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Multifunctional Antennas
and Arrays for Wireless
Communication Systems
Multifunctional Antennas and Arrays for
Wireless Communication Systems
Edited by
Satish K. Sharma and Jia-Chi S. Chieh

San Diego State University
San Diego, CA, USA

This edition first published 2021
© 2021 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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To our parents, teachers, and family members
vi
Contents
List of Contributors xi
Preface xii
Acknowledgements xv
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Antenna: an Integral Component of Wireless Communications 1
1.3 Antenna Performance Parameters 2
1.4 Antenna Types 2
1.5 Multifunctional Antennas 3
1.6 Reconfigurable Antennas 6
1.7 Frequency Agile/Tunable Antenna 13
1.8 Antenna Measurements 17
1.9 Conclusion 18
References 18
2 Frequency Reconfigurable Antennas 19

Saeed I. Latif and Satish K. Sharma
2.1 Introduction 19
2.2 Mechanism of Frequency Reconfigurability 20
2.3 Types of FRAs 21
2.3.1 Frequency Reconfigurability by Switches/Tunable Components 21
2.3.1.1 Electrical Switches 22
2.3.1.2 Varactor Diodes 31
2.3.1.3 Micro-Electro-Mechanical-System (MEMS) Switches 40
2.3.1.4 Optical Switches 40
2.3.1.5 Ground Plane Membrane Deflection 43
2.3.2 Frequency Reconfigurability Using Special Materials 43
2.3.2.1 Liquid Crystals 45
2.3.2.2 Graphene 47
Contents vii
2.3.3 Frequency Reconfigurability by Mechanical Changes 49

2.3.3.1 Actuators 49
2.3.3.2 Motors 50
2.3.4 Frequency Reconfigurability Using Special Shapes 53
2.3.4.1 Origami Antennas 53
2.3.4.2 Fractal Shapes 54
2.4 FRAs in the Future: Applications in Emerging Technologies 58
2.5 Conclusion 59
References 59
3 Radiation Pattern Reconfigurable Antennas 67

Sima Noghanian and Satish K. Sharma
3.1 Introduction 67
3.2 Pattern Reconfigurable by Electronically Changing Antenna Elements 67
3.3 Pattern Reconfigurable by Electronically Changing Feeding Network 88
3.4 Mechanically Controlled Pattern Reconfigurable Antennas 90
3.5 Arrays and Optimizations 98
3.6 Reconfigurable Wearable and Implanted Antennas 110
3.7 Conclusion 119
References 119
4 Polarization Reconfigurable Antennas 122

Behrouz Babakhani and Satish K. Sharma
4.1 Introduction 122
4.2 Polarization Reconfiguration Mechanism Using RF Switches 124
4.3 Solid-State RF Switch-Based Polarization Reconfigurable Antenna 125
4.4 Mechanical and Micro-electro-mechanical (MEMS) RF Switch-Based
Antennas 140
4.5 Switchable Feed Network-Based Polarization Reconfiguration 148
4.6 Polarization Reconfigurable Antennas Using Metasurface 157
4.7 Other Methods to Create Polarization Reconfigurable Antennas 162
4.8 Conclusion 169
References 169
5 Liquid Metal, Piezoelectric, and RF MEMS-Based Reconfigurable

Antennas 172
Jia-Chi S. Chieh and Satish K. Sharma
5.2 Liquid Metal – Frequency Reconfigurable Antennas 172
5.3 Liquid Metal – Pattern Reconfigurable Antennas 175
5.4 Liquid Metal – Directivity Reconfigurable Antennas 182
5.5 Piezoelectric – Pattern Reconfigurable Array 184
5.6 RF MEMS – Frequency Reconfigurable 189
viii Contents
5.7 F MEMS – Polarization Reconfigurable 191

R
5.8 RF MEMS – Pattern Reconfigurable 194
5.9 Conclusion 196
References 197
6 Compact Reconfigurable Antennas 198

Sima Noghanian and Satish K. Sharma
6.2 Reconfigurable Pixel Antenna 199
6.3 Compact Reconfigurable Antennas Using Fluidic 209
6.4 Compact Reconfigurable Antennas Using Ferrite and
Magnetic Materials 213
6.5 Metamaterials and Metasurfaces 224
6.6 Conclusion 229
References 229
7 Reconfigurable MIMO Antennas 232

Kumud R. Jha and Satish K. Sharma
7.2 Reconfigurable Antennas for MIMO Applications 234
7.3 Isolation Techniques in MIMO Antennas 237
7.3.1 Decoupling Network 237
7.3.2 Neutralization Lines 238
7.3.3 Using Artificial Material 240
7.3.4 Defected Ground Plane 241
7.4 Pattern Diversity Scheme 241
7.5 Reconfigurable Polarization MIMO Antenna 244
7.6 MIMO Antenna Performance Parameters 254
7.6.1 Envelope Correlation Coefficient (ECC) 254
7.6.2 Total Active Reflection Coefficient (TARC) 255
7.6.3 Mean Effective Gain (MEG) 256
7.6.4 Diversity Gain 257
7.7 Some Reconfigurable MIMO Antenna Examples 258
7.8 Conclusion 274
References 274
8 Multifunctional Antennas for 4G/5G Communications and MIMO

Applications 279
Kumud R. Jha and Satish K. Sharma
8.2 MIMO Antennas in Multifunctional Systems 281
8.3 MIMO Antennas in Radar Systems 284
8.4 MIMO Antennas in Communication Systems 290
Contents ix
8.5 IMO Antennas for Sensing Applications 290

M
8.6 MIMO Antennas for 5G Systems 292
8.7 Massive MIMO Array 293
8.8 Dielectric Lens for Millimeter Wave MIMO 298
8.9 Beamforming in Massive MIMO 301
8.10 MIMO in Imaging Systems 303
8.11 MIMO Antenna in Medical Applications 306
8.11.1 Ex-VIVO Applications 306
8.11.2 MIMO Antenna for Medical Imaging 309
8.11.3 Wearable MIMO Antenna 309
8.11.4 MIMO Indigestion Capsule 310
8.11.5 Reconfigurable Antennas in Bio-Medical Engineering 313
8.12 Conclusion 316
References 317
9 Metamaterials in Reconfigurable Antennas 321

9.2 Metamaterials in Antenna Reconfigurability 321
9.3 Metamaterial-Inspired Reconfigurable Antennas 322
9.3.1 Metamaterial-Based Frequency Reconfigurability 323
9.3.2 Metamaterial-Based Pattern Reconfigurability 325
9.3.3 Metamaterial-Based Polarization Reconfigurability 328
9.4 Metasurface-Inspired Reconfigurable Antennas 333
9.5 Conclusion 336
References 337
10 Multifunctional Antennas for User Equipments (UEs) 341

Satish K. Sharma and Sonika P. Biswal
10.2 Lower/Sub-6 GHz 5G Band Antennas 342
10.3 5G mm-Wave Antenna Arrays 353
10.4 Collocated Sub-6 GHz and mm-Wave 5G Array Antennas 360
10.5 RF and EMF Exposure Limits 369
10.6 Conclusion 374
References 374
11 DoD Reconfigurable Antennas 378

11.2 TACAN 378
11.2.1 TACAN Antenna 379
11.2.2 Course Bearing 382
x Contents
11.2.3 Fine Bearing 382

11.3 Sea-Based X-Band Radar 1 (SBX-1) 383
11.4 The Advanced Multifunction RF Concept (AMRFC) 384
11.5 Integrated Topside (InTop) 390
11.5.1 Wavelength Scaled Arrays 390
11.5.2 Low-Cost Multichannel Microwave Frequency Phased Array Chipsets
on Si and SiGe 394
11.6 DARPA Arrays of Commercial Timescales (ACT) 400
11.7 AFRL Transformational Element Level Array (TELA) 405
11.8 Conclusion 406
References 408
12 5G Silicon RFICs-Based Phased Array Antennas 409

12.2 Silicon Beamformer Technology 409
12.3 LO-Based Phase Shifting 413
12.4 IF-Based Phase Shifting 414
12.5 RF-Based Phase Shifting 415
12.6 Ku-Band Phased Arrays Utilizing Silicon Beamforming Chipsets 422
12.7 Ku-Band Phased Arrays on ROHACELL Utilizing Silicon
Beamforming Chipsets 425
12.8 Ku-Band Phased Arrays with Wide Axial Ratios Utilizing Silicon
Beamforming Chipsets 431
12.9 28 GHz Phased Arrays Utilizing Silicon Beamforming Chipsets 433
12.10 Phased Array Reflectors Utilizing Silicon Beamforming Chipsets 438
12.11 Conclusion 442
References 443
Index 445
xi
List of Contributors
Behrouz Babakhani Saeed I. Latif

Antenna and Microwave Lab (AML), Department of Electrical and
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of
Computer Engineering, San Diego South Alabama, Mobile, AL, USA
State University, San Diego, CA, USA
Sima Noghanian
Sonika P. Biswal Antenna and Microwave Lab (AML),
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, San Diego
Computer Engineering, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, USA
Satish K. Sharma
Jia-Chi S. Chieh Antenna and Microwave Lab (AML),
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, San Diego
Computer Engineering, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, USA
Kumud R. Jha
Antenna and Microwave Lab (AML),
Department of Electrical and
Computer Engineering, San Diego
Department of Electronics and
Communication Engineering, Shri
Mata Vaishno Devi University, SMVD
University, Katra, India
xii
Preface
Multifunctional antennas and arrays are the new trend in the field of antennas for
diversified applications such as wireless and satellite communications as well as
for radar applications. Reconfigurable antennas starting from frequency recon-
figuration, pattern reconfiguration to polarization reconfiguration and their com-
binations make these antennas not only multifunctional but also reduce space
requirements on the host communication devices. In the last two decades there
has been great efforts to design and realize these reconfigurable antennas and we
anticipate even more efforts to come in the near future. A wide range of sub‐topics
as they apply to multifunction antennas and arrays include the design and devel-
opment of the reconfigurable multiple‐input‐multiple‐output (MIMO) antennas,
liquid metal antennas, piezoelectric antennas, radio frequency (RF) micro‐elec-
tro‐mechanical‐systems (MEMS) based reconfigurable antennas, multifunctional
antennas for 4G/5G communications and MIMO applications, metamaterials
reconfigurable antennas, multifunctional antennas for user equipment (EUs),
reconfigurable antennas for the defense applications and phased array antennas
using 5G silicon RFICs.
The purpose of this book is to present in‐depth theory, as well as design and
development insight of these various multifunctional antennas and arrays. The
book is aimed for use by practicing antenna engineers and researchers in the
industry and academia. This book starts with an introduction to the antennas in
Chapter 1, which discusses the importance of antennas. It also provides an intro-
duction to antenna performance parameters, antenna types, multifunctional
antennas, reconfigurable antennas, and antenna measurements. Next in
Chapter 2, frequency reconfigurable antennas (FRAs) are detailed. This chapter
starts with discussion of the mechanism of frequency reconfigurability, types of
the FRAs using various switches and tunable components, FRAs by employing
mechanical changes such as ground plane membrane deflection, and FRAs by
using special materials and special shapes. Chapter 3 presents discussion on
the pattern reconfigurable antennas which includes the following: pattern
Preface xiii
reconfiguration by electronically changing antenna elements and feeding net-

works, mechanically controlled pattern reconfigurable antennas, pattern recon-
figurable arrays and optimizations, and reconfigurable wearable and implanted
antennas. In Chapter 4, we discuss the polarization reconfigurable antennas with
emphasis on the polarization reconfiguration mechanism using RF switches,
polarization reconfigurable antennas using solid‐state RF switches, mechanical
and micro‐electro‐mechanical‐system (MEMS) RF switches, switchable feed net-
works, usage of metasurfaces, as well as other methods. These chapters describe
the three main types of reconfigurable antennas and arrays as described in the
introduction.
Reconfigurable antennas using the liquid metal, piezoelectric and RF MEMS
are discussed in Chapter 5. This chapter specifically includes discussion on the
liquid metal based frequency, pattern, and directivity reconfigurable antennas,
piezoelectric based pattern reconfigurable arrays, and RF MEMS based frequency
and pattern reconfigurable antennas. Compact reconfigurable antennas are dis-
cussed in Chapter 6 with the main focus on the reconfigurable pixel antennas, and
reconfigurable antennas using fluidic, ferrite and magnetic materials, metamate-
rials and metasurfaces.
Reconfigurable MIMO antennas are presented in Chapter 7, which discusses
the following: reconfigurable antennas for MIMO applications, isolation tech-
niques in MIMO antennas, pattern diversity scheme, reconfigurable polarization
MIMO antennas, MIMO antenna performance parameters, and finally some
reconfigurable MIMO antenna examples. Chapter 8 offers discussion on the
MIMO antennas in multifunctional systems, MIMO antennas in Radar systems,
MIMO antennas in communication systems, MIMO antennas for sensing applica-
tions, MIMO antennas for 5G systems, massive MIMO arrays, dielectric lens for
millimeter wave MIMO, beamforming in massive MIMO, MIMO in imaging sys-
tems, and MIMO antenna in medical applications. Use of metamaterials in recon-
figurable antennas have been addressed in Chapter 9. This chapter focuses the
discussion on metamaterials in antenna reconfigurability, metamaterial‐inspired
reconfigurable antennas, and metasurface‐inspired reconfigurable antennas.
Chapter 10 provides detailed discussion on the multifunctional antennas for
user equipments (UEs) with emphasis on the lower/sub‐6 GHz 5G band anten-
nas, 5G mm‐wave antenna arrays, collocated sub‐6 GHz and mm‐Wave 5G array
antennas, and RF and electromagnetic fields (EMF) exposure limits. The depart-
ment of defense (DoD) related reconfigurable antennas are presented in
Chapter 11 with a focus on the tactical air navigation system (TACAN) antennas,
sea‐based X‐Band Radar 1 (SBX‐1) antennas, the advanced multifunction RF con-
cept (AMRFC) antennas, integrated topside (InTop) antennas, the Defense
Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) arrays of commercial timescales
(ACT), and the Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL) transformational element
xiv Preface
level array (TELA). Finally, Chapter 12 discusses 5G silicon RFICs‐based phased

array antennas, which introduces silicon beamformer technology. It includes a
short discussion of three phase shifting topologies using local oscillator (LO)
based phase shifting, intermediate frequency (IF) based phase shifting and RF
based phase shifting for beam steering array antennas. Several flat panel phased
array antenna examples using the silicon beamforming chipsets both at Ku‐ and
Ka‐band with linear and circular polarizations are also presented.
We would like to mention that the slight overlap between the content in couple
of chapters is acknowledged. We have done this intentionally so that discussion is
complete in the respective chapters. While the contributors and authors have
made great effort to present details for each topic area, they are by no means com-
plete as the body of work in this field is large. They do represent the interpreta-
tions of each chapter’s contributors. As time progresses, further improvements
and innovations in the state‐of‐the‐art technologies in reconfigurable antennas is
anticipated. Therefore, it is expected that interested readers should continually
refresh their knowledge to follow the growth of communication technologies.
1 February 2021 Professor Satish K. Sharma, PhD

San Diego, CA, USA Jia‐Chi S. Chieh, PhD
xv
Acknowledgements
We would like to offer our sincere thanks to the chapter coauthors for their valu-
able contributions, patience and timely support throughout the development of
this book. We would also like to thank the Wiley team members especially, Brett
Kurzman, Victoria Bradshaw, Sarah Lemore, Sukhwinder Singh and most impor-
tantly S. M. Amudhapriya for their immense help throughout the completion of
this book.
Professor Satish K. Sharma will like to take this opportunity to thank his
research collaborators, past and present graduate students, post‐doctoral fellows,
visiting scholars, and undergraduate students at San Diego State University
(SDSU) who have been the continuous source for his research growth. He thanks
Dr. Jia‐Chi S. Chieh for agreeing to work on this book. He also thanks the funding
agencies: National Science Foundation (NSF) for the prestigious CAREER award,
the Office of Naval Research (ONR), the Naval Information Warfare Center‐Pacific
(NIWC‐PAC), the Space and Naval Warfare Systems Command (SPAWAR)‐San
Diego, and the SBIR/STTR Phase I and II research grants subcontracted through
the local industries, which have helped him pursue his research work. Finally, he
thanks his spouse Mamta Sharma (Author and Artist) and daughters Shiva Shree
Sharma (Doctoral Student in Material Science Engineering at University of
California, Riverside, California) and Shruti Shree Sharma (Undergraduate
Student in Electrical Engineering at University of California, Irvine, California)
who spared their valuable time to let him work on this book and offered their
unconditional love and support as always. He also thanks his pet dog and cat
Charlie Sharma and Razzle Sharma, respectively, for their unconditional love to
him. Lastly, he is grateful to his parents (Mr. Rama Naresh Sharma and Mrs.
Taravati Sharma), elders in his extended family, research advisors (Professors
L. Shafai, the University of Manitoba and B. R. Vishvakarma, Indian Institute of
Technology, Banaras Hindu University), teachers, colleagues, friends and the
almighty God for bestowing continuous blessings on him.
xvi Acknowledgement
Dr. Jia‐Chi S. Chieh is grateful to his research group at the Naval Information
Warfare Center in San Diego for their tireless efforts in the development of low‐
cost phased array antennas over the last decade. He is also grateful for the research
collaboration opportunities he has had with Prof. Satish K. Sharma from San
Diego State University (SDSU), as well as his mentorship and friendship over the
years. He is thankful to his family for their love and support, and who have
allowed him to complete this work including his wife Kristine, and his two daugh-
ters Joanna and Audrey. Lastly, he is grateful to his parents (Dr. Shih‐Huang Chieh
and Mrs. Dolly Chieh), who taught him the importance of learning and to
never stop.

xv
Acknowledgements
We would like to offer our sincere thanks to the chapter coauthors for their valu-
able contributions, patience and timely support throughout the development of
this book. We would also like to thank the Wiley team members especially, Brett
Kurzman, Victoria Bradshaw, Sarah Lemore, Sukhwinder Singh and most impor-
tantly S. M. Amudhapriya for their immense help throughout the completion of
this book.
Professor Satish K. Sharma will like to take this opportunity to thank his
research collaborators, past and present graduate students, post‐doctoral fellows,
visiting scholars, and undergraduate students at San Diego State University
(SDSU) who have been the continuous source for his research growth. He thanks
Dr. Jia‐Chi S. Chieh for agreeing to work on this book. He also thanks the funding
agencies: National Science Foundation (NSF) for the prestigious CAREER award,
the Office of Naval Research (ONR), the Naval Information Warfare Center‐Pacific
(NIWC‐PAC), the Space and Naval Warfare Systems Command (SPAWAR)‐San
Diego, and the SBIR/STTR Phase I and II research grants subcontracted through
the local industries, which have helped him pursue his research work. Finally, he
thanks his spouse Mamta Sharma (Author and Artist) and daughters Shiva Shree
Sharma (Doctoral Student in Material Science Engineering at University of
California, Riverside, California) and Shruti Shree Sharma (Undergraduate
Student in Electrical Engineering at University of California, Irvine, California)
who spared their valuable time to let him work on this book and offered their
unconditional love and support as always. He also thanks his pet dog and cat
Charlie Sharma and Razzle Sharma, respectively, for their unconditional love to
him. Lastly, he is grateful to his parents (Mr. Rama Naresh Sharma and Mrs.
Taravati Sharma), elders in his extended family, research advisors (Professors
L. Shafai, the University of Manitoba and B. R. Vishvakarma, Indian Institute of
Technology, Banaras Hindu University), teachers, colleagues, friends and the
almighty God for bestowing continuous blessings on him.
xvi Acknowledgements
Dr. Jia‐Chi S. Chieh is grateful to his research group at the Naval Information
Warfare Center in San Diego for their tireless efforts in the development of low‐
cost phased array antennas over the last decade. He is also grateful for the research
collaboration opportunities he has had with Prof. Satish K. Sharma from San
Diego State University (SDSU), as well as his mentorship and friendship over the
years. He is thankful to his family for their love and support, and who have
allowed him to complete this work including his wife Kristine, and his two daugh-
ters Joanna and Audrey. Lastly, he is grateful to his parents (Dr. Shih‐Huang Chieh
and Mrs. Dolly Chieh), who taught him the importance of learning and to
never stop.

1
Introduction
1.1 Introduction
In this chapter, we provide basic discussion about an antenna and its impor-
tance, type of antennas, and introductory information about the reconfigurable
antenna, frequency agile antenna, multifunctional antenna, and antenna
measurements.
1.2 Antenna: an Integral Component of

Wireless Communications
An antenna is described as a device that radiates or receives transverse electro-

magnetic waves (TEM) from its surface, or structure. It is an integral component
of all the wireless communication systems. As shown in Figure 1.1, the trans-
mitter block which usually consists of the signal generator, modulator, and
power amplifiers is terminated with an antenna to radiate the power in free
space. A poor choice and design of antenna will result in the power being
reflected to the source and cause waste of power, which is undesirable. Efficient
power utilization becomes critical in applications such as onboard circuits in
satellite communications. To emphasize the importance of antennas for the
receiver circuitry, maximum power should be obtained from the incident wave
to relax the burden on the succeeding blocks such as low noise amplifiers to
maintain the required signal-to-noise-ratio (SNR) for satisfactory wireless links.
Different communication application demands different minimum required
SNR for a satisfactory link and efficient antenna design plays a big role in achieving
this goal.
Multifunctional Antennas and Arrays for Wireless Communication Systems, First Edition.
Edited by Satish K. Sharma and Jia-Chi S. Chieh.
© 2021 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2021 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
2 1 Introduction
Transmitter Receiver
Figure 1.1 The importance of antenna in a wireless communication system.
1.3 Antenna Performance Parameters
Antenna performance parameters can be categorized into two groups: circuit

parameters and radiation parameters. Circuit parameters refer to the impedance
matching properties such as reflection coefficient magnitudes (|Sii|) and isolation
(|Sij|) between the antenna ports. Antenna radiation parameters refer to radiation
patterns, gain, directivity, antenna efficiency, polarization, effective length and
effective aperture, antenna temperature, etc. Readers should refer to the well-
known text book by C. A. Balanis, Antenna Theory: Analysis and Design (Fourth
Revised edition), Wiley publications [1] for detailed discussion and learning about
these antenna performance parameters.
1.4 Antenna Types
Various antennas that find use in wireless communication systems can be classi-
fied in many ways. Antenna geometry of four selected antennas is shown in
Figure 1.2. Figure 1.2a shows a well-known bow-tie planar antenna that is
known for wideband operation with omnidirectional radiation pattern perfor-
mance. A planar inverted F-antenna (PIFA) is shown in Figure 1.2b which has
been known to provide single and multi-band operation based on suitable dimen-
sion of the radiating structures and feeding mechanism. It also offers omnidirec-
tional radiation patterns. Figure 1.2c shows a quasi-Yagi planar antenna which
offers end-fire directional radiation patterns. Similarly, Figure 1.2d shows a
stepped Vivaldi planar antenna which is known for its extremely wideband
antenna performance.
The antenna performance can be characterized using impedance matching
and radiation patterns. One example is shown in Figure 1.3. Figure 1.3a shows
reflection coefficient magnitude versus frequency and Figure 1.3b shows 3D
gain radiation patterns of an antenna. There are numerous full-wave analysis
tools, also called Maxwell Solvers, which provide accurate simulation and anal-
ysis results for an antenna. One such tool is Ansys high-frequency structure
simulator (HFSS) which has been used to generate these impedance matching
and radiation pattern.
1.5 Multifunctional Antenna 3
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 1.2 Some antenna types generated through Antenna Design Kit in Ansys
Electronic Package.
1.5 Multifunctional Antennas
Multifunctional antennas can have features of frequency reconfiguration, polari-

zation reconfiguration, beam steering, flexible radiation patterns, and radiation
pattern reconfiguration in a single antenna structure. Combination of a couple of
these features makes these antennas “multifunctional.” These antennas can meet
multiple wireless communication standards and hence can provide multiple com-
munication applications. Such antennas can also be multiband in nature and can
have multiple-input-multiple-output (MIMO) implementations. Also, multiple
4 1 Introduction
Return loss Quasi_Yagi_ATK

0.00 Curve info
dB (St11)
–2.50 ATK_Solution : SParam_Sweep
–5.00
–7.50
dB (st11)
–10.00
–12.50
–15.00
–17.50
–20.00
–22.50
1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00
(a) Freq (GHz)
Max: 4.1
5
0 dB (Gain total)
5 Theta (°)
0
–5
120 –10
5 dB (Gain total) –15

120
–20
0Phi (°)
120
–25
Min: –21.2
(b)
Figure 1.3 Antenna performance shown using (a) reflection coefficient magnitude (S11,
dB) and (b) 3D gain radiation pattern.
communication antennas on a common small size host platform, such as cellular

phone size ground plane, can be categorized as “multifunctional” antenna.
The full-polarization reconfigurable antenna can switch between the vertical
and horizontal linear polarizations, right-hand circular polarization (RHCP),
and left-hand circular polarization (LHCP) depending on the communication
system requirements. These antennas offer advantages of reduced antenna hard-
ware, low weight, and low cost. Such antennas are very attractive to emerging
wireless communications such as 5G communication systems. One such antenna
1.5 Multifunctional Antenna 5
Reflection coefficient Mag. (dB)

–5
–10
S110 V S220 V
–15 S111 V S221 V
S111.5V S221V
–20 S112 V S222 V
S114 V S224 V
S116 V S226 V
–25 S118 V S228 V
S1110 V S2210 V
S1112 V S2212 V
–30
1.15 1.2 1.25 1.3 1.35 1.4 1.45 1.5 1.55 1.6
(a) (b) (c) Frequency (GHz)
5 5 Measured GainPhi (φ = 0)
Measured GainPhi (φ = 0) Simulated GainPhi (φ = 0)
Simulated GainPhi (φ = 0)
0 Measured GainPhi (φ = 90)
0 Measured GainPhi (φ = 90)
Measured GainTheta (φ = 0) Measured GainTheta (φ = 0)
–5 Simulated GainTheta (φ = 0)
Measured GainTheta (φ = 90)
–5 Simulated GainTheta (φ = 0)
Measured GainTheta (φ = 90)
Gain (dBi)
Gain (dBi)
Simulated GainTheta (φ = 90) Simulated GainTheta (φ = 90)
–10 –10
–15 –15
–20 –20
–25 –25
–30 –30
–150 –100 –50 0 50 100 150 –150 –100 –50 0 50 100 150
Azimuth (Degrees)
(d) (e) Azimuth (Degrees)
5 Measured RHCP (φ = 0) 5 Measured RHCP (φ =0)

Simulated RHCP (φ = 0) Simulated RHCP (φ =0)
0 Measured RHCP (φ = 90)
Simulated RHCP (φ = 90) 0 Measured RHCP (φ = 90)
Simulated RHCP (φ =90)
Measured LHCP (φ = 0) Measured LHCP (φ =0)
Simulated LHCP (φ = 0) Simulated LHCP (φ =0)
–5 Measured LHCP (φ = 90) –5 Measured LHCP (φ =90)
Gain (dBi)
Gain (dBi)
Simulated LHCP (φ = 90) Simulated LHCP (φ =90)

–10 –10
–15 –15
–20 –20
–25 –25
–30 –30
–150 –100 –50 0 50 100 150 –150 –100 –50 0 50 100 150
Azimuth (Degrees)
(f) Azimuth (Degrees)
(g)
Figure 1.4 (a) Top view photograph of a frequency tunable concentric circular microstrip
patch antenna along with varactor diode placement locations, (b) photograph of the
fabricated control feed network, (c) measured frequency tunable response for both feed
ports, and (d–g) comparison between the measured and simulated gain radiation
patterns for 4 V bias voltage which corresponds to 1.36 GHz tunable band for horizontal
linear, vertical linear, RHCP, and LHCP, respectively. Source: Babakhani and Sharma [2].
is shown in Figure 1.4, which offers both frequency tunability and polarization
reconfiguration [2].
Tunable antennas, mostly, frequency tunable can be designed by incorporating
variable capacitors in a radiating element in suitable placement arrangements.
Figure 1.4a shows photograph of a prototype frequency tunable concentric circu-
lar patch antenna where four varactors (Skyworks SMV 1234) are placed between
the central patch and the outer ring patch. Two feed ports are selected so that both
linear and circular polarizations can be obtained by suitably exciting feed points.
Figure 1.4b shows photograph of the control feed network which provides polari-
zation reconfiguration along with simultaneously frequency tunability. The con-
trol feed network uses single pole double through (SPDT) and single pole 4
through (SP4T) RF switches along with quadrature power divider, dual in package
6 1 Introduction
(DIP) switch, and control lines for biasing varactor diodes and RF switches. A DIP
switch is included to apply DC voltage to control the state of the switches. To bias
the varactors for tunability, the central patch is connected to the positive pole
through the feed network circuit. For the radiation pattern measurements in the
anechoic chamber, varactor diodes were biased with a Jameco Electronics DC–DC
Boost Converter.
The frequency response with bias voltage variation is shown in Figure 1.4c. With
0 V bias, the antenna resonates at the lowest frequency (1.17 GHz). Similarly, with
12 V bias, the antenna operates at 1.58 GHz. Thus, this antenna provides frequency
tunability between 1.17 and 1.58 GHz which corresponds to 30% tunability. By
applying bias voltage to two varactors each along with one feed point, vertical and
horizontal linear polarizations are achieved. Similarly, applying the same bias volt-
age to all the varactors and exciting both feed points in ±90° time phase difference,
right hand (RH) or left hand (LH) circular polarization is obtained. Measured and
simulated radiation patterns are shown in Figure 1.4d–g for 1.36 GHz (4 V bias) for
all four polarization cases. Similar was the pattern response for all other frequency
tunable bands but are not shown for the sake of brevity.
1.6 Reconfigurable Antennas
Reconfigurable antennas can be frequency reconfigurable, pattern reconfigurable,

or polarization reconfigurable or combination of these types. Once again, recon-
figurable antennas can be categorized as a multifunctional antenna in general like
the one discussed in the Section 1.5. Reconfiguration is obtained by varying the
antenna structure with the help of RF or optical switches. One such antenna dem-
onstrating frequency reconfiguration is shown in Figure 1.5.
The geometry of the proposed PIFA element is shown in Figure 1.5a and b. This
miniaturized antenna is able to achieve consistent high band coverage while
reconfigurable lower frequency bands are maintained. The antenna is matched
across all the 4G/LTE lower reconfigurable bands and simultaneous higher con-
sistent wireless bands. The antenna miniaturization and impedance matching are
possible by exploiting the meandering and mutual coupling between the different
parts of the antenna structure. It employs ground plane edge effect for its opti-
mum performance.
The reconfigurable antenna element (Figure 1.5a, b) is designed by using Ansys
HFSS on a tablet size ground plane of L4 = 180 mm and W4 = 150 mm [3, 4]. The
corresponding antenna dimensions are: length arm, L1 = 73 mm and width,
W1 = 2.3 mm to the first PIN diode switch, and second ground extension,
L2 = 20 mm with end width, W2 = 7 mm, coupling grounding gap, g = 5.6 mm and
g1 = 3.8 mm designed on a FR4 (εr = 4.4, tan δ = 0.021) substrate with thickness,
1.6 Reconfigurable Antenna 7
W3 C_B PIN diode C_B
g RF in RF out
L1
W1 g1 L_C L_C
L3
W2
L2 R L_C = RF choke inductor
C_B = DC blocking capacitor
+V R = Resistor (regulate current)
(a) (c)
Second switch:
When ON, LTE14 band 150 mm
Third switch: When OFF, GSM850 band
When ON, LTE13 band
When OFF, LTE14 band
180 mm
First switch:
Fourth switch:
When ON, GSM 850 band
When ON, LTE17 band
When OFF, EGSM 900 band
When OFF, LTE13 band
(b)
(d)
Figure 1.5 (a) Geometry of the proposed reconfigurable PIFA radiating element along
with design parameters, (b) location of the PIN diodes on the radiating element,
(c) bias network used for PIN diodes, and (d) photograph of the fabricated radiating
element on the tablet size ground plane.
h = 0.8 mm, W4 = 150 mm, L4 = 180 mm. The antenna clearance and area required
are W3 = 48.5 mm and L3 = 20 mm. Four PIN diodes are used to generate fre-
quency switching for the 4G/LTE lower communication bands (704–960 MHz)
while it maintains simultaneous consistent higher frequency bands between
1710 and 2690 MHz. The bias network (Figure 1.5c) was used for each PIN diode
(Microsemi MPP4203) to prevent DC and AC signal getting influenced by the
power supply. Also, it prevents the power supply line from becoming part of the
antenna. The 47 nH inductor choke and 560 pF DC blocking capacitor were used
as a bias network to prevent RF signal distortion. Photograph of the fabricated
antenna on the tablet size ground is shown in Figure 1.5d.
The designed antenna can operate in LTE bands 13, 14, 17, EGSM, GSM (lower
frequency) and LTE bands 4, 7, DCS, PCS (higher frequency) with near omnidi-
rectional radiation patterns for each band. There are a total of five switching states
to reconfigure lower frequency as given in Table 1.1. The first state is when all the
PIN diode switches are in the OFF state. The second state occurs when the first PIN
8 1 Introduction
Table 1.1 PIN diode states for reconfiguring the lower frequency bands while the higher
band is consistently maintained.
Switch table list
LTE 17 LTE 13 LTE 14 GSM 850 EGSM

(0.704– (0.746– (0.758– (0.824– (0.880–
0.746 GHz) 0.787 GHz) 0.798 GHz) 0.894 GHz) 0.960 GHz)
First switch ON ON ON ON OFF

Second switch ON ON ON OFF OFF
Third switch ON ON OFF OFF OFF
Fourth switch ON OFF OFF OFF OFF
diode switch is activated in the ON state while the other diodes are in the OFF
state, which allows tuning of the center frequency from 930 to 850 MHz. The third
state (780 MHz) occurs when the first and second PIN diodes are switched in
the ON state while the remaining diodes are in the OFF state. The fourth state
(750 MHz) occurs when the first, second, and third PIN diodes are switched in the
ON state while the fourth PIN diode is in the OFF state. The fifth state (720 MHz)
is obtained when all the PIN diode switches are in the ON state. While we manage
these PIN diodes from the first state to the fifth state, we simultaneously maintain
the higher frequency bands between 1710 and 2690 MHz.
Current distribution (Figure 1.6) shows current flow and hotspot for radiating
element at the lower frequency end (780 MHz, Figure 1.6a) and the upper
frequency end (1880 MHz, Figure 1.6b) for the proposed reconfigurable PIFA. Low
and high bands have individual hotspots which can tune each band separately.
Different sections of the radiator employ mutual coupling to obtain better match-
ing and bandwidth.
Simulated and measured reflection coefficient magnitudes for the lower
reconfigurable bands are compared in Figure 1.7a. It can be observed that the
antenna is matched well below −7 dB between 704 and 960 MHz which includes
the reconfigurable states of LTE 17, 13, 14, GSM, and EGSM. Similarly,
Figure 1.7b shows the simulated and measured matching for the high-frequency
band. Once again, it can be observed that the antenna consistently maintains
the matching level between 1710 and 2690 MHz better than −7 dB for all the
switch states.
The 3D radiation patterns and total antenna efficiency were measured using the
Satimo chamber. The total efficiency for the reconfigurable stages at the lower
780 MHz
Jsurf
(A_per_m)
10.000
9.2857
8.5714
7.8571
7.1429
6.4286
5.7143
5.0000
4.2857
2.8571
2.1429
1.4286
0.7143
0.0000
(a)
1880 MHz
Jsurf
(A_per_m)
10.000
9.2857
8.5714
7.8571
7.1429
6.4286
5.7143
5.0000
4.2857
2.8571
2.1429
1.4286
0.7143
0.0000
(b)
Figure 1.6 Surface current distribution for (a) 780 MHz in lower frequency band and
(b) 1880 MHz in upper frequency band.
frequency bands and the consistent higher band is shown in Figure 1.8a and b,
respectively. This efficiency takes care of all the possible losses in the antenna
such as mismatch loss, Ohmic and dielectric losses, and losses due to the PIN
diodes and bias components. The antenna efficiency is above 50% for all the
switching states in the lower band and the higher band. The simulated and meas-
ured efficiencies agree reasonably well except toward edges of the bands.
The simulated (Figure 1.9a, c, e, g) and measured (Figure 1.9b, d, f, h) 3D
radiation pattern for the lower reconfigurable bands for the selected 720, 770,
850, and 910 MHz is shown in Figure 1.9. Similarly, simulated (Figure 1.10a, c,
e, g) and measured (Figure 1.10b, d, f, h) 3D radiation pattern for the higher
10 1 Introduction
0 EGSM port1 Exp

GSM port1 Exp
Reflection coefficient magnitude (dB)
–5 LTE13 port1 Exp

LTE17 port1 Exp

EGSM
–15 GSM
LTE13
LTE17
–20
LTE14
EGSM Spec
–25
GSM Spec
LTE13 Spec
–30 LTE17 Spec
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Frequency (GHz) LTE14 Spec
(a)
0
EGSM port1 Exp
Reflection coefficient magnitude (dB)
GSM port1 Exp

–5
LTE13 port1 Exp
LTE14 port1 Exp

–15
EGSM
–20 GSM
LTE13
–25 LTE17
LTE14
–30
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 HB Spec
(b) Frequency (GHz)
Figure 1.7 Comparison of the simulated (solid lines) and measured (dash lines)
reflection coefficient magnitudes against specifications of the (a) lower 4G LTE frequency
reconfigurable bands and (b) consistent higher frequency bands.
0.8 EGSM port1 Exp

GSM port1 Exp
0.7
LTE13 port1 Exp
0.6 LTE17 port1 Exp
LTE14 port1 Exp
0.5
Efficiency
EGSM
0.4 GSM
LTE13
0.3
LTE17
0.2 LTE14
EGSM Spec
0.1
GSM Spec
0 LTE13 Spec
0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9 0.95 1 LTE17 Spec
Frequency (GHz)
LTE14 Spec
(a)
1
EGSM port1 Exp
0.9
GSM port1 Exp
0.8
LTE13 port1 Exp
0.7
LTE17 port1 Exp
0.6
Efficiency
LTE14 port1 Exp

0.5
EGSM
0.4
GSM
0.3
LTE13
0.2
0.1 LTE17
0 LTE14
1.7 2.2 2.7
(b) HB Spec
Frequency (GHz)
Figure 1.8 The simulated (solid lines) and measured (dash lines) total antenna
efficiencies for (a) the reconfigurable states of the lower 4G bands and (b) the consistent
higher frequency band.
12 1 Introduction
(a) (b)
1.0 dB
–9.3 dB
(c) (d)
–19.5 dB
–29.8 dB
(e) (f)
–40.0 dB
(g) (h)
Figure 1.9 Simulated (a, c, e, g) and measured (b, d, f, h) near-omnidirectional 3D
radiation pattern at (a, b) 720 MHz, (c, d) 770 MHz, (e, f) 850 MHz, and (g, h) 910 MHz.
consistent bands for the selected 1710, 1880, 2100, and 2600 MHz is shown in
Figure 1.10. From these figures, it can be observed that the patterns are near
omnidirectional except toward the higher frequency end, where patterns show
slight multilobes and nulls. In all the cases, realized peak gain is positive and
around 2 dBi for both simulated and measured cases. Further, the patterns
toward the higher end show some directionality due to the ground plane effect
which tends to push the radiated energy in a direction causing diversity that is
helpful when the MIMO antenna system is implemented.
1.7 Frequency Agile/Tunable Antenn 13
(a) (b)
1.0 dB
–9.3 dB
(c) (d)
–19.5 dB
–29.8 dB
(e) (f)
–40.0 dB
(g) (h)
Figure 1.10 Simulated (a, c, e, g) and measured (b, d, f, h) near-omnidirectional 3D

radiation pattern at (a, b) 1710 MHz, (c, d) 1880 MHz, (e, f) 2100 MHz, and (g, h) 2600 MHz.
1.7 Frequency Agile/Tunable Antenna
A frequency agile or tunable antenna can be realized by integrating tunable RF

components such as varactor diodes or RF micro-electro-mechanical-systems
(MEMS) variable capacitors in an antenna structure. Like a reconfigurable
antenna, such antennas also require necessary bias networks such as those imple-
mented in [2] and shown in Figure 1.4a–c and hence is not repeated again. The
antenna impedance and radiation mechanism depends on the variation in
14 1 Introduction
effective permittivity which in turn is related to the change in capacitance varia-

tion. Frequency (f) of an antenna can be described as follows:
1
f (1.1)
2 LC
where L and C are the inductance and capacitance of an antenna.

To demonstrate mechanism of such an antenna, an example is now discussed
from [5]. The antenna utilizes a meandered planar portion on the right-hand side,
which includes a varactor diode and its biasing network and a rectangular-shaped
cutout portion on the left-hand side on the central feed arm (Figure 1.11). The
varactor capacitance variation alters the electrical length of the meandered
portion of the antenna, which in turn varies the resonance frequency of the
antenna. In addition to the tunable meandered portion of the antenna, the design
also includes a rectangular-shaped cutout geometry for realizing higher band.
Thus, this antenna follows a two-step design approach.
In the first design step, the meandered line was chosen as the location for place-
ment of the varactor diode. Since the meandered line enables the antenna to
resonate at the lower frequency band, adding a varactor to this section allows the
antenna to become tunable. To provide a wider tunable band between 690 and
970 MHz, the meandered line’s electrical length is essentially increased by adding
the varactor diode (SMV1281). After optimizing the antenna with the varactor
diode set in place, Figure 1.12 shows the meandered line length as ML = 137.5 mm,
which is slightly below λ/2 at 970 MHz and the width of the meandered line is
MW = 1.2 mm.
DC blocking
Z capacitor
Vias
Varactor
L1
RF
choke
Current inductor
Y limiting
resistor
X
W1
+Terminal –Terminal
Figure 1.11 Antenna geometry with varactor diode and biasing network. Source:
Damman et al. [5].
1.7 Frequency Agile/Tunable Antenn 15
RW
SW
RL MW
ML
SL
FW
FL
Figure 1.12 Design parameters for the low (right) and high bands (left). Source:
Damman et al. [5].
The second design step requires adding a higher band antenna structure to the
design such that, while the tuning of the lower band is obtained, the higher band
is consistently present. The higher band antenna was chosen as a simple rectan-
gular-shaped structure with a rectangular-shaped slot which was cutout within
the middle of the structure (Figure 1.12). Adding this cutout improved the match-
ing of the higher band and subsequently lowered the effect of frequency tuning in
the higher band when the lower band was tuned. In such an antenna, current
distributions on the two portions of the antenna should be as independent as
possible, which is shown in Figure 1.13a and b for the lower and upper bands,
respectively, for capacitance value of 1.6 pF. When the lower band meandering
structure is radiating, it has little effect on the upper band antenna. The outer
rectangular length and width are RL = 25 mm and RW = 22.25 mm. The rectangular
slot cutout (slot length of SL = 15 mm and a slot width of SW = 5.125 mm) dimensions
are noted. The centerline feed has a length and width of FL = 19.5 mm and
FW = 3 mm. Photograph of this antenna is shown in Figure 1.14 with an overall
substrate size of length L1 = 80 mm and width W1 = 60 mm. The material used
was FR-4 (εr = 4.4) with a thickness of t = 0.762 mm. Response of this antenna can
be found in [5] and hence is not repeated here.
As a reconfigurable antenna, the lower band meandered antenna also includes
a biasing network. The DC biasing lines are placed on the same side as the ground
plane (Figure 1.12), so as to limit the effect of coupling. The DC biasing lines
include a RF choke inductor to block any high-frequency signal from entering the
DC power supply. A current limiting resistor is also added to the positive voltage
16 1 Introduction
Jsurf (A/m)
86.0
50.2
29.4
17.2
10.0
5.9
3.4
2.0
(a) (b)
Figure 1.13 Surface current distribution with capacitance of 1.6 pF: (a) 810 MHz and
(b) 1.68 GHz. Source: Damman et al. [5].
Bias components
Antenna Varactor
structure
Bias lines
Feed
(a) (b)
Figure 1.14 Photograph of the fabricated single-feed dual band antenna: (a) top view
and (b) bottom view. Source: Damman et al. [5].
terminal to protect the varactor diode. On the top side of the antenna where the
radiating structure is located, a single DC blocking capacitor is placed above the
varactor diode such that the potentially damaging DC supply voltage does not
enter the RF signal. For the varactor diode, the reverse biasing voltage is varied
from 0 to 20 V which varies the capacitance from 13.3 to 0.69 pF, respectively.
Although mechanisms to achieve frequency reconfigurable and frequency
agile/tunable antenna are different, for our discussion, we refer both antennas
under the “Reconfigurable Antenna,” category.
1.8 Antenna Measurement 17
1.8 Antenna Measurements
Antenna performance parameters measurement is important for verifying com-

putation, simulation, and analysis results. For measuring circuit parameters such
as scattering parameters (Sii/Sij), where Sii and Sij refer to self-port reflection coef-
ficient and coupling port transmission coefficient, vector network analyzers are
preferred after proper calibration [6]. For example, Figure 1.15 shows photographs
of vector network analyzers from Anritsu and Keysight, both of which are avail-
able at the Antenna and Microwave Laboratory (AML), San Diego State University.
For measuring radiation patterns, we can use far-field, near-field, and compact
antenna test range (CATR) chambers. Figure 1.16 shows photographs of the far-
field and CATR anechoic chambers at the AML, San Diego State University. The
first anechoic chamber is shown in Figure 1.16a, which is capable of far-field
radiation measurements. It can cover a frequency range from 800 to 40 GHz. The
chamber comes with ORBIT/FR 959 acquisition measurement software and
provides measurement results for 2D/3D radiation pattern, realized gain, and
polarization with sense of rotation.
The Mini-Compact Antenna Test Range (M-CATR) from Microwave Vision
Group (MVG) for millimeter-wave antenna measurement covers frequencies
between 26.5 and 110 GHz, as shown in Figure 1.16b. Keysight N5225A Power
Network Analyzer (PNA) serves its signal power generator that ranges from 10 to
50 GHz. The frequency is extended up to 110 GHz using proper external frequency
extenders: V-band (50–75 GHz) and W-band (75–110 GHz). This chamber is capa-
ble of measuring realized gain, 2D and 3D radiation patterns, and polarization of
the antenna with the sense of rotation using the ORBIT/FR 959 acquisition meas-
urement software.
Interested readers should review text books on the theory behind antenna radi-
ation pattern measurements such as [1].
(a) (b)
Figure 1.15 Vector network analyzer (VNA) can be used for measurement of the
scattering parameter: (a) Anritsu’s VNA and (b) Keysight’s VNA.
18 1 Introduction
(a) (b)
Figure 1.16 Antenna testing in anechoic chamber at the Antenna and Microwave
Laboratory (AML), San Diego State University: (a) far-field anechoic chamber covering
800–40 GHz and (b) Mini-Compact Antenna Test Range (M-CATR) system covering
26.5–110 GHz.
1.9 Conclusion
This chapter introduced basics of antennas as well as an introduction to reconfig-

urable, multifunctional, frequency agile/tunable, and antenna measurements. In the
coming chapters, we dive into a more detailed discussion.
References
1 Balanis, C.A. (2016). Antenna Theory: Analysis and Design, 4e. Wiley.
2 Babakhani, B. and Sharma, S.K. (2015). Wideband frequency tunable concentric
circular microstrip patch antenna with simultaneous polarization reconfiguration.
IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine 57 (2): 203–216.
3 Sharma, S.K. and Wang, A. (2018). Two elements MIMO antenna for tablet size
ground plane with reconfigurable lower bands and consistent high band radiating
elements. 2018 IEEE International Symposium on Antennas and Propagation &
USNC/URSI National Radio Science Meeting, Boston (8–13 July 2018).
4 Wang, A. (2017). Four elements compact MIMO antenna with reconfigurable
lower band and consistent high band for tablet applications. MS (Electrical
Engineering) Thesis. San Diego State University.
5 Damman, R., Mishra, G., Sharma, S.K., and Babakhani, B. (2017). A single feed
planar antenna with 4G tunable bands and consistent upper LTE bands between
1.29 GHz–2.05 GHz. Microwave and Optical Technology Letters 59 (8): 2070–2075.
6 Pozar, D.M. (2011). Microwave Engineering, 4e. Wiley.
19
Frequency Reconfigurable Antennas

2.1 Introduction
Reconfigurable antennas have been in use for many years in various forms as
communication systems and have become more diverse and multifunctional. Here,
we refer both frequency reconfigurable and frequency agile/tunable antennas under
the “Reconfigurable Antenna,” category. Reconfigurability enables a single antenna
system to be used for multiple purposes in the communication system. With the rapid
proliferation of wireless communications systems, more services are accommodated
in the limited electromagnetic spectrum. Now, wireless devices have to access multiple
services, which is achieved by using multiband, wideband, or reconfigurable anten-
nas. In cognitive radio systems, these devices have to be intelligent and have to adapt
to changes based on feedback sensed by wireless channels, and therefore, change oper-
ating features including operating frequency, direction of radiation, and modulation
schemes. Reconfigurability of an antenna can be implemented to modify antenna’s
operating frequency, polarization, or radiation characteristics dynamically [1–6]. This
chapter focuses on frequency reconfigurable antennas (FRAs). Multiband [7–10] and
wideband antennas [11–15] are commonly used in various wireless devices when it
comes to access multiple services operating at different frequencies. FRAs can be used
to replace multiband antennas and, in some occasions, wideband antennas, if their
functionality can offset the complexity of the control mechanism for reconfiguration.
The modification in characteristics of an antenna, i.e. change of the operating
frequency, is achieved by redistribution of current in antenna. There are many
techniques by which the antenna current can be redistributed, either by altering
the antenna geometry or by changing the electrical properties of the antenna. To
achieve this, switches, varactors, or tunable materials can be used. These concepts
of reconfigurability can significantly decrease the complexity of hardware by
Multifunctional Antennas and Arrays for Wireless Communication Systems, First Edition.
Edited by Satish K. Sharma and Jia-Chi S. Chieh.
© 2021 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2021 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
20 2 Frequency Reconfigurable Antennas
reducing the number of components, and improve the performance of the wireless
system by saving energy and space.
Frequency reconfigurability of antenna can be achieved by using various
switches, electrical, optical, or micro-electro-mechanical-system (MEMS)-based
switches, by introducing mechanical changes in the antenna, or by using tunable
material. Recently, reconfigurable antennas using special shapes adopting the
concept of origami have emerged. In this chapter, various FRAs will be discussed
which are categorized based on how reconfiguration is achieved. In Section 2.2,
the mechanism of frequency reconfigurability is briefly discussed. In Section 2.3,
FRAs are described where reconfigurability is achieved using switches. In this
section, other methods of frequency reconfigurability such as by mechanical
changes or material changes are also discussed. Origami and other special shape-
based FRAs will be addressed. In Section 2.4, the use of FRAs in emerging appli-
cations, such as cubesats and software-defined radios, will be presented.
Conclusion will be drawn in Section 2.5.
2.2 Mechanism of Frequency Reconfigurability
There are several ways to achieve frequency reconfigurability: modifying the cur-
rent distribution on the antenna to change its effective length by deforming the
antenna element, changing the dielectric or diamagnetic properties of antenna
elements, using external components, such as diodes, transistors, MEMS devices,
etc. While some of these mechanisms rely on mechanical alteration of the struc-
ture forming the antenna, other rely on the reconfigurability of the external power
supply or excitation of antenna elements. The use of external switches, such as
diodes and varactors, allows the change of the size and/or the shape of the radiat-
ing element by introducing short circuits or slots, thanks to the advancement in
electronics and MEMS. While switches provide the opportunity to modify the
antenna element to control the reconfigurability discretely, varactors offer con-
tinuous reconfigurability. However, the addition of these external components
requires significant real estate and, in many occasions, added layers and biasing
networks, increasing the manufacturing complexity and cost. Semiconductor-
based switching elements for reconfigurability, such as PIN diodes, gallium arse-
nide field-effect transistors (GaAs FETs), and varactors require lower operating
voltage, have lower cost and higher reliability than those in MEMS-based devices.
Nevertheless, MEMS devices are very low loss compared to semiconductor-based
devices. Microwave RF switches, which have low insertion loss and high power
handling capability with low DC power consumption, are also conveniently used
for frequency reconfigurability [16, 17].
A mechanism to obtain frequency reconfigurability without the use of
additional components is using “agile” or “smart” materials, whose dielectric
2.3 Types of FRA 21
properties (permittivity and/or permeability) can be changed by applying an

external electric and/or magnetic field. These materials are used as the antenna
metal or the substrate layer for the antenna. Liquid crystals, graphene, etc., are
such materials, which have seen widespread applications for frequency reconfig-
urability along with other types of reconfigurability, e.g. pattern or polarization
reconfigurability. Integrating these materials along with control structures in the
antenna increases the fabrication complexities. Moreover, if the material proper-
ties degrade over time, the reconfigurability operation or tunability is ultimately
affected. Altering the antenna geometry using mechanical movement is another
method to obtain frequency reconfigurability. The use of motors or actuators for
mechanical adjustment poses extra complexities in manufacturing and operation.
Other reconfiguration techniques are based on photoconductive [18–26] and
thermal switches [27], and special shape-based designs, such as origami
shapes [28–34], fractal shapes [35], etc.
2.3 Types of FRAs
The operating frequency of reconfigurable antennas can be changed to handle sev-

eral wireless services over a wide frequency spectrum. Modern mobile devices are
required to access multiple wireless standards such of various cellular bands, wire-
less local area networks (WLANs), Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, Global Positioning System
(GPS), etc. If a single band is to be accessed at a given time, FRAs are very useful in
a sense that the antenna topology can be modified to operate in that band. Although
multiband and wideband antennas are the other choices, reconfigurable antennas
can provide a more compact solution with an added advantage of high noise reduc-
tion for the unwanted bands. FRAs can be classified based on how they are made
reconfigurable. A very popular and common method is to use switches to introduce
the variation in current distribution and change in the aperture. Electrical, optical,
and MEMS switches are used to obtain frequency reconfigurability. When it comes
to mechanical changes, motors and actuators are widely used. A variation in cur-
rent or a topology change can also be achieved using liquid crystals and plasmon-
ics. Another group of FRAs is the ones using special shapes, e.g. origami based or
fractal shape-based. These various groups of FRAs are discussed in this section.
2.3.1 Frequency Reconfigurability by Switches/

Tunable Components
Frequency reconfigurability by switches leads to the design of either discrete or
continuous tuning of frequency. Electrical switches that are popularly in use are
PIN diodes providing discrete tuning and varactors providing continuous tuning.
They provide fast switching and are compact in size, although require a biasing
network. Optical switches use laser beam from laser diodes to become conductive,
and when integrated in the antenna structure offer reconfigurability. Electrical,
RF MEMS, and optical switch-based FRAs will be discussed here.
2.3.1.1 Electrical Switches

Basic type of frequency reconfigurability can be achieved by using RF/microwave
switches, which are electromechanical relay switches. They are usually larger
assemblies compared to solid-state and MEMS switches, since they incorporate a
series of coils and mechanical contacts. These switches have low insertion loss
and high isolation. Switch speed is in the milliseconds. Other benefits are: large
operating frequency bands – DC up to millimeter wave frequencies (50 GHz or
more) and high power handling capability.
A five-pointed spirograph planar monopole antenna (SPMA) operating as FRA
is shown in Figure 2.1a [36], where current distribution control is shown on the
radiating element as RF switches are turned ON or OFF. The 50 Ω microstrip feed
line (with end-launch SMA connector) and radiating element are on the top layer
of 0.508 mm-thick Rogers RT/Duroid 5880 (εr = 2.2, tan δ = 0.0009) substrate and
the ground plane is on the bottom. The maximum diameter of the antenna ele-
ment is 51.8 mm (0.54λ at 3.1 GHz) and the average ring thickness is 13.3 mm. The
ground plane and substrate dimensions are as follows: rcurv = 4.0 cm,
GW = 59.26 mm, GL = 59.26 mm, and SL = 11.5 cm. The antenna is segmented by
slicing a 1.85 mm gap at the angles of: 3°, 108°, 252°, and 324°. This gap size was
selected so that two 0402 package size components could fit into this region. For
the two gaps closest to the feed line (switches 1 and 2), a DC blocking capacitor is
(a) (b)
Figure 2.1 (a) Top and bottom views of the frequency reconfigurable Spirograph Planar
Monopole Antenna (SPMA) and (b) radiation pattern measurement setup. Source: Rayno
and Sharma [36] and Rayno [37].
2.3 Types of FRA 23
in series with a PIN diode, and the positive voltage DC bias lines (bias line 1) have
a RF choke inductor close to the PIN diode and a 0402 size resistor close to the
beginning of the bias line (near the center of the SPMA). The middle DC bias line
(bias line 2) is for ground. The second set of gaps (switches 3 and 4) contain a PIN
diode each, and the final DC bias line (bias line 3) is for a positive voltage. The PIN
diodes are located at the outer edge of the antenna since the current is most con-
centrated along these edges. The PIN diodes modeled are the Skyworks SMP1340.
The HFSS model values for the ON state are: L = 0.45 nH and R = 1.2 Ω, and the
model values for the OFF state are: L = 0.45 nH, R = 5 MΩ, and C = 0.14 pF. The
RF choke inductors are 2.2 nH, the DC blocking capacitors are 15 pF, and the bias
line current regulating resistors are 47 Ω (selected by assuming a voltage of
+1.5 V). This antenna was tested for the impedance matching and radiation pat-
terns in a far-field anechoic chamber (Figure 2.1b) at the Antenna and Microwave
Lab (AML) at San Diego State University.
There are three possible frequency reconfiguration cases. Case 1 is when both
sets of PIN diodes are OFF (all bias lines connected to ground), so only the first
segment of the antenna is connected to the feed line. Case 2 is when the first set of
PIN diodes (switches 1 and 2) is ON and the second set (switches 3 and 4) is OFF
(first bias line connected to positive voltage and the other two grounded), so three
segments of the antenna are connected to the feed line. Case 3 is when all PIN
diodes are ON (bias lines 1 and 3 are connected to positive voltage and bias line 2
is grounded), so all segments of the antenna are connected to the feed line. The
antenna topology and associated PIN diode biasing arrangements are shown in
Figure 2.2. The antenna operates in three modes to cover a 1.07–3.36 GHz (UHF
band) wide bandwidth. When operating in Case 1, all PIN diodes are OFF and a
small portion of the total radiating patch takes a part in the radiation and operates
over 2.17–3.36 GHz frequency band. In another case, when diodes close to feed
lines are ON, a larger section of the patch radiates and the operating frequency
shifts downward to 1.21–2.50 GHz due to the change in the effective aperture.
Finally, when all switches are ON, the entire patch radiates and an operating band-
width of 1.07–3.36 GHz is achieved. During this operation, surface current distri-
bution of the radiating patch also changes (Figure 2.3), which demonstrates how
the reconfiguration affects the current distribution on the edge of the patch which
attributes to the desired radiation patterns of the antenna. For Case 1, although
only the first segment is connected to the feed line, some current is still electro-
magnetically coupled to the other segments. For Case 2, the current plot indicate
switches 1 and 2 are ON. For Case 3, the current plot indicates all switches are ON.
The simulated and measured voltage standing wave ratios (VSWRs) are shown in
Figure 2.4. For each case, the DC battery is connected to the appropriate bias wires,
which are held straight directly in front of the antenna using foam. For the Case 1,
the battery is not connected to anything. For the Case 2, bias line 1 is connected to
Z
Y
GW
(a) SL
Switch 3 PIN diode

Switch 1
C
L
DC bias
lines
R 1 2 3
R
Z Y
Switch 2
Switch 4 X
(b) (c)
Figure 2.2 Ansys HFSS model of the SPMA frequency reconfigurable antenna: (a) top
view, (b) zoomed-in top view, and (c) close-up of bias circuitry. Source: Rayno and
Sharma [36] and Rayno [37].
a positive voltage, and bias line 2 is connected to ground (bias line 3 is not con-
nected to anything). For the Case 3, bias lines 1 and 3 are connected to a positive
voltage, while bias line 2 is connected to ground. The measured results show close
agreement to the simulated for all three cases. Assuming a VSWR = 2 criterion, the
following measured bands are achieved: Case 1, 2.17–3.36 GHz (43.0%); Case 2,
1.21–2.50 GHz (69.5%); and Case 3, 1.07–2.92 GHz (92.7%). For comparison, the
corresponding simulated results were achieved: Case 1, 2.27–3.08 GHz (30.3%);
Case 2, 1.11–2.41 GHz (73.9%); and Case 3, 0.98–2.81 GHz (96.6%).
2.3 Types of FRA 25
J
(A/m)
5
4
3
2
1
0
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)
(g) (h) (i)
Figure 2.3 Surface current distribution for (a) Case 1 at 2.3 GHz; (b) Case 1 at 2.7 GHz;
(c) Case 1 at 3.1 GHz; (d) Case 2 at 1.2 GHz; (e) Case 2 at 1.7 GHz; (f) Case 2 at 2.4 GHz; (g)
Case 3 at 1 GHz; (h) Case 3 at 2 GHz; (i) Case 3 at 2.8 GHz. Source: Rayno and Sharma [36].
A comparison of the simulated and measured radiation patterns at the start,

middle, and stop frequency of each band is shown in Figure 2.5 for the XZ-plane
and Figure 2.6 for the YZ-plane, indicating an omnidirectional radiation pattern
for all three cases. A reasonable agreement of measured and simulated results is
achieved, considering the multiple unknowns of this antenna design (bias wires,
battery, PIN diode model).
Another implementation of frequency reconfigurability with RF switches is
demonstrated in [16]. A small size (55 × 5 × 3 mm3) internal loop antenna
with frequency agility is designed, where a single-pole-four-throw RF switch
(model RF-1604) is used to excite four modes so that the antenna works at five
operating frequency bands: GSM850/900, DCS1800, PCS1900, UMTS2100, and
LTE2300/2500. The antenna comprises a folded loop antenna that provides four
resonant modes and two other branches to cover higher frequencies, as shown in
Figure 2.7. The terminal end of the loop is connected to the RF switch, whose four
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own life;’ and so saying, he stepped forward and said, ‘Sire, since
you will not return according to my advice, I will not leave you this
time, come to me what may.’ Authority in the houses of the middle
ages,” adds Mr. Digby, “was always venerable. The very term
seneschal is supposed to have implied ‘old knight,’ so that, as with
the Greeks, the word signifying ‘to honor,’ and to ‘pay respect,’ was
derived immediately from that which denoted old age, πρεσβευω
being thus used in the first line of the Eumenides. Even to those who
were merely attached by the bonds of friendship or hospitality, the
same lessons and admonitions were considered due. John Francis
Picus of Mirandola mentions his uncle’s custom of frequently
admonishing his friends, and exhorting them to a holy life. ‘I knew a
man,’ he says, ‘who once spoke with him on the subject of manners,
and who was so much moved by only two words from him, which
alluded to the death of Christ, as the motive for avoiding sin, that
from that hour, he renounced the ways of vice, and reformed his
whole life and manner.’”
We smile to find Mr. Digby mentioning the carving of angels in stone
over the castle-gates, as at Vincennes, as a proof that the pages
who loitered about there were little saints. But we read with more
interest, that “the Sieur de Ligny led Bayard home with him, and in
the evening preached to him as if he had been his own son,
recommending him to have heaven always before his eyes.” This is
good, and that it had its effect on Bayard, we all know; nevertheless
that chevalier himself was far from perfect.
With regard to the derivation of Seneschal as noticed above, we may
observe that it implies “old man of skill.” Another word connected
with arms is “Marshal,” which is derived from Mar, “a horse,” and
Schalk, “skilful,” one knowing in horses; hence “Maréchal ferrant,” as
assumed by French farriers. Schalk, however, I have seen
interpreted as meaning “servant.” Earl Marshal was, originally, the
knight who looked after the royal horses and stables, and all thereto
belonging.
But to return to the subject of education. If all the sons of noblemen,
in former days, were as well off for gentle teachers as old historians
and authors describe them to have been, they undoubtedly had a
great advantage over some of their descendants of the present day.
In illustration of this fact it is only necessary to point to the sermons
recently delivered by a reverend pedagogue to the boys who have
the affliction of possessing him as headmaster. It is impossible to
read some of these whipping sermons, without a feeling of intense
disgust. Flagellation is there hinted at, mentioned, menaced,
caressed as it were, as if in the very idea there was a sort of delight.
The worst passage of all is where the amiable master tells his
youthful hearers that they are noble by birth, that the greatest
humiliation to a noble person is the infliction of a blow, and that
nevertheless, he, the absolute master, may have to flog many of
them. How the young people over whom he rules, must love such an
instructor! The circumstance reminds me of the late Mr. Ducrow, who
was once teaching a boy to go through a difficult act of
horsemanship, in the character of a page. The boy was timid, and
his great master applied the whip to him unmercifully. Mr. Joseph
Grimaldi was standing by, and looked very serious, considering his
vocation. “You see,” remarked Ducrow to Joey, “that it is quite
necessary to make an impression on these young fellows.”—“Very
likely,” answered Grimaldi, dryly, “but it can hardly be necessary to
make the whacks so hard!”
The discipline to which pages were subjected in the houses of
knights and noblemen, does not appear to have been at all of a
severe character. Beyond listening to precept from the chaplain,
heeding the behests of their master, and performing pleasant duties
about their mistress, they seem to have been left pretty much to
themselves, and to have had, altogether, a pleasant time of it. The
poor scholars had by far a harder life than your “Sir page.” And this
stern discipline held over the pale student continued down to a very
recent, that is, a comparatively recent period. In Neville’s play of
“The Poor Scholar,” written in 1662, but never acted, the character of
student-life at college is well illustrated. The scene lies at the
university, where Eugenes, jun., albeit he is called “the poor scholar,”
is nephew of Eugenes, sen., who is president of a college. Nephew
and uncle are at feud, and the man in authority imprisons his young
kinsman, who contrives to escape from durance vile, and to marry a
maiden called Morphe. The fun of the marriage is, that the young
couple disguise themselves as country lad and lass, and the
reverend Eugenes, sen., unconsciously couples a pair whom he
would fain have kept apart. There are two other university marriages
as waggishly contrived; and when the ceremonies are concluded,
one of the newly-married students, bold as any page, impudently
remarks to the duped president, “Our names are out of the butteries,
and our persons out of your dominions.” The phrase shows that, in
the olden time, an “ingenuus puer” at Oxford, if he were desirous of
escaping censure, had only to take his name off the books. But there
were worse penalties than mere censure. The author of “The Poor
Scholar” makes frequent allusion to the whipping of undergraduates,
stretched on a barrel, in the buttery. There was long an accredited
tradition that Milton had been thus degraded. In Neville’s play, one of
the young Benedicks, prematurely married, remarks, “Had I been
once in the butteries, they’d have their rods about me.” To this
remark Eugenes, jun., adds another in reference to his uncle the
president, “He would have made thee ride on a barrel, and made you
show your fat cheeks.” But it is clear that even this terrible penalty
could be avoided by young gentlemen, if they had their wits about
them; for the fearless Aphobos makes boast, “My name is cut out of
the college butteries, and I have now no title to the mounting a
barrel.”
Young scions of noble houses, in the present time, have to endure
more harsh discipline than is commonly imagined. They are treated
rather like the buttery undergraduates of former days, than the pages
who, in ancient castles, learned the use of arms, served the
Chatellaine, and invariably fell in love with the daughters. They who
doubt this fact have only to read those Whipping Sermons to which I
have referred. Such discourses, in days of old, to a body of young
pages, would probably have cost the preacher more than he cared to
lose. In these days, such sermons can hardly have won affection for
their author. The latter, no doubt, honestly thought he was in
possession of a vigorously salubrious principle; but there is
something ignoble both in the discipline boasted of, and especially in
the laying down the irresistible fact to young gentlemen that a blow
was the worst offence that could be inflicted on persons of their
class, but that he could and would commit such assault upon them,
and that gentle and noble as they were, they dared not resent it!
The pages of old time occasionally met with dreadful harsh treatment
from their chivalrous master. The most chivalrous of these Christian
knights could often act cowardly and unchristian-like. I may cite, as
an instance, the case of the great and warlike Duke of Burgundy, on
his defeat at Muret. He was hemmed in between ferocious enemies
and the deep lake. As the lesser of two evils, he plunged into the
latter, and his young page leaped upon the crupper as the Duke’s
horse took the water. The stout steed bore his double burden across,
a breadth of two miles, not without difficulty, yet safely. The Duke
was, perhaps, too alarmed himself, at first, to know that the page
was hanging on behind; but when the panting horse reached the
opposite shore, sovereign Burgundy was so wroth at the idea that
the boy, by clinging to his steed, had put the life of the Duke in peril,
that he turned upon him and poignarded the poor lad upon the
beach. Lassels, who tells the story, very aptly concludes it with the
scornful yet serious ejaculation, “Poor Prince! thou mightest have
given another offering of thanksgiving to God for thy escape, than
this!” But “Burgundy” was rarely gracious or humane. “Carolus
Pugnax,” says Burton, in his Anatomy of Melancholy, “made Henry
Holland, late Duke of Exeter, exiled, run after his horse, like a lackey,
and would take no notice of him.” This was the English peer who
was reduced to beg his way in the cities of Flanders.
Of pages generally, we shall have yet to speak incidentally—
meanwhile, let us glance at their masters at home.
KNIGHTS AT HOME.
“Entrez Messìeurs; jouissez-vous de mon coin-de-feu. Me voilà, chez
moi!”— Arlequin à St. Germains.
Ritter Eric, of Lansfeldt, remarked, that next to a battle he

dearly loved a banquet. We will, therefore, commence the “Knight at
Home,” by showing him at table. Therewith, we may observe, that
the Knights of the Round Table appear generally to have had very
solid fare before them. King Arthur—who is the reputed founder of
this society, and who invented the table in order that when all his
knights were seated none could claim precedency over the others—
is traditionally declared to have been the first man who ever sat
down to a whole roasted ox. Mr. Bickerstaff, in the “Tatler,” says that
“this was certainly the best way to preserve the gravy;” and it is
further added, that “he and his knights set about the ox at his round
table, and usually consumed it to the very bones before they would
enter upon any debate of moment.”
They had better fare than the knights-errant, who
“as some think,

Of old, did neither eat nor drink,
Because when thorough deserts vast,
And regions desolate they passed,
Where belly-timber above ground,
Or under, was not to be found,
Unless they grazed, there’s not one word
Of their provision on record:
Which made some confidently write,
They had no stomachs but to fight.”
This, however, is only one poet’s view of the dietary of the errant
gentlemen of old. Pope is much nearer truth when he says, that—
“In days of old our fathers went to war,

Expecting sturdy blows and scanty fare,
Their beef they often in their morion stewed,
And in their basket-hilt their beverage brewed.”
—that basket-hilt of which it is so well said in Hudibras, that—
“it would hold broth,

And serve for fight and dinner both.”
The lords and chivalric gentlemen who fared so well and fought so
stoutly, were not always of the gentlest humor at home. It has been
observed that Piedmontese society long bore traces of the chivalric
age. An exemplification is afforded us in Gallenga’s History of
Piedmont. It will serve to show how absolute a master a powerful
knight and noble was in his own house. Thus, from Gallenga we
learn that Antonio Grimaldi, a nobleman of Chieri, had become
convinced of the faithlessness of his wife. He compelled her to hang
up with her own hand her paramour to the ceiling of her chamber;
then he had the chamber walled up, doors and windows, and only
allowed the wretched woman as much air and light, and
administered with his own hand as much food and drink, as would
indefinitely prolong her agony. And so he watched her, and tended
her with all that solicitude which hatred can suggest as well as love,
and left her to grope alone in that blind solitude, with the mute
testimony of her guilt—a ghastly object on which her aching eyes
were riveted, day by day, night after night, till it had passed through
every loathsome stage of decomposition. This man was surely worse
in his vengeance than that Sir Giles de Laval, who has come down
to us under the name of Blue-Beard.
This celebrated personage, famous by his pseudonym, was not less
so in his own proper person. There was not a braver knight in
France, during the reigns of Charles VI. and VII., than this Marquis
de Laval, Marshal of France. The English feared him almost as much
as they did the Pucelle. The household of this brave gentleman was,
however, a hell upon earth; and licentiousness, blasphemy, attempts
at sorcery, and, more than attempts at, very successful realizations
of, murder were the little foibles of this man of many wives. He
excelled the most extravagant monarchs in his boundless profusion,
and in the barbaric splendor of his court or house: the latter was
thronged with ladies of very light manners, players, mountebanks,
pretended magicians, and as many cooks as Julian found in the
palace of his predecessor at Constantinople. There were two
hundred saddle-horses in his stable, and he had a greater variety of
dogs than could now be found at any score of “fanciers” of that
article. He employed the magicians for a double purpose. They
undertook to discover treasures for his use, and pretty handmaids to
tend on his illustrious person, or otherwise amuse him by the display
of their accomplishments. Common report said that these young
persons were slain after a while, their blood being of much profit in
making incantations, the object of which was the discovery of gold.
Much exaggeration magnified his misdeeds, which were atrocious
enough in their plain, unvarnished infamy. At length justice overtook
this monster. She did not lay hold of him for his crimes against
society, but for a peccadillo which offended the Duke of Brittany.
Giles de Laval, for this offence, was burnt at Nantes, after being
strangled—such mercy having been vouchsafed to him, because he
was a gallant knight and gentleman, and of course was not to be
burnt alive like any petty villain of peasant degree. He had a moment
of weakness at last, and just previous to the rope being tightened
round his neck, he publicly declared that he should never have come
to that pass, nor have committed so many excesses, had it not been
for his wretched education. Thus are men, shrewd enough to drive
bargains, and able to discern between virtue and vice, ever ready,
when retribution falls on them at the scaffold, to accuse their father,
mother, schoolmaster, or spiritual pastor. Few are like the knight of
the road, who, previous to the cart sliding from under him, at Tyburn,
remarked that he had the satisfaction, at least, of knowing that the
position he had attained in society was owing entirely to himself.
“May I be hanged,” said he, “if that isn’t the fact.” The finisher of the
law did not stop to argue the question with him, but, on cutting him
down, remarked, with the gravity of a cardinal before breakfast, that
the gentleman had wronged the devil and the ladies, in attributing his
greatness so exclusively to his own exertions.
I have said that perhaps Blue-Beard’s little foibles have been
exaggerated; but, on reflection, I am not sure that this pleasant
hypothesis can be sustained. De Laval, of whom more than I have
told may be found in Mezeray, was not worse than the Landvogt
Hugenbach, who makes so terrible a figure in Barante’s “Dukes of
Burgundy.” The Landvogt, we are told by the last-named historian,
cared no more for heaven than he did for anybody on earth. He was
accustomed to say that being perfectly sure of going to the devil, he
would take especial care to deny himself no gratification that he
could possibly desire. There was, accordingly, no sort of wild fancy
to which he did not surrender himself. He was a fiendish corruptor of
virtue, employing money, menaces, or brutal violence, to accomplish
his ends. Neither cottage nor convent, citizen’s hearth nor noble’s
château, was secure from his invasion and atrocity. He was terribly
hated, terribly feared—but then Sir Landvogt Hugenbach gave
splendid dinners, and every family round went to them, while they
detested the giver.
He was remarkably facetious on these occasions, sometimes
ferociously so. For instance, Barante records of him, that at one of
his pleasant soirées he sent away the husbands into a room apart,
and kept the wives together in his grand saloon. These, he and his
myrmidons despoiled entirely of their dresses; after which, having
flung a covering over the head of each lady, who dared not, for her
life, resist, the amiable host called in the husbands one by one, and
bade each select his own wife. If the husband made a mistake, he
was immediately seized and flung headlong down the staircase. The
Landvogt made no more scruple about it than Lord Ernest Vane
when he served the Windsor manager after something of the same
fashion. The husbands who guessed rightly were conducted to the
sideboard to receive congratulations, and drink various flasks of wine
thereupon. But the amount of wine forced upon each unhappy
wretch was so immense, that in a short time he was as near death
as the mangled husbands, who were lying in a senseless heap at the
foot of the staircase.
They who would like to learn further of this respectable individual,
are referred to the pages of Barante. They will find there that this
knight and servant of the Duke of Burgundy was more like an
incarnation of the devil than aught besides. His career was frightful
for its stupendous cruelty and crime; but it ended on the scaffold,
nevertheless. His behavior there was like that of a saint who felt a
little of the human infirmity of irritability at being treated as a very
wicked personage by the extremely blind justice of men. So edifying
was this chivalrous scoundrel, that the populace fairly took him for
the saint he figured to be; and long after his death, crowds flocked to
his tomb to pray for his mediation between them and God.
The rough jokes of the Landvogt remind me of a much greater man
than he—Gaston de Foix, in whose earlier times there was no lack of
rough jokes, too. The portrait of Gaston, with his page helping to
buckle on his armor, by Giorgione da Castel Franco, is doubtless
known to most of my readers—through the engraving, if not the
original. It was formerly the property of the Duke of Orleans; but
came, many years ago, into the possession, by purchase, of Lord
Carlisle. The expression of the page or young squire who is helping
to adjust Gaston’s armor is admirably rendered. That of the hero
gives, perhaps, too old a look to a knight who is known to have died
young.
This Gaston was a nephew of Louis XII. His titles were Duke of
Nemours and Count d’Etampes. He was educated by his mother, the
sister of King Louis. She exulted in Gaston as one who was
peculiarly her own work. “Considering,” she says, “how honor
became her son, she was pleased to let him seek danger where he
was likely to find fame.” His career was splendid, but proportionally
brief. He purchased imperishable renown, and a glorious death, in
Italy. He gained the victory of Ravenna, at the cost of his life; after
which event, fortune abandoned the standard of Louis; and
Maximilian Sforza recovered the Milanese territories of his father,
Ludovic. This was early in the sixteenth century.
But it is of another Gaston de Foix that I have to speak. I have given
precedence to one bearer of the name, because he was the worthier
man; but the earlier hero will afford us better illustrations of the
home-life of the noble knights who were sovereigns within their own
districts. Froissart makes honorable mention of him in his
“Chronicle.” He was Count de Foix, and kept court at Ortez, in the
south of France. There assembled belted knights and aspiring
’squires, majestic matrons and dainty damsels. When the Count was
not on a war-path, his house was a scene of great gayety. The jingle
of spurs, clash of swords, tramp of iron heels, virelays sung by men-
at-arms, love-songs hummed by audacious pages, and romances
entoned to the lyre by minstrels who were masters in the art—these,
with courtly feasts and stately dances, made of the castle at Ortez
anything but a dull residence. Hawking and hunting seem to have
been “my very good Erle’s” favorite diversion. He was not so much
master of his passions as he was of his retainers; and few people
thought the worse of him simply because he murdered his cousin for
refusing to betray his trust, and cut the throat of the only legitimate
son of the Earl.
We may form some idea of the practical jests of those days, from an
anecdote told by Froissart. Gaston de Foix had complained, one cold
day, of the scanty fire which his retainers kept up in the great gallery.
Whereupon one of the knights descended to the court-yard, where
stood several asses laden with wood. One of them he seized, wood
and ass together, and staggering up-stairs into the gallery, flung the
whole, the ass heels uppermost, on to the fire. “Whereof,” says
Froissart, “the Earl of Foix had great joy, and so had all they that
were there, and had marvel of his strength, how he alone came up
all the stairs with the ass and the wood on his neck.”
Gaston was but a lazy knight. It was high noon, Froissart tells us,
before he rose from his bed. He supped at midnight; and when he
issued from his chamber to proceed to the hall where supper was
laid, twelve torches were carried before him, and these were held at
his table “by twelve varlets” during the time that supper lasted. The
Earl sat alone, and none of the knights or squires who crowded
round the other tables dared to speak a word to him unless the great
man previously addressed him. The supper then must have been a
dull affair.
The treasurer of the Collegiate Church of Chimay relates in a very
delicate manner how Gaston came to murder his little son. Gaston’s
wife was living apart from her husband, at the court of her brother,
the King of Navarre, and the “little son” in question was residing
there on a visit to his mother. As he was on the point of returning, the
king of Navarre gave him a powder, which he directed the boy to
administer to his father, telling him that it was a love-powder, and
would bring back his father’s affection for the mother. The innocent
boy took the powder, which was in fact poison; and a night or two
after his return to Ortez, an illegitimate son of Gaston found it in the
boy’s clothes. The base-born lad informed against his brother, and
when Gaston had given the powder to a dog, which immediately
died, he could scarcely be kept from poniarding his son upon the
spot. The poor child was flung into a dungeon, where, between terror
and despair, he refused to take any food. Upon being told of this, the
earl entered the chamber in which the boy was confined, “he had at
the same time a little knife in his hand, to pare withal his nails.... In
great displeasure he thrust his hand at his son’s throat, and the point
of his knife a little entered into his throat into a certain vein; and the
earl said, ‘Ah, traitor, why dost thou not eat thy meat?’ and therewith
the earl departed without any more doing or saying.” Never was
brutal murder more daintily glozed over, but Froissart is so afraid that
he may not have sufficiently impressed you with a conviction of its
being a little accident, that he goes on to say “The child was
abashed, and afraid of the coming of his father, and was also feeble
of fasting, and the point of the knife a little entered into his throat,
into a certain vein of his throat; and so [he] fell down suddenly and
died!”
The rascally sire was as jolly after the deed as before it; but he too
one day “fell down suddenly and died.” He had overheated himself
with hunting, and in that condition bathed in cold water as soon as
he reached home. The description of the whole of this domestic
scene is one of the most graphic in Froissart, but it is too long for
quotation. It must suffice that the vast possessions of the count fell
into the hands of that villanous illegitimate son, Sir Jenbayne de
Foix. The latter was one of the six knights who, with Charles VI.,
entered a ball-room disguised as satyrs, and fast chained together.
Some one, who is supposed to have owed no good-will to the king,
flung a torch into the group. Their inflammable dresses immediately
caught fire, and Sir Jenbayne de Foix was one of those who was
burned to death. The king himself, as is well known, had a very
narrow escape.
Perhaps one of the chief home pleasures enjoyed by knights when
not engaged in war, was the pleasure of the chase. Idle country
gentlemen now resemble their chivalrous ancestors in this respect,
and for want of or distaste for other vocations, spend three fourths of
their rural time in the fields. In the old days too, as ever, there were
clerical gentlemen very much addicted to hunting and moreover not
less so to trespassing. These were not reverend rectors on their own
thorough-breds, or curates on borrowed ponies, but dignified
prelates—even archbishops. One of the latter, Edmund, archbishop
of Canterbury, in the beginning of the thirteenth century, presumed to
hunt without permission, on the grounds of a young knight, the Earl
of Arundel, a minor. On the day the Earl came of age, he issued a
prohibition against the archiepiscopal trespasser, and the latter in
return snapped his fingers at the earl, and declared that his way was
as legally open to any chase as it was free into any church.
Accordingly, the right reverend gentleman issued forth as usual, with
hounds and horses, and a “numerous meet” of clerical friends and
other followers, glad to hunt in such company. Their sport, however,
was spoiled by the retainers of the young earl. These, in obedience
to their master’s orders, called off the dogs, unstopped the earths,
warned off the riders, and laughed at the ecclesiastical thunder of
the prelate, flung at them in open field. Edmund, finding it impossible
to overcome the opposition of the men, addressed himself to the
master, summarily devoting him ad inferos for daring to interfere with
the prelatic pastimes. Nothing daunted, the young earl, who would
gladly have permitted the archbishop to hunt in his company,
whenever so disposed, but who would not allow the head of the
church in England to act in the woods of Arundel as if he were also
lord of the land, made appeal to the only competent court—that of
the Pope. The contending parties went over and pleaded their most
respective causes personally; the earl with calmness, as feeling that
he had right on his side; Edmund with easy arrogance, springing
from a conviction that the Pontiff would not give a layman a triumph
over a priest. The archbishop, however, was mistaken. He not only
lost his cause, but he was condemned in the expenses; and if any
one thinks that this decree checked him in trespassing, such an idea
would show that the holder of it knew little of the spirit which moved
prelates fond of hunting. The archbishop became the most confirmed
poacher in the country; and if he did not spoil the knight’s sport by
riding in advance of the hounds with a red herring, he had resort to
means as efficacious for marring the pleasures of others in the
chase. He affected, too, to look down upon the earl as one inferior to
him in degree, and when they encountered at court, the prelate
exhibited no more courtesy toward the gallant knight than was
manifested by Lord Cowley in Paris toward the English Exhibition
Commissioners, when the mere men of intellect were kept at what
the peer thought a proper distance by the mere men of rank.
There is, however, no lack of instances of young knights themselves
being brought up in arrogance and wilfulness. This sort of education
lasted longer, perhaps, in France than elsewhere. As late as the last
century this instruction prevailed, particularly where the pupil was
intended for the army. Thus, the rearing of the little Vidame d’Amiens
affords us an illustration. He was awkward and obstinate, but he
might have been cured of both defects, had his mother been
permitted to have some voice in his education. She was the last to
be consulted, or rather, was never consulted at all. The more the
little man was arrogant, the more delighted were his relatives with
such manifestation of his spirit; and one day, when he dealt to his
aunt, the Marquise de Belliere Plessis, a box of the ear which sent
the old lady staggering, her only remark was, “My dear, you should
never strike me with the left hand.” The courteous Vidame mortally
hated his tutor, and expressed such a desire to kill him, that the
pedagogue was asked to allow the little savage to believe that he
had accomplished the desired act of homicide. Accordingly, a light
musket was placed in the boy’s hands, from which the ball had been
drawn, unknown to him, and with this, coming suddenly upon his
instructor, who feigned the surprise he did not feel, the Vidame
discharged the piece full at the breast of his monitor and friend. The
servile sage pretended to be mortally wounded, and acted death
upon the polished floor. He was quietly got rid of, and a pension of
four hundred francs, just sixteen pounds a year, rewarded his stupid
servility. The little chevalier was as proud as Fighting Fitzgerald of
having, as he supposed, “killed his man.”
Let us return to earlier times for illustrations of the knight at home,
and also abroad. There is no lack of such illustration in the
adventures of Fulke Fitzwarren. Fulke was one of the outlawed
barons of the reign of King John. In his youth, he was brought up
with the four sons of King Henry; he was much beloved by them all,
except John. “It happened that John and Fulke were sitting all alone
in a chamber playing at chess; and John took the chess-board, and
struck Fulke with a great blow. Fulke felt himself hurt, raised his foot
and struck John in the middle of the stomach; and his head flew
against the wall, and he became all weak, and fainted. Fulke was in
consternation; but he was glad that there was nobody in the
chamber but they two, and he rubbed John’s ears, who recovered
from his fainting fit, and went to the king his father, and made a great
complaint. ‘Hold your tongue, wretch,’ said the king, ‘you are always
quarrelling. If Fulke did anything but good to you, it must have been
by your own desert;’ and he called his master, and made him beat
him finely and well for complaining. John was much enraged against
Fulke, so that he could never afterward love him heartily.”
The above, as has been remarked, evinces how little respect there
was in those early times for royal authority and the doctrine of non-
resistance. But it may be observed, that even in these more polite
times, were the heir-apparent to strike a playfellow, his royal
highness would probably meet in return with as ready-handed, if not
quite so rough a correction as was inflicted upon John. The latter
could not forgive a bold companion of his boyhood, as James I. did,
in subsequent times, with regard to “Jamie Slates.” On the contrary,
when John became king, he plotted with as unscrupulous a person
as himself, to deprive Fulke of his estate. The conversation between
the king and his confederate, Moris de Powis, was overheard; and
what came of it is thus told in the history of Fulke Fitzwarren, as
edited by Thomas Wright Esq., for the Warton Club:—
“There was close by a knight who had heard all the conversation
between the king and Moris, and he went in haste to Sir Fulke, and
told him that the king was about to confirm by his charter, to Sir
Moris, the lands to which he had right. Fulke and his four brothers
came before the king, and prayed that they might have the common
law and the lands to which they had claim and right, as the
inheritance of Fulke; and they prayed that the king would receive
from them a hundred pounds, on condition that he should grant them
the award of his court of gain and loss. The king told them that what
he had granted to Sir Moris, he would hold to it whoever might be
offended or who not. At length Sir Moris spoke to Sir Fulke, and said,
‘Sir Knight, you are a great fool to challenge my lands; if you say that
you have a right to White-Town, you lie; and if we were not in the
king’s presence I would have proved it on your body.’ Sir William,
Fulke’s brother, without a word more, sprang forward and struck Sir
Moris with his fist in the middle of his face, that it became all bloody;
knights interfered that no more hurt was done; then said Sir Fulke to
the king: ‘Sir King, you are my liege-lord, and to you was I bound by
fealty, as long as I was in your service, and as long as I held the
lands of you; and you ought to maintain me in right, and you fail me
in right and common law; and never was he good king who denied
his frank tenants law in his court; wherefore I return you your
homages:’ and with this word, he departed from the court and went
to his hostel.”
Fulke was most unjustly exiled, but after a while he returned to
England, wandered about in various disguises, and at length, with a
ripe project, settled down as a collier or charcoal-burner in Windsor
Forest. I will once more draw from Mr. Wright’s edition of this knightly
biography for what ensued.
“At length came the king with three knights, all on foot to Fulke,
where he was arranging his fire. When Fulke saw the king, he knew
him well enough, and he cast the fork from his hand and saluted his
lord and went on his knees before him very humbly. The king and his
three knights had great laughter and game at the breeding and
bearing of the collier. They stood there very long. ‘Sir Vilain,’ said the
king, ‘have you seen no stag or doe pass here?’ ‘Yes, my lord,
awhile ago.’ ‘What beast did you see?’ ‘Sir, my lord, a horned one;
and it had long horns.’ ‘Where is it?’ ‘Sir, my lord, I know very well
how to lead you to where I saw it.’ ‘Onward then, Sir Vilain, and we
will follow you.’ ‘Sir,’ said the collier, ‘shall I take my fork in my hand?
for if it were taken I should have thereby a great loss.’ ‘Yea, Vilain, if
you will.’ Fulke took the great fork of iron in his hand and led the king
to shoot; for he had a very handsome bow. ‘Sir, my lord,’ said Fulke,
‘will you please to wait, and I will go into the thicket and make the
beast come this way by here?’ ‘Yea,’ said the king. Fulke did hastily
spring into the thick of the forest; and commanded his company
hastily to seize upon King John, for ‘I have brought him there only
with three knights; and all his company is on the other side of the
forest.’ Fulke and his company leaped out of the thicket, and rushed
upon the king and seized him at once. ‘Sir King,’ said Fulke, ‘now I
have you in my power, such judgment I will execute on you as you
would on me, if you had taken me.’ The king trembled with fear for
he had great dread of Fulke.”
There is here, perhaps, something of the romantic history, but with a
substantiality of truth. In the end, Fulke, who we are told was really
one of the barons to whom we owe Magna Charta, and who was
anathematized by the pope, and driven into exile again and again,
got the better of all his enemies, pope and king included. There are
two traditions touching his death. One is, that he survived to the
period of the battle of Lewes, where he was one of a body of Henry
the Third’s friends who were drowned in the adjacent river. The other
tells a very different story, and is probably nearer the truth. We are
inclined to think with Mr. Wright, the editor of the biographical history
in question, that he who was drowned near Lewes, was the son of
Fulke. We add the following account, less because of its detail
touching the death of the old knight than as having reference to how
knights lived, moved, and had their being, in the period referred to:—
“Fulke and Lady Clarice his wife, one night, were sleeping together
in their chamber; and the lady was asleep, and Fulke was awake,
and thought of his youth; and repented much in his heart for his
trespasses. At length, he saw in the chamber so great a light, that it
was wonderful; and he thought what could it be? And he heard a
voice, as it were, of thunder in the air, and it said:—‘Vassal, God has
granted thy penance, which is better here than elsewhere.’ At that
word the lady awoke, and saw the great light, and covered her face
for fear. At length this light vanished. And after this light Fulke could
never see more, but he was blind all his days. Then Fulke was very
hospitable and liberal, and he caused the king’s road to be turned
through his hall at his manor of Alleston, in order no stranger might
pass without having meat or lodging, or other honor or goods of his.
This Fulke remained seven years blind, and suffered well his
penance. Lady Clarice died and was buried at the New Abbey; after
whose death Fulke lived but a year, and died at the White-town; and
in great honor was he interred at the New Abbey—on whose soul
may God have mercy. Near the altar is the body. God have mercy on
us all, alive and dead. Amen!”
The religious sentiment was strong in all Norman knights, but not
more so, perhaps, than in the wild chivalry of North America, when
first its painted heroes heard of the passion and death of Christ.
Charlevoix tells us of an Iroquois, who, on hearing of the crucifixion,
exclaimed with the feeling of a Christian crusader, “Oh, if I had been
there!” Precisely such an exclamation was once made by a Norman
knight, as he listened to a monk narrating the great sacrifice on
Mount Calvary. The more savage warrior, however, has always had
the more poetical feeling. Witness the dying request of a young
Indian chief, also noticed by Charlevoix. The dying victor asked to be
buried in a blue robe, because that was the color of the sky: the
fashion, with many Norman knights, of being interred in a robe and
cowl of a monk, had far less of elevated feeling for its motive.
Having shown something of what the knight did at home, let us
contemplate also what he taught there, by precept, if not by
example. There was a knight who was known by the title of “the
White Knight,” whose name was De la Tour Landay, who was a
contemporary of Edward the Black Prince, and who is supposed to
have fought at Poictiers. He, is, however, best known, or at least
equally well known, as the author of a work entitled “Le Livre du
Chevalier de la Tour Landay.” This book was written, or dictated by
him, for the especial benefit of his two daughters, and for the
guidance of young ladies generally. It is extremely indelicate in parts,
and in such wise gives no very favorable idea of the young ladies
who could bear such instruction as is here imparted. The Chevalier
performed his authorship after a very free and easy fashion. He
engaged four clerical gentlemen, strictly designated as “two priests
and two clerks,” whose task it was to procure for him all the
necessary illustrative materials, such as anecdotes, apophthegms,
and such like. These were collected from all sources, sacred and
profane—from the Bible down to any volume, legendary or historical,
that would suit his purpose. These he worked mosaically together,
adding such wise saw, moral, counsel, or sentiment, as he deemed
the case most especially required;—with a sprinkling of stories of his
own collecting. A critic in the “Athenæum,” commenting upon this
curious volume, says with great truth, that it affords good materials
for an examination into the morals and manners of the times.
“Nothing,” says the reviewer, “is urged for adoption upon the sensible
grounds of right or wrong, or as being in accordance with any
admitted moral standard, but because it has been sanctified by long
usage, been confirmed by pretended miracle, or been approved by
some superstition which outrages common sense.”
In illustration of these remarks it is shown how the Chevalier
recommends a strict observation of the meagre days, upon the
ground that the dissevered head of a soldier was once enabled to
call for a priest, confess, and listen to the absolution, because the
owner of the head had never transgressed the Wednesday and
Friday’s fasts throughout his lifetime. Avoidance of the seven capital
sins is enjoined upon much the same grounds. Gluttony, for
instance, is to be avoided, for the good reason, that a prattling
magpie once betrayed a lady who had eaten a dish of eels, which
her lord had intended for some guests whom he wished particularly
to honor. Charity is enjoined, not because the practice thereof is
placed by the great teacher, not merely above Hope, but before
Faith, but because a lady who, in spite of priestly warning, gave the
broken victuals of her household to her dogs rather than to the poor,
being on her death-bed, was leaped upon by a couple of black dogs,
and that these having approached her lips, the latter became as
black as a coal. The knight the more insists upon the proper exercise
of charity, seeing that he has unquestionable authority in support of
the truth of the story. That is, he knew a lady that had known the
defunct, and who said she had seen the dogs. Implicit obedience of
wives to husbands is insisted on, with a forcibly illustrative argument.
A burgher’s wife had answered her lord sharply, in place of silently
listening to reproof, and meekly obeying his command. The
husband, thereupon, dealt his wife a blow with his clenched fist,
which smashed her nose, and felled her to the ground. “It is reason
and right,” says the mailed Mrs. Ellis of his time, “that the husband
should have the word of command, and it is an honor to the good
wife to hear him, and hold her peace, and leave all high talking to her
lord; and so, on the contrary, it is a great shame to hear a woman
strive with her husband, whether right or wrong, and especially
before other people.” Publius Syrus says, that a good wife
commands by obeying, but the Chevalier evidently had no idea of
illustrating the Latin maxim, or recommending the end which it
contemplates. The knight places the husband as absolute lord; and
his doing so, in conjunction with the servility which he demands on
the part of the wife, reminds me of the saying of Toulotte, which is as
true as anything enjoined by the moralizing knight, namely, that
“L’obéissance aux volontés d’un chef absolu assimile l’homme à la
brute.” This, with a verbal alteration, may be applied as expressive of
the effect of the knight’s teaching in the matter of feminine
obedience. The latter is indeed in consonance with the old heathen
ideas. Euripides asserts, that the most intolerable wife in the world is
a wife who philosophizes, or supports her own opinion. We are
astonished to find a Christian knight thus agreed with a heathen poet
—particularly as it was in Christian times that the maxim was first
published, which says, “Ce que femme veut, Dieu le veut!”
This sentiment reminds me, that it is time to show how the knight
was affected by the tender passion, how it was sometimes his glory
and sometimes his shame. He was sometimes the victim, and at
others the victimizer.
LOVE IN CHEVALIERS, AND CHEVALIERS IN
LOVE.
“How pleasing are the steps we lovers make,
When in the paths of our content we pace
To meet our longings!”—The Hog hath Lost his Purse.
Butler, in his Hudibras (part iii. cant. 1), has amusingly illustrated
the feeling which moved knights-errant, and the particular object they
had in view: “the ancient errant knights,” he says:—
“Won all their ladies’ hearts in fights,

And cuts whole giants into fritters,
To put them into amorous twitters;
Whose stubborn bowels scorned to yield,
Until their gallants were half killed:
But when their bones were drubbed so sore
They durst not win one combat more,
The ladies’ hearts began to melt,
Subdued by blows their lovers felt.
So Spanish heroes with their lances
At once wound bulls and ladies’ fancies.”
However willing a knight may have been to do homage to his lady,

the latter, if she truly regarded the knight, never allowed his homage
to her to be paid at the cost of injury to his country’s honor or his
own. An instance of this is afforded us in the case of Bertrand de
Guesclin. There never was man who struck harder blows when he
was a bachelor; but when he went a wooing, and still more after he
had wed the incomparable Tiphania, he lost all care for honor in the
field, and had no delight but in the society of his spouse. The lady,
however, was resolved that neither his sword nor his reputation
should acquire rust through any fault or beauty of hers. She rallied
him soundly on his home-keeping propensities, set them in contrast
with the activity of his bachelor-days, and the renown acquired by it,
and forthwith talked him out of her bower and into his saddle.

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Multifunctional Antennas and Arrays

for Wireless Communication Systems

Satish K. Sharma and Jia-Chi S. Chieh

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty

Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication data applied for

Cover design by Wiley

Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by SPi Global, Pondicherry, India

2 Frequency Reconfigurable Antennas 19

2.3.3 Frequency Reconfigurability by Mechanical Changes 49

3 Radiation Pattern Reconfigurable Antennas 67

4 Polarization Reconfigurable Antennas 122

5 Liquid Metal, Piezoelectric, and RF MEMS-Based Reconfigurable

5.7 ­ F MEMS – Polarization Reconfigurable 191

6 Compact Reconfigurable Antennas 198

7 Reconfigurable MIMO Antennas 232

8 Multifunctional Antennas for 4G/5G Communications and MIMO

8.5 ­ IMO Antennas for Sensing Applications 290

9 Metamaterials in Reconfigurable Antennas 321

10 Multifunctional Antennas for User Equipments (UEs) 341

11 DoD Reconfigurable Antennas 378

11.2.3 Fine Bearing 382

12 5G Silicon RFICs-Based Phased Array Antennas 409

Behrouz Babakhani Saeed I. Latif

reconfiguration by electronically changing antenna elements and feeding net-

level array (TELA). Finally, Chapter 12 discusses 5G silicon RFICs‐based phased

1 February 2021 Professor Satish K. Sharma, PhD

1 February 2021 Professor Satish K. Sharma, PhD

1 February 2021 Professor Satish K. Sharma, PhD

1.2 ­Antenna: an Integral Component of

An antenna is described as a device that radiates or receives transverse electro-

Figure 1.1 The importance of antenna in a wireless communication system.

1.3 ­Antenna Performance Parameters

Antenna performance parameters can be categorized into two groups: circuit

1.4 ­Antenna Types

1.5 ­Multifunctional Antennas

Multifunctional antennas can have features of frequency reconfiguration, polari-

Return loss Quasi_Yagi_ATK

5 dB (Gain total) –15

communication antennas on a common small size host platform, such as cellular

Reflection coefficient Mag. (dB)

(a) (b) (c) Frequency (GHz)

5 Measured RHCP (φ = 0) 5 Measured RHCP (φ =0)

Simulated LHCP (φ = 90) Simulated LHCP (φ =90)

1.6 ­Reconfigurable Antennas

Reconfigurable antennas can be frequency reconfigurable, pattern reconfigurable,

W3 C_B PIN diode C_B

Switch table list

LTE 17 LTE 13 LTE 14 GSM 850 EGSM

First switch ON ON ON ON OFF

0 EGSM port1 Exp

–5 LTE13 port1 Exp

–10 LTE14 port1 Exp

GSM port1 Exp

–10 LTE17 port1 Exp

LTE14 port1 Exp

0.8 EGSM port1 Exp

LTE14 port1 Exp

Figure 1.10 Simulated (a, c, e, g) and measured (b, d, f, h) near-omnidirectional 3D

1.7 ­Frequency Agile/Tunable Antenna

A frequency agile or tunable antenna can be realized by integrating tunable RF

effective permittivity which in turn is related to the change in capacitance varia-

where L and C are the inductance and capacitance of an antenna.

1.8 ­Antenna Measurements

5.7 F MEMS – Polarization Reconfigurable 191

8.5 IMO Antennas for Sensing Applications 290

1 February 2021 Professor Satish K. Sharma, PhD

1 February 2021 Professor Satish K. Sharma, PhD

1 February 2021 Professor Satish K. Sharma, PhD

1.2 Antenna: an Integral Component of

1.3 Antenna Performance Parameters

1.4 Antenna Types

1.5 Multifunctional Antennas

1.6 Reconfigurable Antennas

1.7 Frequency Agile/Tunable Antenna

1.8 Antenna Measurements

2.2 Mechanism of Frequency Reconfigurability