0
Zn Z g0

3Ia0 Va0
Zgo Zgo
3Z n
c b
Ib0
-
reference
Ic0 V a0 = -Ia0Z0
Where Z 0 =3Z n+Zg0

Zero Sequence network

19
 SEQUENCE NETWORKS:
Synchronous Machines
• Since a three-phase synchronous generator is designed to
produce balanced internal phase voltages Ea, Eb and EC with
only a positive sequence component, a source voltage Ea1 is
included only in the positive sequence network.
• In a three phase Y connected system the neutral current In is
the sum of three line currents. In=Ia + Ib+Ic=3Ia0
• Hence the voltage drop in the generator neutral impedance is
Zn In, which is 3Zn Ia0. Since this voltage drop is due only to
zero-sequence current Ia0, an impedance 3 Zn is placed in the
zero sequence network in series with the generator zero
sequence impedance Zg0
• Under steady state conditions, the positive sequence
generator impedance is called the synchronous impedance.
• Negative sequence impedance of a Synchronous machine is
less than the positive sequence impedance.

20
 Sequence networks of Transmission
Lines:
• Perfect balance between phases is often assumed
especially if the lines are transposed along their lengths.
• In deriving the inductance and capacitance of transposed
transmission lines, we assumed balanced three phase
currents and did not specify phase order.
• The resulting parameters are therefore valid for both
positive and negative sequence impedances.
• When only zero-sequence current flows in a transmission
line, the current in each phase is identical. The current
return through the ground, through overhead ground wires,
or through both.
• The magnetic field due to zero sequence current is very
different from the magnetic field caused by either positive
or negative sequence current.
• The zero sequence reactance is 2.5 to 3 times as large as
the positive sequence reactance.

21
 Sequence Diagrams for Transformers

⚫ The positive and negative sequence diagrams for

transformers are similar to those for transmission
lines.
⚫ The zero sequence network depends upon both
how the transformer is grounded and its type of
connection. The easiest to understand is a double
grounded Y-Y

22
 Sequence Circuits of Delta-Wye
Transformers
• The sequence equivalent circuits of three-phase
transformer depend on the connections of primary and
secondary windings.

• No current flows in the primary of a transformer unless

current flows in the secondary, if we neglect the
relatively small magnetising current.
• Z0=Z+3ZN+3Zn

• Where primary side of transformer is grounded through

ZN and secondary side of the transformer is grounded
through Zn. The usual per phase equivalent circuit of
the transformer applies when positive and negative
sequence voltage and currents are present.

23
Five possible types of connections are shown below
for the zero-sequence networks

P Q P Z0 Q

reference

Z0 Q
P
P Q

reference

Z0
P Q P Q

reference

ZN Zn
P Q P Z0 Q

reference bus

ZN
P Q P Z0 Q

24
Sequence networks of Transmission Lines

25
A Problem

26
27
28
Create Thévenin Equivalents

29
30
SINGLE LINE TO GROUND FAULT

Ifa
+

Zf
Va

Ea

Eb
Ia
Ec
Zn

Ib=0

Ic=0

31
 SINGLE LINE TO GROUND FAULT

• Suppose a line-to ground fault occurs on phase a

through impedance Zf. Assuming the generator is
initially on no-load, the boundary conditions at the fault
point are:
Va= Zf Ifa
Ic = Ib =0
Substituting the values of currents, we have:

 I fa0  1 1 1   I fa 
  1 2  
 I fa1  = 3 1 a a  0 
 I fa2  1 a 2
a   0 
 
32
 SINGLE LINE TO GROUND FAULT

From the above equation: Ifa0= Ifa1 = Ifa2 = Ifa /3

Phase a voltage in terms of symmetrical components is:
Va = Va0 +Va1 + Va2
Substituting Va0, Va1 and Va2 from Figure We get:
Va=Ea- Ifa0(Z1+Z2+Z0)
Where Z0= Zg0+3Zn, and noting Ifa= 3 Ifa0
We get: 3 Zf Ifa0 = Ea- Ifa0(Z1+Z2+Z0)
Or: Ifa0 = (Ea)/(Z1+Z2+Z0+3 Zf)
So, the fault current is Ifa = 3 Ifa0 =(3Ea)/(Z1+Z2+Z0+3 Zf)
• The current and voltage equations satisfy that the sequence
networks should be connected in series. Thus, for line to
ground faults, the Theremin's impedance to the point of
fault is obtained for each sequence network, and the three-
sequence networks are placed in series. If the generator
neutral is solidly grounded, Zn=0 and for bolted faults Zf=0.

33
 SINGLE LINE TO GROUND FAULT

Ifa1 Z0
Z1 Z2 Ifa2 Ifa0

Va2 V a0
Ea Va1
3Z f

Reference

34
35
SLG Faults, cont’d from Slide 27:

With the
sequence
networks in
series we can
solve for the
fault currents
(assume Zf = 0)

1.050
I +f = = − j1.964 = I −f = I 0f
j (0.1389 + 0.1456 + 0.25 + 3Z f )
I = A I s → I af = − j 5.8 (of course, Ibf = I cf = 0)

© 2012 Cengage Learning Engineering. All Rights Reserved. 36

Calculate the sub-transient fault current in per unit and in
kA for a bolted single line to ground short circuit from
phase a to ground at bus 2 in this diagram.

Also calculate the per unit line to ground voltages at

faulted bus 2. Result: If=24.65 kA, -j5.89pu,
Vbg=1.17923.3o, Vcg=1.179128.7o

37
38
LINE TO LINE FAULTS

k
a
Ifa
k
b

Ifb Zf

k
c

Ifc

39
LINE TO LINE FAULTS

• Assume a line-to-line fault involves phase b and c

through an impedance Zf .
• The following relations must be satisfied at the fault
point.
Ifa = 0
Ifb +Ifc=0 (1)
Vkb-Vkc = Ifb Zf
• Since Ifb = -Ifc and Ifa = 0, the symmetrical components
of currents are given by:
 I fa0  1 1 1  0 
  1  
 fa1  = 3 1 a
I a 2   I fb 

 I fa2  1 a 2 a  − I fb 

40
Simplifying previous page equation shows that:
Ifa0 = 0, Ifa1 = - Ifa2 (2)
• The voltage throughout the zero-sequence network
must be zero, since there are no zero sequence
sources, and because Ifa0 = 0, current is not injected
into that network due to the fault. Hence, line-to-line
fault calculations do not involve the zero-sequence
network.
Let us now check the voltage relationship:
Vkb-Vkc = Ifb Zf
LH Side of the equation Vkb-Vkc = (Vkb1 +Vkb2)- (Vkc1 +Vkc2 )
Vkb-Vkc = (Vkb1 - Vkc1)+(Vkb2 - Vkc2 )
Vkb-Vkc = (a2-a) Vka1 +(a-a2) Vka2 = (a2-a) (Vka1 - Vka2 )
(3)
RH side of the equation: Ifb Zf = (Ifb1 + Ifb2) Zf = (a2 Ifa1 +a Ifa2 ) Zf
From Equation 2: Ifa1 = - Ifa2
Substituting into above equation
Ifb Zf = (a2-a) Ifa1 Zf (4)
41
LINE TO LINE FAULTS

Equating equations 3 and 4 :

Vkb-Vkc = Ifb Zf
(a2-a) (Vka1 - Vka2 )= (a2-a) Ifa1 Zf
(Vka1 - Vka2) = Ifa1 Zf (5)
• Now we need to represent the equations 2 and
5 in circuit representation.
• If we connect the positive and negative
sequences in parallel through the impedance
Zf conditions given in equations 2 and 5 are
satisfied.
• The equation for the positive sequence current
in the fault can be directly determined from the
Figure 6.
42
 Vf
I fa1 = − I fa 2 =
Z kk1 + Z kk 2 + Z f

Zkk1 k Zf k Zkk2

I fa1 I fa2
Vf Vka1 Vka2

Reference

43
44
Calculate the subtransient fault current in per unit and in
kA for a bolted line to line fault from phase b to c at bus 2
in this diagram. Result: If=6.391 pu, 26.74 kA

45
46
DOUBLE LINE TO GROUND FAULTS

k
a
Ifa
k
b

Ifb

k
c

Ifc I fb+Ifc
Zf

47
 DOUBLE LINE TO GROUND FAULTS

• Assume a double line to ground fault involves phase

b and c and connected to ground through an
impedance Zf .
• The following relations must be satisfied at the fault
point.
• Ifa = 0 , Vkb=Vkc = (Ifb + Ifc ) Zf (1)

• Since Ifa = 0 , the symmetrical components of

currents are given by:

 I fa0  1 1 1  0  Vka0  1 1 1  Vka 

  1   V  = 1 1 a a 2  Vkb 
 fa1  = 3 1 a
I a 2   I fb   ka1  3 

 I fa2  1 a 2 a   I fc  Vka2  1 a 2 a  Vkc 

48
DOUBLE LINE TO GROUND FAULTS

Simplifying this equation shows that:

Ifa0 = 1/3 (Ifb +Ifc )
Hence, (Ifb +Ifc ) = 3 Ifa0 (2)
Hence, Vkb=Vkc= 3 Ifa0 Zf (3)
We want to see the voltage relationship:
The second and third row of this equation gives
Vka1=Vka2
On the other hand, first row provides us, 3Vka0=Vka +2Vkb
3Vka0= (Vka0 +Vka1 +Vka2 )+2(3 Ifa0 Zf ),
Separating Vka0 and substituting Vka1=Vka2
3Vka0-Vka0 = Vka1 +Vka2 +2(3 Ifa0 Zf )=2 Vka1+2(3 Ifa0 Zf )
2Vka0=2 Vka1+2(3 Ifa0 Zf )
We get, Vka1= Vka0 -3 Ifa0 Zf

49
•So we have finally Vka1= Vka2= Vka0 -3 Ifa0 Zf (4)
Ifa0 +Ifa1 +Ifa2 = 0= Ifa

These equations in (4) are satisfied when all three-sequence

networks are connected in parallel as shown in the following
Figure. The equation for the positive sequence current in the fault
can be directly determined from the Figure 4.

Ifa1 I fa2
Zkk1 Zkk2 Zkk0

Ifa0
V ka0
Vf Vka1 Vka2
3Z f

Reference

Vf
I fa1 =
Z kk 2 ( Z kk0 + 3Z f )
Z kk1 +
( Z kk 2 + Z kk0 + 3Z f )
50
51
Calculate (a) the subtransient fault current in each phase,
(b) neutral fault current, and © contributions to the fault
current from the motor and from the transmission line, for
a bolted double line to ground fault from phase b to c to
ground at bus 2. Neglect the Wye-delta transformer phase
shifts.

52
53
 Unbalanced Fault Summary

⚫ SLG: Sequence networks are connected in series,

parallel to three times the fault impedance
⚫ LL: Positive and negative sequence networks are
connected in parallel; zero sequence network is not
included since there is no path to ground
⚫ DLG: Positive, negative, and zero sequence
networks are connected in parallel, with the zero-
sequence network including three times the fault
impedance

© 2012 Cengage Learning Engineering. All Rights Reserved. 54

Generalized System Solution

⚫ Assume we know the pre-fault voltages

⚫ The general procedure is then
1. Calculate Zbus for each sequence
2. For a fault at bus i, the Zii values are the
Thévenin equivalent impedances; the pre-fault
voltage is the positive sequence Thévenin
voltage
3. Connect and solve the Thévenin equivalent
sequence networks to determine the fault
current

© 2012 Cengage Learning Engineering. All Rights Reserved. 55

 Generalized System Solution, cont’d

4. Sequence voltages throughout the system

are given by 0  
 
 
 0  This is solved
− I  for each
V = V prefault +Z f  sequence
 0  network!
 
 
 0 
5. Phase values are determined from the sequence values

© 2012 Cengage Learning Engineering. All Rights Reserved. 56

 Faults on Lines

⚫ The previous analysis has assumed that the fault is

at a bus. Most faults occur on transmission lines,
not at the buses
⚫ For analysis, these faults are treated by including a
dummy bus at the fault location. How the
impedance of the transmission line is then split
depends upon the fault location

© 2012 Cengage Learning Engineering. All Rights Reserved. 57