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Super Course in Mathematics
CALCULUS
for the IIT-JEE
Volume 3

Trishna Knowledge Systems

A division of
Triumphant Institute of Management Education Pvt. Ltd

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 Contents
Preface iv

Chapter 1 Functions and Graphs 1.1—1.94

sTUDY MATERIAL
• Set Theory • Cartesian Product of Two Sets • Relations • Functions
• Composition of Functions • Inverse of a Function • Even and Odd
Functions • Periodic Functions • Some Real Valued Functions • Parametric form of
Representation of a Function • Graphs of Conic Sections • Graphs of a Few Composite
Functions • Transformation of Functions • Some Special Curves
Chapter 2 Differential Calculus  2.1—2.196
sTUDY MATERIAL
• Introduction • Limit of a Function • Laws on Limits • Standard
Limits • Continuity of a Function • Types of Discontinuities of a Function • Concept
of Derivative—Differentiation • Differentiability of Functions • Derivatives of
Elementary Functions • Differentiation Rules • Concept of Differential • Successive
Differentiation • Higher Order Derivatives • Tangents and Normals • Mean Value
Theorem and its Applications • Rolle’s Theorem • L’ Hospital’s Rule • Extension
of the Mean Value Theorem • Increasing and Decreasing Functions • Maxima and
Minima of functions • Convexity and Concavity of a curve
Chapter 3 Integral Calculus  3.1—3.178

sTUDY MATERIAL
• Introduction • Definite Integral as the Limit of a Sum • Anti-Derivatives
• Indefinite Integrals of Rational Functions • Integrals of the form ∫ dx
,
a + b cos x
dx a cos x + b sin x
∫ , ∫ dx • Integration By Parts Method • Integrals of the
a + b sin x c cos x + d sin x

form ∫ ax 2 + bx + c dx • Evaluation of Definite Integrals • Properties of Definite

Integrals • Improper Integrals • Differential Equations • Formation of a Differential
Equation • Solutions of First Order First Degree Differential Equations
 Preface
The IIT-JEE, the most challenging amongst national level engineering entrance examinations, remains on the top of the
priority list of several lakhs of students every year. The brand value of the IITs attracts more and more students every year,
but the challenge posed by the IIT-JEE ensures that only the best of the aspirants get into the IITs. Students require thorough
understanding of the fundamental concepts, reasoning skills, ability to comprehend the presented situation and exceptional
problem-solving skills to come on top in this highly demanding entrance examination.
The pattern of the IIT-JEE has been changing over the years. Hence an aspiring student requires a step-by-step study
plan to master the fundamentals and to get adequate practice in the various types of questions that have appeared in the
IIT-JEE over the last several years. Irrespective of the branch of engineering study the student chooses later, it is important
to have a sound conceptual grounding in Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry. A lack of proper understanding of these
subjects limits the capacity of students to solve complex problems thereby lessening his/her chances of making it to the top-
notch institutes which provide quality training.
This series of books serves as a source of learning that goes beyond the school curriculum of Class XI and Class XII
and is intended to form the backbone of the preparation of an aspiring student. These books have been designed with the
objective of guiding an aspirant to his/her goal in a clearly defined step-by-step approach.
• Master the Concepts and Concept Strands!
This series covers all the concepts in the latest IIT-JEE syllabus by segregating them into appropriate units. The theories
are explained in detail and are illustrated using solved examples detailing the different applications of the concepts.
• Let us First Solve the Examples—Concept Connectors!
At the end of the theory content in each unit, a good number of “Solved Examples” are provided and they are designed
to give the aspirant a comprehensive exposure to the application of the concepts at the problem-solving level.
• Do Your Exercise—Daily!
Over 200 unsolved problems are presented for practice at the end of every chapter. Hints and solutions for the same are
also provided. These problems are designed to sharpen the aspirant’s problem-solving skills in a step-by-step manner.
• Remember, Practice Makes You Perfect!
We recommend you work out ALL the problems on your own – both solved and unsolved – to enhance the effective-
ness of your preparation.
A distinct feature of this series is that unlike most other reference books in the market, this is not authored by an in-
dividual. It is put together by a team of highly qualified faculty members that includes IITians, PhDs etc from some of the
best institutes in India and abroad. This team of academic experts has vast experience in teaching the fundamentals and
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keeping in mind the specific requirements of IIT-JEE, we are sure that you will find these useful in your preparation for
various other engineering entrance exams also.
We wish you the very best!
 chapter functions and
graphs

1
nnn Cha p t e r O u t l i n e
Preview
sTUDY MATERIAL topic grip
Set Theory • Subjective Questions (10)
• Concept Strands (1-8) • Straight Objective Type Questions (5)
• Assertion–Reason Type Questions (5)
Cartesian Product of Two Sets • Linked Comprehension Type Questions (6)
Relations • Multiple Correct Objective Type Questions (3)
Functions • Matrix-Match Type Question (1)
Composition of Functions iit assignment exercise
• Concept Strands (9-10) • Straight Objective Type Questions (80)
Inverse of a Function • Assertion–Reason Type Questions (3)
• Concept Strand (11) • Linked Comprehension Type Questions (3)
Even and Odd Functions • Multiple Correct Objective Type Questions (3)
• Matrix-Match Type Question (1)
Periodic Functions
Some Real Valued Functions Additional Practice Exercise
Parametric form of Representation of a Function • Subjective Questions (10)
• Straight Objective Type Questions (40)
Graphs of Conic Sections
• Assertion–Reason Type Questions (10)
Graphs of a Few Composite Functions • Linked Comprehension Type Questions (9)
• Concept Strands (12-13) • Multiple Correct Objective Type Questions (8)
Transformation of Functions • Matrix-Match Type Questions (3)
Some Special Curves
Concept connectors
• 35 Connectors
1.2 Functions and Graphs
Set Theory
The concept of a set is usually the starting point in the de-
velopment of basic Mathematics and its applications.
A set is a well-defined collection of objects. Objects form-
ing part of a set are called its ‘elements’.
The following are some examples of sets:
(i) Set of people living in a particular town
(ii) Set of English alphabets
(iii) Set of students in a school whose weights are less than
45 kg
(iv) Set of cities in India whose population is greater than
10 lakhs.
We require that the collection of objects, which forms
the elements of the set, be well defined. This means that we
should be able to decide without ambiguity whether an ele-
ment is or is not in a given set.
Sets are usually denoted by capital letters A, B, C, X,
Y etc. If x belongs to a set A, we write x ∈ A. If x does not
belong to a set A, we write x ∉ A.
Representation of sets
(a) Roster form: the elements of the set are listed inside
set brackets.
For example, A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
(b) Set builder form: the elements of the set are represent-
ed by a variable satisfying certain well-defined condi-
tions, for example,
{ x/x is a counting number less than 5}
Universal set
The set of all elements that are of interest in a study is called
Universal set and is denoted by S. For example, if we are
discussing about certain books in a library, then the Uni-
versal set is the collection of all books available in that li-
brary.
Finite and Infinite sets
A set consisting of a definite number of elements is a finite
set.
If A is a finite set, the number of elements in A is called
the cardinal number of A denoted by n(A).
For example A = {3, 7, 9, 11, 13, 19} is a finite set. For
this set, n(A) = 6.
If the set contains only one element, it is called a sin-
gleton set. A set that contains no element is called a ‘null
set’ and is denoted by f or { }. If the number of elements in
a set is not finite, it is called an infinite set.
The following examples of sets illustrate the above defi-
nitions clearly.
(i) Set R is an infinite set.
(ii) X = {x, a real number between 10 and 50} also written
as X = {x ∈ R/10< x < 50} is an infinite set.
(iii) A = {x ∈ N/1 ≤ x ≤ 10} is a finite set and n(A) = 10.
(iv) {1}, {f} are singleton sets.
(v) If A = {x/x is a prime number and 3 < x < 5} is a null set
⇒ A = f.
Subset
If every element of a set B is also an element belonging to an-
other set A, then B is said to be a subset of A and is written as
B ⊆ A. If there exists atleast one element in A not in B, then
we write B ⊂ A.
For example, Q ⊂ R, Z ⊂ R, N ⊂ Q.
It is the usual convention that null set and the set itself
are subsets of a given set.
Number line and Intervals
The elements of the set R of real numbers can be repre-
sented by points on a line called the Number line.
í 2 
The point O on this line represents the number zero.
All positive numbers are represented by points on the line
to the right of O and all negative numbers are represented
by points on the line to the left of O.
It may be noted that we can move to the right of O
indefinitely without end. We say that there are infinite
number of positive numbers (denoted by ∞). Similarly, we
can move to the left of 0 indefinitely without end and we
say that there are infinite number of negative numbers (de-
noted by -∞).
The set R of real numbers may be represented by
(-∞, ∞).
D 2 E
 Functions and Graphs 1.3

Let a and b represent two elements of R. The set of set is represented by points inside a rectangle and its sub-
points (or the set of real numbers) lying between a and b, sets are represented by points inside closed curves.
inclusive of the two extreme points a and b, may be repre-
sented by [a, b] (called the closed interval).
If the set of points does not include the extreme points Algebra of sets
a and b, we represent this by (a, b) (called the open interval).
(i) Union of sets
[a, b) – set includes a but does not include b.
If A and B are any two sets, the set of all elements that be-
(a, b] – set includes b but does not include a. long to either A or B is called the union of A and B and is
The set of points to the left of a may be represented by denoted by A ∪ B.
(-∞, a] or (-∞, a), according as this set includes or does not
include a. The set of points to the right of b may be repre- 6
sented by [b, ∞) or (b, ∞), according as this set includes or
does not include b. $ %

Power set of a set

$‰%VKDGHGUHJLRQ
The set of all subsets of a given finite set A is called the Power
Fig.1.2
set of A, denoted by P(A).
The number of subsets of a given finite set A is 2n, where, A ∪ B = { x/x ∈ A or x ∈ B}
n is the cardinal number of A. Therefore, n((P(A)) = 2n.
For example, if A = {1, 2}, then P(A) = {f, {1}, {2}, A}. Consider the following examples:
Note that n(P(A)) = 22.
(i) Let A = {a, b, c, d, e}; B = {b, x, c, d, y, f} Then A ∪ B =
{a, b, c, d, e, x, y, f}.
Equal sets (ii) Let A represent the set of points {x/–1 ≤ x ≤ 5} i.e., x
lies in the closed interval [–1, 5]; B represents the set
Two finite sets A and B are said to be equal and we write of points {x/–3 < x < 4} i.e., x lies in the open interval
A = B if every element in A is in B and every element in B is (–3, 4). Then, A ∪ B = {x/–3 < x ≤ 5}
in A i.e., if A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A.
If the numbers of elements of two sets are equal, then
the sets are called equivalent sets. (ii) Intersection of sets
For example, if A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {2, 3, 4, 5}, then
If A and B are any two sets, the set of all elements that be-
A and B are equivalent sets but A ≠ B.
long to both A and B is called intersection of A and B and
is denoted by A ∩ B.
Venn diagrams
S
Sets and operations on sets can be geometrically illustrated
by means of Venn diagrams. In such diagrams, Universal
A B

6 A ∩ B-shaded region
$ %
' Fig.1.3

A ∩ B = { x | x ∈ A and x ∈ B}

If A ∩ B = f, i.e., there are no elements common to

& both A and B, we say that A and B are disjoint sets.
Examples are

Fig.1.1 (i) Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} , B = {3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}, then A ∩ B

= {3, 4, 5}
1.4 Functions and Graphs
(ii) The set of rational numbers and the set of irrational
numbers are disjoint sets.
(iii) Let A = {x ∈ Z/x ≥ 0} and B is the set of natural
numbers. Then A ∩ B = B.
(iii) Complement of a set
If A is any subset of the universal set S, the set consisting
of the elements in S that do not belong to A is called the
complement of A and is denoted by A’ or AC.
S A ∆ B-shaded
A Fig.1.6
A’-shaded region
Fig.1.4
For example, if S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} and
A = {3, 7, 9}, then A’ = {1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 8}
(iv) Difference of two sets
If A and B are any two sets, the set A – B (or A\B) is the set
of all elements that belong to A but not to B.
S (iv) Commutative law: A ∪ B = B ∪ A, A ∩ B = B ∩ A.
A B
A / B-shaded region
Fig.1.5
A – B (or A\B) = {x | x ∈ A, x ∉ B}
For example, if A = {x ∈ R/1 ≤ x ≤ 2} = [1, 2] and B =
{x ∈ R/1 < x < 2} = (1, 2), then A - B = {1, 2} and B – A = f.
C o nce p t S t r a n ds
Concept Strand 1
A town has total population of 40000 out of which 400
people own cars, 12000 people own motorcycles and
350 people own both cars and motorcycles. How many in
the town do not own either?
Solution
Let A = people owning cars; B = people owning motor
cycles; S = people in the town
(v) Symmetric difference of two sets
Let A and B be any two sets. The symmetric difference of A
and B is the set of elements that belong only to A or only to
B and is denoted by A D B.
S
A B
region
A D B = (A – B) ∪ (B – A) or (A\B) ∪ (B\A)
For example, if A = {a, b, c, d, e, f} and B = {c, d, e, f, g, h}
then A – B = {a, b} and B – A = {g, h}.\A D B = {a, b, g, h}
Also note that A D B = A ∪ B – A ∩ B.
(vi) Fundamental laws of set operation
(i) Identity law: A ∪ f = A; A ∩ f = f; A ∪ S = S;
A ∩ S = A.
(ii) Complement law: A ∪ A’ = S; A ∩ A’ = f; (A’)’ = A.
(iii) Idempotent law: A ∪ A = A; A ∩ A = A.
(v) Associative law: (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C);
(A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C).
(vi) Distributive law: A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C);
A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C).
(vii) De Morgan’s laws : (A ∪ B) ’ = A’ ∩ B’;
(A ∩ B) ’ = A’ ∪ B’
(viii) n (A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A ∩ B)
(ix) n(A ∪ B ∪ C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) – n(A ∩ B) –
n(B ∩ C) – n(C ∩ A) + n(A ∩ B ∩ C)
(x) n(A’) = n(S) – n(A)
Given n(A) = 400, n(B) = 12000, n(A ∩ B) = 350 and
n(S) = 40000.
We have to find n(A’ ∩ B’) or n[(A ∪ B)’].
Now, n (A ∪ B) = 400 + 12000 – 350 = 12050.
\ n [(A ∪ B)’] = 40000 – 12050 = 27950.
Concept Strand 2
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, …., 20}. Find the number of subsets of A
which contain 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10.

Solution
Since 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10 are to be there in all the subsets,
the number of subsets is clearly the number of subsets that
can be formed with the remaining 14 elements of A.
The answer is 214.
Concept Strand 3
In an examination, 75% students passed in English, 65%
passed in Hindi and 10% failed in both. Find the percent-
age of students who passed in both subjects.
Solution
Let A = Set of students who passed in English;
B = Set of students who passed in Hindi
Given n (A) = 75, n (B) = 65, n (A’ ∩ B’) = 10.
⇒ n(A ∪ B) = 90
We have, 90 = 75 + 65 – n (A ∩ B) or n (A ∩ B) = 50 or
The required answer is 50%.
Concept Strand 4
In a competitive examination consisting of three tests viz.,
general knowledge, arithmetic and English, the number of
participants was 3000. Only 2270 participants were able to
get through the arithmetic test, 750 through both arith-
metic and general knowledge, 450 through both general
knowledge and English, 400 through all the three tests
and 1000 through arithmetic and English. There were 250
participants who got through general knowledge alone but
not through the other two and 200 passed in English only.
(i) How many were in a position to get through general
knowledge?
(ii) How many participants failed in all the three subjects?
(iii) How many got through arithmetic only?
Solution
Set G : Candidates who got through general knowledge.
Set A : Candidates who got through arithmetic
Set E : Candidates who got through English
G A
1 2 3 (iii) the number of students who failed in Mathematics
5 only.
4 6
7 8
E
Fig.1.7
Functions and Graphs 1.5
We are given:
(1) + (2) + (3) + (4) + (5) + (6) + (7) + (8) = 3000
(2) + (3) + (5) + (6) = 2270;
(2) + (5) = 750; (4) + (5) = 450;
(5) = 400; (5) + (6) = 1000;
(1) = 250; (7) = 200
Answer (i) = (1) + (2) + (4) + (5) = 250 + 750 + 450
– 400 = 1050.
Answer (ii) = (8) = 3000 – (2270 + 450 – 400 + 200
+ 250) = 230.
Answer (iii) = (3) = 2270 – 1000 – 750 + 400 = 920.
Concept Strand 5
In a survey of 100 students in a music school, the num-
ber of students learning different musical instruments was
found to be: Guitar: 28, Veena: 30, Flute: 42, Guitar and
Veena: 8, Guitar and Flute: 10, Veena and Flute: 5, All mu-
sical instruments: 3
(i) How many students were learning none of these three
musical instruments?
(ii) How many students were learning only the flute?
Solution
(i) n(G) = 28, n(V) = 30, n(F) = 42
⇒ n (G ∪ V ∪ F) = 28 + 30 + 42 – 8 – 10 – 5 + 3 = 80
Hence n (G ’ ∩ V ’ ∩ F ’) = 100 – 80 = 20.
(ii) n(Flute only) = 42 – 10 – 5 + 3 = 30
Concept Strand 6
Out of 500 students who appeared at a competitive exami-
nation from a centre, 140 failed in Mathematics, 155 failed
in Physics and 142 failed in Chemistry. Those who failed
in both Mathematics and Physics were 98, in Physics and
Chemistry were 105, and in Mathematics and Chemistry
100. The number of students who failed in all the three
subjects was 85. Assuming that each student appeared in
all the 3 subjects, find
(i) the number of students who failed in at least one of
the three subjects.
(ii) the number of students who passed in all the subjects.
Solution
Let M: failed in Mathematics; P: failed in Physics; C: failed
in Chemistry
1.6 Functions and Graphs

Given n(M) = 140; n(P) = 155; n(C) = 142; n(M ∩ P) Let y ∈ (A\B) ∩ (A\C). Then, y ∈ (A\B) and y ∈
98; n(P ∩ C) = 105; n(C ∩ M) = 100 and n(M ∩ P ∩ C) (A\C)
= 85 ⇒ (y ∈ A and y ∉ B) and (y ∈ A and y ∉ C)
⇒ y ∈ A and (y ∉ B and y ∉ C)
We have,
⇒ y ∈ A and y ∉ (B ∪ C)
 (M ∪ P ∪ C) = n(M) + n(P) + n(C) - n(M ∩ P) -
n
⇒ y ∈ A\(B ∪ C)  — (2)
n(P ∩ C) - n(C ∩ M) + n(M ∩ P ∩ C) = 140 + 155 +
From (1) and (2) we have, A\(B ∪ C) = (A\B) ∩
142 - 98 - 105 - 100 + 85 = 219
(A\C)
Number of students who failed in at least one of the
subjects = n(M ∪ P ∪ C) = 219 (ii) Let x be an element of A\(B ∩ C). Then, x ∈ A\(B ∩ C)
Number of students who passed in all the subjects = ⇒ x ∈ A and x ∉ (B ∩ C)
M’ ∩ P’ ∩ C’ = 500 - n(M ∩ P ∩ C) = 281 ⇒ x ∈ A and (x ∉ B or ∉ C)
⇒ (x ∈ A and x ∉ B) or (x ∈ A and x ∉ C)
Number of students who failed in Mathematics only
⇒ (x ∈ A\B) or (x ∈ A\C)
= n(M) - n(M ∩ P) - n(M ∩ C) + n(M ∩ P ∩ C)
= 140 - 98 - 100 + 85 = 27 ⇒ x ∈ (A\B) ∪ (A\C)  — (3)
Let y ∈ (A\B) ∪ (A\C). We have, y ∈ (A\B) ∪
Aliter: (A\C)
⇒ (y ∈ A\B) or (y ∈ A\C)
Let M: Passed in Mathematics; P: Passed in Physics; C:
Passed in Chemistry. Given: ⇒ (y ∈ A and y ∉ B) or (y ∈ A and y ∉ C)
⇒ y ∈ A and (y ∉ B or y ∉ C)
n(M’) = 140; n(P’) = 155; n(C’) = 142; n(M’∩P’) = ⇒ y ∈ A and y ∉ (B ∩ C)
98; n(P’∩C’) = 105; n(C’∩M’) = 100; ⇒ y ∈ A\(B ∩ C)  — (4)
n(M’∩P’∩C’) = 85; From (3) and (4), A\(B ∩ C) = (A\B) ∪ (A\C)
\ n
 (M’ ∪ P’ ∪ C’) = 140 + 155 + 142 – 98 – 105 – 100 +
85 = 219
Concept Strand 8
n(M∩P∩C) = n[(M’ ∪ P’ ∪ C’)’] = 500 – 219 = 281
Prove that if A and B are any two sets,
The number of students who passed in all the subjects
= 281 (i) A ⊆ B implies B’ ⊆ A’ and B’ ⊆ A’ implies A ⊆ B
The number of students who failed in at least one of (ii) A\B = B’\A’
the subjects = 219
The number of students who failed in Mathematics
only = 140 – 98 – 100 + 85 = 27. Solution
(i) Let A ⊆ B. Let x be an element of B’.
Then, x ∈ B’ ⇒ x ∉ B
Concept Strand 7
⇒ x ∉ A (since A ⊆ B)
Prove that if A, B, C are any three sets, ⇒ x ∈ A’ ⇒ B’ ⊆ A’
(i) A\(B ∪ C) = (A\B) ∩ (A\C) Suppose B’ ⊆ A’
(ii) A\(B ∩ C) = (A\B) ∪ (A\C) Let x be an element of A. Then, x ∈ A
⇒ x ∉ A’ ⇒ x ∉ B’ ⇒ x ∈ B ⇒ A ⊆ B
(ii) Let x be an element of A\B. Then, x ∈ A\B ⇒ x ∈ A
Solution and x ∉ B
(i) Let x be an element of A/(B ∪ C), i.e., x ∈ A\(B ∪ C) ⇒ x ∉ A’ and x ∈ B’ ⇒ x ∈ B’ and
by definition of the set A\B x ∉ A’ ⇒ x ∈ B’\A’  — (1)
⇒ x ∈ A and x ∉ (B ∪ C), Let y be an element of B’\A’. Then, y ∈ B’\A’ ⇒ y ∈ B’
⇒ x ∈ A and (x ∉ B and x ∉ C) and y ∉ A’
⇒ (x ∈ A and x ∉ B) and (x ∈ A and x ∉ C) ⇒ y ∉ B and y ∈ A ⇒ y ∈ A and
⇒ (x ∈ A\B) and (x ∈ A\C) y ∉ B ⇒ y ∈ A\B  — (2)
⇒ x ∈ (A\B) ∩ (A\C) — (1) From (1) and (2), A\B = B’\A’

Cartesian product of two sets
Let A and B be any two sets. The Cartesian product of A and
B denoted by A × B is the set of all ordered pairs (x, y) where
x ∈ A and y ∈ B.
A × B = {(x, y) | x ∈ A and y ∈ B}
B × A = {(y, x) | y ∈ B and x ∈ A}
In general, A × B need not be equal to B × A.
Relations
Suppose A and B are two sets. Then, a relation from A to B
(written as A R B) is defined as a subset of A × B.
For example, let A = {3, 5, 6, 7, 9} and B = {4, 8, 10}.
Consider a relation from A to B which is defined as the
set of ordered pairs (x, y) where x ∈ A and y ∈ B such that x
and y are co-primes to each other. (i.e., x and y do not have
a common factor).
If R 1 represents this relation, it can be seen that
R 1 = {(3, 4), (3, 8), (3, 10), (5, 4), (5, 8), (7, 4), (7, 8),
(7, 10), (9, 4), (9, 8), (9, 10)}
Another relation, say R 2 may be defined as set of all
(x, y) such that x + y is a multiple of 2.
We see that R 2 = {(6, 4), (6, 8), (6, 10)}.
Results
(i) If R is a relation from A to B, then RC (called
complement of R) is the set (A × B) \ R.
(ii) If (x, y) ∈ R, then any element of R-1 will be of the form
(y, x).
(iii) A relation from A to A is a subset of A × A.
Reflexive relations
A relation R from A to A is said to be reflexive if (x, x) ∈ R
for all x ∈ A.
For example, let A represent a set of lines in a plane.
The elements of A may be denoted by l1, l2, l3, l4,…...
A relation, say R 1 on A may be defined as: (l1, l2) ∈ R1
if line l1 is parallel to line l2.
Clearly, R 1 is reflexive.
Functions and Graphs 1.7
If n (A) = N 1, n (B) = N 2, then n(A × B)
= N 1 N 2 = n(B × A).
For example, Let A = {1, 4, 7}; B = {a, p, q, r}
Then, A × B = {(1, a), (1, p), (1, q), (1, r), (4, a), (4, p),
(4, q), (4, r), (7, a), (7, p), (7, q), (7, r)}
B × A = {(a, 1), (a, 4), (a, 7), (p, 1), (p, 4), (p, 7),
(q, 1), (q, 4), (q, 7), (r, 1), (r, 4), (r, 7)}
Note that A × B ≠ B × A
Let another relation R 2 be defined on A as: (l1, l2) ∈ R2
if line l1 is perpendicular to line l2.
Clearly, R 2 is not reflexive.
Symmetric relations
A relation R from A to A is said to be symmetric, if (x, y) ∈ R
implies (y, x) ∈ R, where x, y ∈ A.
For example, let A represent a set of positive integers.
Let a relation R 1 be defined on A as: (x, y) ∈ R 1 if
(x + y) is an even integer.
Clearly, R 1 is symmetric.
Let another relation R2 be defined on A as: (x, y) ∈ R 2
y
if x divides y (i.e., is an integer).
x
Clearly, R 2 is not symmetric.
Transitive relations
A relation R from A to A is said to be transitive if (x, y) and
(y, z) ∈ R imply (x, z) ∈ R.
For example, let A represent a set of positive integers.
We define a relation R1 on A as: (x, y) ∈ R 1 if x + y is an even
integer. Clearly, R 1 is transitive.
Let another relation R 2 be defined on A as: (x, y)
∈ R 2 if (x 2 + y 2) is a perfect square. Clearly, R 2 is not
transitive.
1.8 Functions and Graphs

Antisymmetric relations Equivalence relations

A relation R from A to A is said to be anti-symmetric, if both
(x, y) and (y, x) ∈ R ⇒ x = y.
For example, let A be the set of real numbers and R
be a relation on A defined as; (x, y) ∈ R if x ≤ y. It is clear
that both x ≤ y and y ≤ x are possible only if x = y, i.e., R is
anti-symmetric.
A relation R on A is said to be an equivalence relation if R is
reflexive, symmetric, and transitive.
For example, let A represent a set of positive integers.
Define a relation R on A as: (x, y) ∈ R if x + y is an even
integer. Clearly, R is an equivalence relation on A.

Functions

Functions the fundamental boiling blocks for the study of
Calculus which is an important branch of mathematics
A relation (or rule) f, which associates to each element of a
set X a unique element of another set Y is called a function
from X to Y and is denoted by f: X → Y (read as X maps
into Y under f).
If x is any element of X, and a rule or a function
f assigns the element y ∈ Y for this x, we say that y is the
image of x under f.
X is called the domain of f. The set of all images (or map-
pings) under f is called the range of f and it is a subset of Y.
And we write y = f(x) where x ∈ domain of f, y ∈ range
of f.
Note the following important characteristics of a
function:
Let f: X → Y be a function
(i) Every x ∈ X is related to some y ∈Y
(ii) One x ∈ X is related to only one y ∈ Y (only one image).
Or if (x, y1) ∈ f and (x, y2) ∈ f imply y1 = y2
(iii) Two or more elements of X can have the same image in
Y under a function f.
(iv) There may be elements in Y, which are not images of
any elements of X under f.
(v) If n(X) = p and n(Y) = q, then the number of functions
from X to Y is q p.
All relations (or rules) that associate a set of elements
X with set of elements Y cannot be called as functions if
(i) or (ii) of the above is not satisfied. This can be pictorially
represented as shown in Fig. 1.8.

I I < I I
; < ; ; < ; <

[ \ [ \ [ \ [ \

[ \ [ \ [ \ [ \
[ \ [ \ [ \ [ \
[ \ [ \ [ \ [ \
[ \ [ \ [ \ [ \
\ \ \ \
L LL LLL  LY 
)XQFWLRQV 1RW)XQFWLRQV
Fig. 1.8

One one functions (or injective functions) I

; <
A mapping or function f: X → Y is called one one (injective)
if distinct elements in X have distinct images in Y. [  \
\
Or in other words, if x1 and x2 are two elements in X [ 
\
such that x1 ≠ x2 then f(x1) ≠ f(x2) or f(x1) = f(x2) ⇒ x1 = x2. [  \
An injective function may be represented diagram- [  \
matically as shown in Fig. 1.9. [  \
For example, let X = {3, 4, 9, 11, 16} and Y= {-3, -2, \
-1, 0, 1, 2, 5, 6}
Fig. 1.9
 Functions and Graphs 1.9

Let f: X → Y where f = {(3, -3), (4, -1), (9, 6), (11, 0), Bijective functions
(16, -2)}
i.e., image of the element 3 under f is –3, image of the A function, which is both one one and onto (i.e., both injec-
element 4 under f is –1 and so on. tive and surjective) is called a bijective function.
Then f is a one one or injective function. A bijective function may be represented diagrammati-
cally as shown in Fig. 1.11.
Consider another example:
Let X = {1, 2, 3, 4} and Y = {10, 11, 14, 15} For example, let X = {-1, 2, 3, 6} and Y = {p, q, r, s}
Let g: X → Y be such that g = {(1, 14), (2, 14), (3, 15), Let f: X → Y be such that f = {(-1, r), (2, p), (3, s), (6, q)}
(4, 11)}. g is not a one one function. f is a bijective function.
A function, which is not one one is called a many one If f: X → Y is bijective, then n(X) = n(Y)
function.
X Y
f
Onto function (or surjective function)
A function f: X → Y is called onto function (or surjective
function) if every element of Y is an image of at least one x1 y1
element of X or f is surjective (or onto) if for each y ∈ Y there x2 y2
x3 y3
exists at least one x ∈ X such that f(x) = y.
x4
x5 y4
y5
X Y
f
Fig. 1.11
x1 y1
x2 y2
x3 y3
Real valued functions
x4 y4 Functions, which are defined on subsets of real numbers
x5
and whose images are also real numbers, are called real val-
ued functions.
Fig. 1.10
Examples of real valued functions
A surjective function may be represented diagram- (i) Speed of a particle moving on a straight line at differ-
matically as shown in Fig. 1.10. ent times is recorded. If t represents the time and v
For example, let X = {1, 4, 9, 16}, Y = {3, 7, 8} represents the speed at t, v is a function of t and we
And f: X → Y such that f = {(1, 3), (4, 7), (9, 7), (16, 8)}. write v = f(t). (We may use x for t and y for v also.)
f is an onto function. (ii) Area A of a circle depends on the radius r of the
circle. A is a function of r. We know that the rule that
connects r and A is A = p r2.
Remarks (iii) The human population P of the world depends on
the time t. Suppose we have a table giving the human
(i) In the case of surjective functions, Y is the range
population of the world for different years t, then P is a
of f.
function of t.
(ii) A function which is not onto or which is not surjective
is called an into function. In this case there exists We may think of the function f as a machine. (Refer
at least one y ∈ Y which is not the image of any Fig. 1.12).
x ∈ X.
If f is an into function the range of f is a proper subset
of Y. x (input) f y (output)
In the above example, if a function g is defined as g:
X → Y such that g = {(1, 3), (4, 3), (9, 7), (16, 7)}, then
g is an into function. Fig.1.12
1.10 Functions and Graphs

If x is the domain of f, then when x enters the machine

it is accepted as an input by the machine and the machine y
produces the output y(= f(x)) according to the rule of the
function. Graph of y = f(x)

Representation of real valued functions O x

There are three possible ways to represent a real valued
function. Fig. 1.13
(i) Numerical representation by a table of values (called
tabular representation) (iii) Analytical representation
x x1 x2 x3 x4 …… Suppose the rule or function f is such that image y
of x equals thrice the square of x. We write this rule
y = f(x) y1 y2 y3 y4 …… or function in the form y = 3x2. In this case, we say
(ii) Visual representation (graphical representation) that we have represented the function in the analytical
The most common method for visualizing a function form or in an explicit form as a formula or in a closed
is its graph. form.
If f is a function with domain X then its graph is the It may be noted that from the analytical representation
set of ordered pairs (x, f(x)) i.e., {x, f(x)/x ∈X}. In other of a function we can easily draw its graph and we can
words, the graph of f consists of all points (x, y) in also prepare a table of values of y for different values
the rectangular Cartesian coordinate plane such that of x in the domain. On the other hand, the tabular
y = f(x). form and the graphical form tell us that the variables
We can read the value of y or f(x) for a given x from x and y are related, but the explicit formula or rule
the graph. Moreover, the graph of f(x) gives us a useful is not known from these representations. In many of
picture of the behaviour or life history of a function. It the applications, analytical form (or a closed form)
is also possible to know about the domain and range representation of a function will help us to gain an
as well as where f attains its maximum and minimum insight into the behaviour of the function, its domain,
and what are their values. range and other characteristics.

Composition of functions

Similar to operations of addition and multiplication among Let f: X → Y and g: Y → Z be two functions and let
numbers we can define an operation called ‘composition’ x ∈ X. Then the image of x under f which may be denoted
connecting two functions. by f(x) is in Y.
Since f(x) ∈ Y we can find the image of f(x) under g.
This mapping or function is called a composition of f and
g and is denoted by g o f.
; < = OR
I J If f: X → Y and g: Y → Z are two functions then the
composite function g o f is a function from X to Z such that
I[ g o f (x) = g(f(x)) for every x ∈ X
[ We may represent g o f diagrammatically (Refer
JI [ Fig. 1.14)
J I
Remarks
(i) The composite function or the composition g o f
Fig. 1.14 is defined only if the range of f is a subset of the
domain of g.

(ii) If the range of g is a subset of the domain of f then we
can define the composite function or the composition
f o g also.
f o g (y) = f(g(y)) for every y ∈Y.
(iii) If both f and g are bijective functions g o f is also a
bijective function.
(iv) It may be noted that g o f may be defined but f o g is
not defined or f o g is defined but g o f is not defined.
C o nce p t S t r a n ds
Concept Strand 9
Let f = {(1, 0), (2, 1), (3, 2), (4, 3)} and g = {(0, 1), (1, 1),
(2, 2), (3, 2), (4, 3), (5, 3)}. Find g o f and f o g, if they exist.
Solution
Range of f = (0, 1, 2, 3} and Domain of g = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.
Clearly range of f ⊂ domain of g. So we can determine
the composition g o f = g o f(x).
We have g o f(1) = g(f(1)) = g(0) = 1 and so on.
\ We get g o f = {(1, 1), (2, 1), (3, 2), (4, 2)}
Now, range of g = {1, 2, 3}. So range of g ⊂ domain of f
We can therefore determine the composite function
fog
f o g = {(0,0), (1, 0), (2, 1), (3, 1), (4, 2), (5, 2)}
Note that g o f ≠ f o g
Concept Strand 10
(i) Given that f: R → R defined by f(x) = 2x + 1 and g: R
→ R defined by g(x) = x2, verify if g o f = f o g.
Identity function
A function IA: A → A defined by IA(x) = x for all x ∈ A
is called an identity function on A. (i.e., a function which
maps an element onto itself.)
Note that
(i) Identity function is one one and onto i.e., it is a
bijective function.
Functions and Graphs 1.11
Even if both g o f and f o g are defined g o f need not
be identically the same as f o g. In other words, g o f
≠ f o g always, i.e., composition of mappings is not
commutative.
(v) If f: X → Y, g: Y → Z and h: Z → W are functions then,
f o (g o h) = (f o g) o h, i.e., composition of mappings is
associative.
Solution
Both g o f and f o g exist in this case, since both the func-
tions are from R → R.
g o f(x) = g(f(x)) = g(2x + 1) = (2x + 1)2
f o g(x) = f(g(x)) = f(x2) = 2x2 + 1
\ gof≠fog
(ii) Let f and g are real valued functions defined by f(x) =
3x + 4 and g(x) = x2 - 1. Then find f o g(x2 - 1) and g o
f(3x + 4)
Solution
Both f o g and g o f exist
f o g(x2 - 1) = f((x2 - 1)2-1) = f(x4 - 2x2)
= 3(x4 - 2x2) + 4
= 3x4 - 6x2 + 4
g o f(3x + 4) = g(3(3x + 4) + 4)
= g(9x + 16)
= (9x + 16)2 - 1 = 81x2 + 288x + 255
(ii) Identity function on A is different from identity
function on B since the domains of A and B are
different. So we use the notations IA for identity
function on A and IB for identity function on B.
(iii) If f: A → B be any function, then (IB o f) x = IB f (x) =
f(x) = (f o IA)x
This means that IB o f = f o IA = f
1.12 Functions and Graphs

Inverse of a function
If f: X → Y is a bijective function, one can think of a map- (iii) If f-1 is the inverse of f: X → Y then f-1 o f = identity
ping (or function), f -1: Y → X i.e., x will be the image of y. function on X.
(where y = f(x)) under f-1. i.e., f-1 o f(x) = x and f o f-1 = identity function on Y
The function f-1 is called inverse function of f. The do- i.e., f o f-1(y) = y.
main of f-1 is Y and the range of f-1 is X. (iv) If f and g are two bijective functions then f-1 and g-1 are
their respective inverses, then it can be easily verified
Remarks
that (g o f)-1= f-1 o g-1.
(i) Inverse of a function is defined only if it is bijective.
(ii) Inverse of a bijective function is unique and is also a
bijective function.

C o nce p t S t r a n d
Concept Strands 11
(i) f(x) = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4), (4, 5)} is a function on
X = {1, 2, 3, 4} to Y = {2, 3, 4, 5}
(ii) f: R → R defined by f(x) = 2x + 5
Find the inverses of these functions, if they exist.
Solution
(i) Its range is Y = {2, 3, 4, 5}. Clearly, f is a bijection (or f
is a bijective function) from X → Y
Now, if we define g: Y → X by g = {(2, 1), (3, 2), (4, 3),
(5, 4)}, then g is the inverse of f.
(Since g o f(1) = 1, g o f(2) = 2 and so on)
i.e., f-1 = g.
(ii) Consider f: R → R defined by f(x) = 2x + 5. Clearly, f
is a bijection.
y −5
Let f(x) = 2x + 5 = y. Then, x =
2
y −5
If we define g: R → R by, g(y ) =
2 element only) or the set may have more than one element
y −5
Then g is the inverse of f or f-1(y) =
2 function f.
(2 x + 5) − 5
For, (f-1o f )(x) = f-1(2x+5) = =x
2
Similarly, f o f-1(y) = y.
Note that the inverse of a function is different from
the inverse of an element under a function.
Let f: X → Y be any function and let y ∈ Y. Then,
inverse of the element y under f is denoted by f-1(y) and
it is the set of elements of X which are mapped to y
by the function f. (it is the set of all pre images of y
under f)
i.e., f −1 (y) = {x | f(x) = y}
For example, consider f: R → R defined by f(x) = x2.
Then f-1(4) = {elements that are mapped to 4 under
f(x) = x2}
= {x/f(x) = 4} = {2, -2}.
So, the inverse of an element under a function is
a set. It may be a singleton set (i.e., a set having one
as in the above example. It depends on the nature of the

Even and odd functions

A function f(x) is said to be even if f(-x) = f(x) for all x in The graph of an even function is shown in Fig. 1.15.
its domain. Examples are
The graph of an even function is symmetrical about (i) f(x) = 3x4 - 4x2 + 7
y axis. (ii) f(x) = x6
 Functions and Graphs 1.13

Y Examples are
(i) f(x) = x
(ii) f(x) = 2x5 - x3 + 3x
y = f(x)
(even function
Y
X
O

Fig. 1.15 X
O
y = f(x)
(odd function)
A function f(x) is said to be an odd function if f(-x) = -f(x)
for all x in its domain.
Fig. 1.16
The graph of an odd function is symmetrical about the
origin (refer Fig. 1.16)

Periodic functions

A function f(x) is said to be periodic if there exists a non

zero positive number T such that for all x in the domain of Y
f, f(x + T) = f(x).
The smallest positive number T such that f(x + T) =
f(x) is called the period of f(x).
For example in Fig. 1.17, the period of the given func- –6 O 6
1 X
tion is 6, i.e., f(x + 6) = f(x). −11 −7 −5 −1 5 7 11
The best examples for periodic functions are the
circular or trigonometric functions.
In what follows, we take up the study of a few
well-known real valued functions, which are represented Fig. 1.17
in analytical or closed form.

Some Real Valued Functions

Constant functions The graphs of constant functions are lines parallel to x axis.
The range of a constant function is a singleton set { k }.
A function of the form y = f(x) = k (a constant) for all x
represents a constant function.
Polynomial functions
Y
A function of the form y = f(x) = a 0 x n + a1 x n −2 ..... + an–1 x
k y=k
+ an, where a0, a1, a2, a3, …..an are real numbers and n is a
positive integer is called a polynomial function of degree n.
O X The domain of a polynomial function can be R. (The
set of real numbers).
Fig. 1.18
1.14 Functions and Graphs

Case (i) (ii) with one real root

n = 1, y = ax + b is called a linear function. Graph of a linear
function is a straight line (refer Fig. 1.19 (i)) a>0
A special case of linear function is the identity func- y
tion y = x. The graph of the identity function is the line
through the origin making an angle 45° with the positive
direction of x-axis. (i.e., the slope of the line y = x is tan
45° = 1) (refer Fig. 1.19 (ii))
α O x

y y

y = ax + b y=x a<0
x 45° x y
O O

(i) (ii)
Fig. 1.19 α
O x
Case (ii)
If n = 2, y = ax2 + bx + c is called a quadratic function.
If we consider the graph of y = ax2 + bx + c, the real
roots of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 are the
Fig. 1.21
x-coordinates of the points of intersection of the graph
with the x-axis. The graphs of quadratic polynomials are
shown in Fig.1.20, 1.21 and 1.22 and correspond to qua-
dratic functions with two real roots, one real root and no (iii) with no real roots
real roots respectively.
a>0
Case (iii) y

n = 3, y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d is called a cubic function. The

graph of a cubic function will be as shown in Fig. 1.20.
The range of a cubic function is the set R of real numbers.
O x

Graphs of a quadratic polynomial

(i) with two real roots

a<0
y
D! D
\ \

O x
2
D ȕ [ 2 D ȕ  [

Fig. 1.20 Fig. 1.22

 Functions and Graphs 1.15

Graph of a cubic polynomial and cosec x are positive while all the other circular
functions are negative.
 3p 
y (iii) if x lies in the third quadrant,  i.e., if p < x < ,
y  2 
i.e., if the angle x is between 180° and 270°; tan x and
cot x are positive while all the other circular functions
x x are negative.
O O
 3p 
(iv) if x lies in the fourth quadrant,  i.e., if < x < 2p  ,
 2 
Fig. 1.23 i.e., if the angle x is between 270° and 360°; cos x and
sec x are positive while all the other circular functions
Rational functions are negative.
sinx, cosx, cosec x and sec x are periodic functions
P(x) with period 2p while tanx and cot x are periodic func-
A function of the form y = f(x) = where P(x) and
Q(x) tions with period p.
Q(x) are polynomial functions in x is called a rational

function. The domain of this rational function is the set Modulus function
of all real numbers R excluding those numbers for which
Q(x) = 0 − x, x ≤ 0
f(x) = | x |, or f(x) = 
Some examples of rational functions are given  x, x > 0
below:
Domain of the modulus function is R and the range of
(x − 3) the function is [0, ∞).
(i) y = The graph of the modulus function is given in Fig. 1.24
(x + 1) (x − 5)
Domain of the above function is R excluding the
Y
points -1 and 5.
(x 2 + x − 5)
(ii) y =
x(x + 5) (x − 2) (x − 3)
Domain of the above function is R excluding the X
points -5, 0, 2 and 3. O

Circular or Trigonometric functions Fig. 1.24

The functions represented by y = sin x; y = cos x; y = tan x;
y = cosec x; y = sec x; y = cot x are called circular or trigo- Observe that modulus function is an even function. It is
nometric functions. symmetric about y-axis.
Domain of the sine function y = sin x is R and its range
is [-1, 1].
Domain of the cosine function y = cos x is R and its Signum function
range is [-1, 1].
 x
 , x≠0
 p f(x) = | x |
(i) if x lies in the first quadrant,  i.e., if 0 < x <  , i.e.,
 2  0, x=0

if the angle x is between 0° and 90°; all the circular
The signum function can also be expressed as
functions are positive.
−1, x < 0
 p  
(ii) if x lies in the second quadrant,  i.e., if < x < p  , f(x) =  0, x = 0
 2 
 1, x > 0
i.e., if the angle x is between 90° and 180°; sin x 
1.16 Functions and Graphs

The domain of this function is R, while its range is Logarithmic function

{-1, 0, 1}
Graph of the signum function is shown in Fig. 1.25 f(x) = loga x, a > 0, a ≠ 1.
In the case of the logarithmic function, depending on
Y the value of a, the graph will be different, i.e., if a > 1 the
graph is as shown in (i) of Fig. 1.27 and if a < 1, the graph is
1 as shown in (ii) of Fig. 1.27.
Domain of the logarithmic function is (0, ∞) and the
O X range is R.

−1
Y Y

Fig. 1.25 a>1 0<a<1

Observe that signum function is an odd function. It is sym- O1 X X

O1
metric about the origin.

Exponential function
(i) (ii)
f(x) = ex , where e is the exponential number. Fig. 1.27

Y
Remarks
(i) loge x and ex are inverse functions of each other, i.e.,
1 loge(ex) = e loge x = x.
X (Refer Fig. 1.28)
O

Fig. 1.26 Y

To draw the graph of y = ex, we note that when x = 0, y = 1. 1

e being greater than 1, ex increases as x increases through y = ex y = loge x
positive values. This is expressed as ‘As x tends to infinity, X
O 1
ex tends to infinity’.
When x is negative, ex < 1. Since ex is positive for all x
(positive or negative), we have 0 < ex < 1 for x < 0. Also, there
is no x for which ex = 0. Therefore, as x decreases through
negative values, ex decreases and approaches the value zero.
Fig. 1.28
This is expressed “as x tends to - ∞, y tends to zero.
The graph of the function for x < 0 is such that it con-
tinually approaches the negative x-axis, yet never quite
meets it. The graph is said to approach the negative part of Note that the graphs of these two functions reflect each
the x-axis ‘asymptotically’. (Refer Fig. 1.26) other over the line y = x.
We therefore infer that the domain of ex is R and its (ii) In general, we can say that loga x and ax are inverse
range is (0, ∞). functions of each other. (where, a > 0 and ≠ 1)
 Functions and Graphs 1.17

Greatest integer function through (1, 0). [the coordinates of (1, 0) satisfy the equation
y = x - 1].
f(x) = greatest integer less than or equal to x, denoted by [ x] In other words, the graph of y = x - 1 (or f(x) = x - 1)
or f(x) = [ x ] represents the greatest integer function. is obtained by translating the graph of y = x through 1 unit
For example: [ 4.3 ] = 4; [ -2.9 ] = -3; [ 5 ] = 5; [ -7 ] = -7. along the positive side of the x-axis.
Similarly, the graph of y = x - 2 is obtained by translat-
Y ing the graph of y = x through 2 units along the positive
3 side of the x-axis and so on. Again, the graph of y = x + 1
is obtained by translating the graph of y = x through 1 unit
2 along the negative side of the x-axis. We are now in a posi-
1 tion to draw the graph of the function f(x) = x - [ x ].
Graph of f(x) = x - [ x ] is shown in Fig. 1.30.
X This function is also called ‘saw tooth wave function’.
− 4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5
1 Domain of the function is R and its range is [0, 1).
−2 Also note that this function is periodic with period 1.
−3
Unit step function u(x –a)
The unit step function is
Fig. 1.29 Y
defined as
The domain of the greatest integer function is R and its 0, x < a 1
u(x - a) = 
range is the set of all integers. Graph of f(x) = [x] is shown 1, x ≥ a
in Fig. 1.29. a X
Graph of the unit step O
The greatest integer function is also known as staircase function is shown in
function. Fig. 1.31.
f(x) = x – [ x ] Fig. 1.31
If { x } denotes the fractional part of a real number x, Domain of the function is R and its range is the set
it is clear that { x } = x - [ x ], where, [ x ] is the greatest {0, 1}
integer function. Therefore, the above function may also be
expressed as f(x) = { x }.
Note that when x is an integer positive or negative, Catenary function
f(x) = 0.
For 0 < x < 1, f(x) = x; c x −x

The catenary function is defined as f (x) =  e c + e c  , c > 0
1 < x < 2, f(x) = x - 1; 2 
2 < x < 3, f(x) = x - 2 and so on. It is the curve in which a uniformly heavy chain hangs
Also, for -1 < x < 0, f(x) = x + 1; when suspended freely under gravity.
-2 < x < -1, f(x) = x +2 and so on. The function is an even function. Graph of the func-
tion is symmetrical about y-axis. (refer above Fig. 1.32)
Y The domain of the function is R and its range is [c, ∞).
2
1 Y

X
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5

Fig. 1.30 A OA = c
X
O
Recall that f(x) = x or y = x is the identity function whose
graph is the line through the origin making an angle 45°
with the x-axis. Now, y = x - 1 is the line with slope 1
Fig. 1.32
(i.e., making an angle 45° with the x-axis) and which passes
1.18 Functions and Graphs

Parametric form of representation of a function

Consider the circle centered at the origin and whose radius

is r. Let P be any point on this circle where ∠AOP = q. If Y
(x, y) are the coordinates of P referred to a coordinate sys-
tem, then x = OM = r cos q; y = MP = r sin q

Y
B X
O A
P (p, q)

θ (i)
X’ X
A’ O M A
P

B’ P
×
Y’ A B
2πa
Fig. 1.33
(ii)
As q varies from 0 to 2p, P moves along the circle. q = 0 Fig. 1.34
corresponds to A;
p
q= corresponds to B; q = p corresponds to A’ and
2 We have seen that the equation of a locus is the relation
3p between the x and y coordinates of a point on the locus.
q= corresponds to B’. For example, the equation x2 + y2 = r2 is obtained as
2
This means that any point on the above circle can be the locus of a point which moves in a plane such that its
represented as distance from the origin is always a constant r. Therefore,
the equation x2 + y2 = r2 is said to represent a circle cen-
x = r cos q tered at the origin with radius r and its graph is shown in
y = r sin q, where 0 ≤ q < 2p. Fig. 1.35.
This is called the representation of the circle in para-
metric form, where q is the parameter. Y
Another example of a function expressed in paramet-
ric form is P(x, y)
r
x = a(q - sin q)
X
y = a(1 - cos q), where 0 ≤ q < 2p. O
Here, q is the parameter. (We may also use the letter
t instead of q for the parameter). The graph of the above
function is known as Cycloid (refer Fig. 1.34 (i)).
This graph may also be obtained as follows: Consider Fig. 1.35
a circular disc. Mark a point P on its rim (or its circumfer-
ence). Roll the disc on a straight line starting from a point
A such that P coincides with A. The locus of P as the disc is
rolled from A to B on the line such that AB = 2pa, where a From the equation y = ± r 2 − x 2 , for every x (-r ≤ x ≤ r),
is the radius of the disc, is a cycloid. there are two values for y (equal in magnitude but oppo-
The domain of the cycloid function is [0, 2pa] and its
range is [0, 2a]. site in sign). This means that y = f(x) = ± r 2 − x 2 is not a
 Functions and Graphs 1.19

function. If we take f(x) = + r 2 − x 2 or f(x) = − r 2 − x 2 ,
then, each represents a function. The circle (or the curve)
drawn is that of the locus x2 + y2 = r2, is not that of a
function.
The conclusion is that although every function can be
represented by its graph, every graph (or curve) need not be
that of a function. However, we can always represent any
locus by its graph.
A very important family of curves, which find appli-
cations in many problems in real life, is that of the ‘Conic
sections’. These curves are obtained as sections of a right cir-
cular cone by planes. They are also obtained as the locus of
points, which move in a plane satisfying a specific condition.
We give below the equations and graphs of these
curves. A detailed study of these curves is being undertak-
en in a later unit.

Graphs of Conic Sections

Parabola (iii) We note that a point whose coordinates are (at2, 2at)
where -∞ < t < ∞ satisfies the equation y2 = 4 ax. Thus,
parametric form of representation of a point on the
Y
parabola
Y
x = at2
2
y 2 = 4ax y = −4ax y = 2at , - ∞ < t < ∞
(a > 0) (a > 0)
(Here, t denotes the parameter)
(iv) These curves are called parabolas. Recall that the
O
X
O
X graphs of quadratic polynomials y = ax2 + bx + c and x
= ay2 + by + c are both parabolas.

(i) (ii)
Ellipse
Y Y The graph of the curve is shown in Fig. 1.37.
2
x = −4ay
(a > 0)
Y x2 y2 Y x2 y2
X O 2
+ 2
=1 2
+ =1
O X a b a b2
x 2 = 4ay
(a > b) (a < b)
(a > 0)
O X O X

(iii) (iv)
Fig. 1.36
Fig. 1.37

Observations Observations
(i) The curves in Fig. 1.36 (i) and (ii) are symmetrical
(i) Ellipse is a closed curve
about x-axis, while the curves in Fig. 1.36 (iii) and (iv)
are symmetrical about y-axis. (ii) The curve is symmetrical about both the axes of
(ii) In the case of the parabola y2 = 4ax, no part of the coordinates.
curve lies to the left of the y-axis; in the case of y2 =
(iii) Domain: -a ≤ x ≤ a and Range: -b ≤ y ≤ b
- 4ax, no part of the curve lies to the right of the y-axis,
in the case of x2 = 4ay, no part of the curve lies below (iv) Parametric form of representation of a point on the
the x-axis, and in the case of x2 = -4ay, no part of the x2 y 2
ellipse 2 + 2 = 1 (a > b) is
curve lies above the x-axis. a b
1.20 Functions and Graphs

x = a cos q c2
Graph of the curve y = (or xy = c2)
y = b sin q, 0 ≤ q < 2p x
(Here, q denotes the parameter) Since division by zero is not defined, the function y = f(x)
c2
= is not defined at x = 0. For all other values of x, y is
x
c2
Hyperbola defined. Hence the domain of f(x) = is R – {0}. Also, y =
x
The graph of the curve is shown in Fig. 1.38 (i). 0 does not correspond to any value of x in the domain. The
range of f(x) is therefore, R – {0}.
As x approaches zero from either side, the point (x,
Y Y y) on the graph moves further and further away from the
x-axis (i.e., y increases indefinitely). The distance from
x2 y2 xy = c2 any point on the graph to the y-axis becomes smaller and
2
− 2
=1
a b smaller on either side. In such a case the graph is said to
X O X approach the ends of y-axis asymptotically.
O
The y-axis is said to be an asymptote of the curve
c2
y = . Similarly, the x-axis is another asymptote.
x c2
(ii) The graph of y = is a rectangular hyperbola and is
(i)
Fig. 1.38 x
shown in Fig. 1.38 (ii)

Remark
Observations
If x represents volume V and y represents pressure P of an
(i) The curve is symmetrical about both the axes of ideal gas, then
coordinates. PV = a constant = c2 (say)
(ii) | x | ≥ a c2 c2
or P = corresponds to y =
(iii) Parametric form of representation of a point on the V x
x2 y 2 (iv) Parametric form of representation of a point on the
hyperbola 2 − 2 = 1 is rectangular hyperbola xy = c2 is
a b
x = ct
x = a sec q c
y = b tan q, 0 ≤ q < 2p y = , − ∞ < t < ∞
t
(Here, q denotes the parameter) (Here, t denotes the parameter)

Graphs of a few composite functions

We discuss below the graphs of a few composite functions.

C o nce p t S t r a n ds
Concept Strand 12 x + 6 x < 0
g(x) = 
 x + 3, − 4 ≤ x < −2 2x + 6 x ≥ 0

Let f(x) = 1 , −2 ≤ x <2
3 − x, 2 ≤ x < 4 Discuss the composite functions g o f(x) and f o g(x)

 Functions and Graphs 1.21

Solution y

To discuss g o f(x), we need to ascertain intervals for

f(x) > 0 and f(x) < 0
\


0 x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4

       [

Graph of y = g  f(x)

We know that g(x) = x + 6 when x < 0.
\ I [  For g(x) = - 4, x = - 10,
\ g(x) = -2 x = -8,
g(x) = 2 x = -4,
g(x) = 4 x = -2,
\ [
Hence,

(x + 6) + 3 , −10 ≤ x < −8
\ [ 
f o g(x) =  1 , −8 ≤ x < −4
 [ 3 − ( x + 6) , −4 ≤ x ≤ −2

\ J [ 
 x + 9, − 10 ≤ x < −8

f(x) < 0 in (-4, -3) and in (3, 4) ⇒ f o g(x) = 1, − 8 ≤ x < −4
−3 − x, − 4 ≤ x ≤ −2
Therefore, 

 (x + 3) + 6 = x + 9, −4 ≤ x < −3 The graph of y = f o g(x) is shown below

g o f(x) = 
(3 − x) + 6 = − x + 9, 3 < x ≤ 4
y
f(x) > 0 in - 3 < x < 3 :
Therefore, g o f(x) =
1
2(x + 3) + 6 = 2x + 12, −3 ≤ x < −2

 2 × 1 + 6 = 8, −2 ≤ x < 2
2(3 − x) + 6 = 12 − 2x, 2 ≤ x < 3
−10 −4 −2 0
 −8
 x + 9, −4 ≤ x < −3 −1
2x + 12, −3 ≤ x < −2

Consolidating, g o f(x) =  8, −2 ≤ x < 2
12 − 2x,
Graph of f  g(x)
2≤x<3 Graph of f o g(x)

 9 − x, 3≤x≤4

The graph of y = g o f(x) is shown below Concept Strand 13

 hen we consider f o g(x), we should first note that
W f(x) = sin x , x ∈ R; g(x) = 3[x] where, [ ] denotes the greatest
the domain of f(x) is [-4, 4]. We also note that g(x) integer function
takes values in [-4, 4] only when x < 0. Determine the function g o f(x)
1.22 Functions and Graphs

Solution  p
1 0 ≤ x < 2
We consider the function f(x) in [0, 2p], since f(x) is a 
periodic function with period 2p. 3 x = p
 2
g o f(x) = 3[sin x] and therefore it is convenient to  p
p 1 <x≤p
consider the function in intervals of . ⇒ g o f(x) =  2
2 1 3p
 p<x≤
x f(x) = sin x [sin x] g o f(x)  3 2
 1 3 p
x=0 f(x) = 0 0 g o f(x) = 1 < x < 2p
3 2
1 x = 2p
p g o f(x) = 1 
0<x< 0 < f(x) < 1 0
2 since f(x + 2p) = f(x)
p g o f(x) = 3
x= f(x) = 1 1 g o f(x + 2p) = f(x)
2
⇒ g o f(x) is periodic with period 2p
p <x<π g o f(x) = 1
1 > f(x) > 0 0
2
y
x=π f(x) = 0 0 g o f(x) = 1
3
3p 1
π<x< –1 < f(x) < 0 –1 g o f(x) =
2 3
3p 1 1
x= f(x) = - 1 –1 g o f(x) = ⅓
2 3 x
0 π π 3π 2π
3p 1 2 2
< x < 2π –1 < f(x) < 0 –1 g o f(x) =
2 3
Graph of g  f(x) is [0, 2π]
x = 2π f(x) = 0 0 g o f(x) = 1

Transformation of functions
By applying certain transformations to the graph of a Vertical and Horizontal shifts:
given function, we can obtain the graphs of certain related
Suppose k > 0.
functions. This will give us the ability to sketch the graphs
Table 1.1
of many functions quickly by hand.
To obtain the graph of To do
(i) Let us first consider translations. If k is a positive y = f(x) + k shift the graph of y = f(x) a
number, then the graph of y = f(x) + k is just the distance k units upwards (↑)
graph of y = f(x) shifted upwards a distance of k units
(because each y coordinate is increased by the same y = f(x) - k shift the graph of y = f(x) a
number k). distance k unit downwards (↓)
Likewise, if g(x) = f(x - k) where, k is a positive num- y = f(x + k) shift the graph of y = f(x) a
ber, then the value of g(x) at x is the same as the value distance k units to the left (←)
of f(x) at (x - k) (the point (x - k) is k units to the left of y = f(x - k) shift the graph of y = f(x) a dis-
the point x). Therefore, the graph of y = f(x - k) is just tance k units to the right (→)
the graph of y = f(x) shifted k units to the right. Our Figure 1.39 gives the graphical representations of these
findings are presented in table 1.1. transformations.
 Functions and Graphs 1.23

(ii) Again, if k > 1, then the graph of y = kf(x) is the (iii) We use the functions y = sin x and y = cos x for the
graph of y = f(x) stretched by a factor of k in the graphical illustrations of the transformations y = f(kx)
vertical direction (because for each x coordinate the
1 
corresponding y coordinate is multiplied by the same and y = f  x  , k > 1.
1 k 
number k). Clearly, the graph of y = f(x), k > 1, is the
k
graph of f(x) compressed by a factor of k in the vertical Y
direction.
Also note that in both of the above cases, the intercepts y = sin 2x y = sin x
1
made by the graphs y = f(x) and y = kf(x) with the
x-axis remain the same. 3π/2 4π
X
O π π
2π
Y 2
−1
y = f(x) + k
(i) Graph of y = sin2x
Y

k
y = f(x + k) y = f(x) y = f(x− k) y = sin x
1
k k
3π/2 4π
X
k O π π
2π
X 2
O
−1 x
y = sin
2
y = f(x)− k x
(ii) Graph of y = sin
2
Y
Fig. 1.39
2

When k is negative, the graph of y = kf(x) is the y = 2sin x

1 y = sin x
reflection of the graph y = |k| f(x) in the x-axis.
In particular if k = -1, y = -f(x) is the graph of y = 3π/2 4π
X
O π π
f(x) reflected in the x-axis because the point (x, y) is 2π
2
replaced by the point (x, -y). −1
It easily follows that y = f(-x) is the graph of y =
−2
f(x) reflected in the y-axis.
(iii) Graph of y = 2sinx
y = -f(x) → reflection of the graph of y = f(x) in Y
the x-axis
y = f(-x) → reflection of the graph of y = f(x) in
y = |sin x|
the y-axis. 1
Fig. 1.40 illustrates the above.
3π/2 4π
X
O π π
2π
Y 2
k>1 −1 y = sin x

y = k f(x) (iv) Graph of y = |sinx|

Fig. 1.41
1
y = f(−x) y= f(x)
y = f(x) k
Observation
X
O
From Fig. 1.41, we observe that period of the function
y = −f(x)
y = sin x is 2p. Period of the function y = sin 2x is p and
x
Fig. 1.40 period of the function y = sin is 4p.
2
1.24 Functions and Graphs

Similar is the case for cosine function. (Refer Fig. 1.42) We therefore infer that if n is a rational number (n > 0), the
2p
period of the functions sin nx or cos nx is .
Y n
Note:
y = cos 2x From the graphs (i) and (ii) we infer that the range of y =
y = cos x
1 x
sin2x and y = sin remain same as that of y = sin x, i.e., y
2
3π/2 X ∈ [-1, 1]. From graph (iii) we infer that range of y = 2sin x
O π π 2π 4π
is y ∈ [-2, 2] but the period of the graph is 2p (same as that
2
−1 x of y = sin x). Graph (iv) shows us that the range of y = |sin
y = cos x| is y ∈ [0, 1] and the period is p.
2

Fig. 1.42

Some Special Curves

x3 The graph of the curve is shown in Fig. 1.43 (ii). Curve

Graph of the curve y 2 = ,a > 0 is said to have a loop between 0 and a. Before we conclude,
2a − x
we mention about the curve whose equation is
If (x, y) is a point on the above curve, it is clear that (x, -y) is
2 2 2
also a point on it. This means that the curve is symmetrical x 3
+y 3
= a 3 , a > 0.
about x-axis. i.e., suppose y is changed to -y in the equation
of a curve and the equation remains unaltered. Then, the
curve is symmetrical about x-axis. Y Y
We note the following:

(i) (0, 0) satisfies the equation. Therefore, origin is a point x = 2a

A
on the curve. 0 X O X
(ii) x cannot be negative, since y2 in this case becomes
negative. Therefore, no part of the curve lies to the left
of the y-axis.
(iii) x cannot be greater than 2a. (as y2 becomes negative
(i) (ii)
in this case). As x is increased from 0 to 2a, the
denominator (2a – x) becomes smaller and smaller. Y
Consequently, y increases indefinitely. We say, “as x
increases from 0 to 2a, y tends to infinity”. Hence, x = B
2a is an asymptote of the curve.
The graph of the curve is shown in Fig. 1.43 (i)
A’ O A X
Graph of the curve y2 = x(x – a)2, a > 0
We note that the curve passes through the origin and
(a, 0) is a point on the curve. The curve is symmetrical B’
about x-axis and x cannot be negative. This means that no (iii)
part of the curve lies to the left of y-axis. As x increases
from a, y increases or as x tends to infinity, y tends to
Fig. 1.43
infinity.
 Functions and Graphs 1.25

2 2 2 The parametric form of representation of a point on

Graph of the curve x 3
+y 3
=a 3
,a>0 the above hypocycloid is
This closed curve, whose graph is as shown in Fig. 1.32 (iii), x = a cos3 q,
is known as astriod or hypocycloid. This curve intersects y = a sin3 q, where 0 ≤ q ≤ 2p.
the x-axis at (a, 0) and (-a, 0) and the y-axis at (0, a) and
(0, - a). The curve is symmetrical about both the coordi-
nate axes. Also, -a ≤ y ≤ a.

Summary
1. Relations
Let A and B are two sets then a relation from A to B is defined as subset of A × B
(i) Reflexive relation–A relation R from A to A is said to be reflexive if x R x for all x ∈ A.
(ii) Symmetric relations–A relation R from A to A is said to be symmetric, if x R y
⇒ y R x for x, y ∈ A.
(iii) Transitive relations–A relation R from A to A is said to be transitive if x R y and y R z
⇒ x R z for all x, y, z ∈ A.
(iv) Antisymmetric relations–A relation R from A to A is said to be antisymmetric if
x R y and y R x ⇒ x = y
(v) Equivalence relations–A relation R on A is said to be an equivalence relation if R is
reflexive, symmetric, and transitive.
2. Functions
(i) A relation f which associates to each element of a set X a unique element of another set Y is called a function
from X to Y and denoted by f: X → Y, X is called domain Y is called co-domain and set of all images of under
f is called range.
(ii) Number of relation from set A to set B when n
(A) = m and n (B) = n is 2mn.
(iii) Similarly, number of functions from A to B = nm
3. Composition of functions
Let f : X → Y and g : Y → Z are two functions then the composite function g  f is a function from X to Z such that
g  f(x) = g(f(x)) for every x ∈ X.
(i) g  f is defined only when range of f is subset of domain of g.
(ii) f  g is defined only when range of g is subset of domain of f.
(iii) f  g ≠ g  f.
(iv) f and g are bijective function g  f is also bijective function.
(v) f  (g  h) = (f  g)  h i.e., composition of mappings is associative.
4. Types of functions
(i) Identity function
A function IA: A → A is called an identity function of I(x) = x for all x ∈ A
(ii) Inverse function
If f : X → Y is a bijective function, then f -1: Y → X is called inverse function of f.
f  f−1 = identity function
(g  f)−1 = f−1  g−1
1.26 Functions and Graphs

(iii) Even function and odd function

A function f(x) is said to be even if f(−x) = f(x) for all x in its domain.
Graph of even function is symmetric about y-axis. A function f(x) is said to be odd if f(−x) = −f(x) for all x in
its domain. Graph of odd function is symmetric about the origin.
(iv) Periodic functions
A function f(x) is said to be periodic if there exists a positive number T such that f(x + T) = f(x) for all x in its
domain.
The least positive value T is called the period. If f(x) is periodic with period T, then f(ax + b) is periodic with
T
period , a > 0, b ∈ R.
a
If f1(x), f2(x), f3(x) are periodic with periods T1, T2, T3 respectively then a1f1(x) + a2f2(x) + a3f3(x) is periodic
with period equal to L.C.M of T1, T2 and T3 where a1, a2, a3 are non zero real numbers.
If f(x) is periodic function with period T and g(x) is any function such that domain of f is a proper subset of
domain of g, then g  f is periodic with period T.
(v) Rational function
P(x)
A function is of the form where, P(x) and Q(x) are polynomial function, are called rational function.
Q(x)
(vi) Modulus function
x , x>0
Function f(x) = |x| = 
− x , x < 0
Domain of modulus function is R range is [0, ∞). It is an even function.
(vii) Signum function
 x −1, x < 0
 , x≠0 
f(x) = | x | =  0, x = 0
 0 , x=0  1, x > 0
 
Domain of signum function is R range = {−1, 0, 1}
(viii) Exponential function
f(x) = ex, where e is the exponential number.
Domain = R and range = (0, ∞)
(ix) Logarithmic function
f(x) = logax, a > 0, a ≠ 1
Domain = (0, ∞) range = R
(x) Greatest integer function.
f(x) = [x] = greatest integer less than or equal to x
Domain = R range = Z
(xi) Fractional part functions
f(x) = {x} = x − [x]
Domain = R range = [0, 1)
It is periodic function with period = 1
(xii) Unit Step function
0, x < a
u(x − a) = 
1, x ≥ a
Domain = R range = {0, 1}
 Functions and Graphs 1.27

(xiii) Catenary function

c  xc −x

f(x) =  e + e c , c > 0
2 
Domain = R range [c, ∞)
It is an even function.
5. Parametric form representation of some curves
(i) Parametric representation of circle x2 + y2 = r2 is
x = r cosθ
y = r sinθ, θ ≤ θ < 2π
(ii) Parametric form of parabola y2 = 4ax is
x = at2
y = 2at, −∞ < + < ∞
x2 y 2
(iii) Parametric form of ellipse 2 + 2 = 1 is
a b
x = a cosθ
y = b sinθ, θ ≤ θ < 2π
x2 y 2
(iv) Parametric form of hyperbola − = 1 is
a 2 b2
x = a sec θ
y = b tan θ, 0 ≤ θ < 2π
that of rectangular hyperbola xy = c2 is
x = ct
c
y= , −∞<t<∞
t
6. Transformation of functions

To obtain the graph of To do

y = f(x) + k shift the graph of y = f(x) a distance k units upwards (↑)
y = f(x) − k shift the graph of y = f(x) a distance k unit downwards (↓)
y = f(x + k) shift the graph of y = f(x) a distance k units to the left (←)
y = f(x − k) shift the graph of y = f(x) a distance k units to the right (→)

y = −f(x) → reflection of the graph of y = f(x) in the x-axis

y = f(−x) → reflection of the graph of y = f(x) in the y-axis.
1.28 Functions and Graphs

CONCEPT CONNEC TORS

Connector 1: A represents the set of positive integers > 1. A relation R is defined on A as: (x, y) ∈ R if x = y (mod 4).
Examine whether R is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive.
Solution: x = y (mod 4) means that both x and y leave the same remainder when they are divided by 4. or, in other
words, x = y (mod 4) means that (x – y) is divisible by 4.
Clearly, (x – x) is divisible by 4.Therefore, R is reflexive.
Also, if (x – y) is divisible by 4, (y – x) is also divisible by 4. Therefore, R is symmetric.
If (x – y) is divisible by 4 and (y – z) is divisible by 4,
x – z = (x – y) + (y – z) is divisible by 4. Therefore, R is transitive.
We conclude that R is an equivalence relation.

Connector 2: Let A = [Rectangles of the chess Board]. Define a relation R in A: Say (R 1, R2) ∈ Relation R, if rectangles
R1 and R2 have a common side. Examine R.
Solution: Clearly, R is reflexive. Also, if (R1, R2) ∈ R, (R2, R1) will be in R. i.e., R is symmetric.
However, if R1 and R2 have a common side and R2 and R3 have a common side, it does not imply R1 and R3
have a common side. In other words, R is not transitive.
Connector 3: A represents the set of real numbers. Examine the relation R in A:
(x, y) ∈ R, if | x – y | ≤ 5 where, x, y ∈ A.
Solution: x ∈ R. Since | x - x | = 0 ≤ 5, R is reflexive.
Also, | x – y | ≤ 5 implies | y – x | ≤ 5 or R is symmetric.
| x – y | ≤ 5 and | y – z | ≤ 5 does not imply | x – z | ≤ 5. Therefore, R is not transitive.

Connector 4: A represents the set {2, 3, 5}. Obtain the number of symmetric relations that are possible in A.
Solution: A × A = {(2, 2), (3, 3), (5, 5), (2, 3), (3, 2), (2, 5), (5, 2), (3, 5), (5, 3)}.
Since, in any symmetric relation both (x, y) and (y, x) are to be present, we treat {(2, 3), (3, 2)}, {(2, 5),
(5, 2)}, {(3, 5), (5, 3)} as three members. Together with (2, 2), (3, 3), (5, 5), we have 6 elements.
The number of symmetric relations possible is clearly the number of subsets that can be formed with these
6 elements. And it is equal to 2 6 or 64. The answer is therefore 64.
x
Connector 5: Examine the nature of the function f(x) = 3 , x ∈ R.
x
Solution: (i) If we take f(x) = 3 , R →R, we see that f(x) is not one one. Also, it is not surjective.
In fact, the range of f (x) is [1, ∞). The function is even.
x
(ii) If we take f(x) = 3 , R → [1, ∞), f is surjective.
Connector 6: Find the periods of the following functions.
(i) f(x) = k (a constant)
(ii) f(x) = sin2x
(iii) f(x) = 5 cos3x -2
(iv) f(x) = a cos nx, n is a rational number.
(v) f(x) = a sin nx, n is a rational number.
 Functions and Graphs 1.29

Solution: (i) Since f(x) is a constant for all x, f(x + T) = f(x) = k for any positive number T.
Therefore, a constant function is periodic and the period can be taken to be any positive number.
(ii) Now, sin (2x + 2p) = sin 2x, since all circular functions are periodic functions with period 2p.
⇒ sin (2x + 2p) = sin [2(x + p)] = sin 2x Or f(x + p) = f(x) where f(x) = sin2x
⇒ sin 2x is periodic with period p.
(iii) We have 5 cos (3x + 2p) - 2 = 5 cos 3x - 2
  2p  
⇒ 5cos 3  x + − 2 = 5cos3x − 2
  3  
 2p 
⇒ f  x + = f(x)
 3 
2p
⇒ f(x) is periodic with period
3
(iv) and (v)
  2p  
We have cos n  x + = cos(nx + 2p) = cos nx
  n  
  2p  
and sin n  x + = sin(nx + 2p) = sin nx.
  n  
2p
⇒ Both cos nx and sin nx are periodic functions with period
n
 x , 0 < x < 2
2
f(11) − f(−11)
Connector 7: Given f(x) =  and f(x+5) = f(x) for all x. Compute
 x + 2, 2 ≤ x ≤ 5 f(11) + f(−11)
Solution: f(x + 5) = f(x) ⇒ f(x) is periodic with period 5.
Now f(11) = f(10 + 1) = f(1) = 1; f(-11) = f(-11 + 15) = f(4) = 4 + 2 = 6
f(11) − f(−11) 1 − 6 −5
\ = =
f(11) + f(−11) 1 + 6 7

 1 + x3 
Connector 8: If f(x) = log e  , find f(2x) + f(-2x)
 1 − x 3 
 1 + 8x 3   1 − 8x 3 
Solution: f(2x) + f(-2x) = log e  3 
+ log 
 1 − 8x   1 + 8x 3 

 (1 + 8x 3 ) (1 − 8x 3 ) 
= log e  = log e 1 = 0
 (1 − 8x 3 ) (1 + 8x 3 ) 
25x
Connector 9: If f(x) = , show that f(x) + f(1 - x) = 1
25x + 5
251− x 25
Solution: f(1- x) = 1− x
= ,
25 + 5 25 + 5 × 25x
(on multiplication of numerator and denominator by 25x)
5
= x
25 + 5
25x 5
\ f(x) + f(1 - x) = x + =1
25 + 5 25x + 5
1.30 Functions and Graphs

Connector 10: Find the domains of the following functions.

(i) f(x) = log(x − 3) + x 2 − 5x + 6
1
(ii) f(x) = + sin x
(x − 2)(x + 1)
(iii) f(x) = log N , where N > 0
x
Solution: (i) Observe that x – 3 > 0 or x > 3 and x2 - 5x + 6 ≥ 0 i.e., x ≤ 2 or x ≥ 3. Domain is: x > 3.
(ii) x should not be equal to –1 or 2 and also x ≥ 0. This means that the domain of the function is [0, ∞)
excluding x = 2.
(iii) The base of the logarithm should be positive and not equal to 1.The domain is therefore x ∈ (0, ∞)
excluding x = 1.
Connector 11: A function f(x) is defined for x ∈ [0, 1]. What is the domain of f (2x + 3)?
−3  −3 
Solution: We must have 0 ≤ 2x + 3 ≤ 1 or ≤ x ≤ − 1 . Or the domain is  , − 1 .
2 2 
Connector 12: Find the domain of the function y = sin 1 − 2 [x] + log e (1 − [ x]) where, [x] represents the greatest
integer function.
Solution: We have f(x) = sin 1 − 2 [x] + log e (1 − [ x])
Logarithm and square root in f can be defined only if
1
1- 2[ x ] ≥ 0 and (1- [ x ] ) >0 i.e., [ x ] ≤ and [ x ] < 1
2
Combining, [ x ] = 0, -1, -2, -3, …….. ⇒x ∈ (-∞, 1)
\ Domain of f = (-∞, 1)

Connector 13: Find the range of the function: f(x) = 3x 2 + 5x + 7 for real x.
Solution: Note that the discriminant of the quadratic is < 0.
f(x) has the same sign as that of the coefficient of x 2 for all real values of x or f(x) is positive for all real x.
 5x 7    5
2
59 
Again, 3x 2 + 5x + 7 = 3  x 2 + +  = 3 x +  + 
 3 3   6 36 
−5 59
The minimum value of f (x) is obtained for x = and it is equal to .
6 12
 59 
The range of the function is  , ∞  .
 12 
x
Connector 14: Find the range of f(x) = 2 .
(x − 5x + 9)
Solution: Observe that since the discriminant of the denominator of f(x) is negative, (x 2 – 5x + 9) will never become
zero for any real x.
x
If y represents an element in the range, y = 2 ,
x − 5x + 9
giving yx – (5y + 1) x + 9y = 0
2

Since x ∈ R, the above quadratic equation must yield real roots.

\(5y + 1)2 – 36y 2 ≥ 0.
−1
Simplification gives 11y 2 – 10y – 1 ≤ 0 or y should lie between and 1.
11
 −1 
The range of f(x) is therefore  , 1 .
 11 
 Functions and Graphs 1.31
5
Connector 15: Find the range of the function f(x) = , x ∈ R.
3 + 2sin x
Solution: Observe that (3 + 2 sin x) will not reduce to zero for any real x.
We have – 1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1
⇒ – 2 ≤ 2 sin x ≤ 2 or 1 ≤ (3 + 2 sin x) ≤ 5
1 1
⇒1≥ ≥
3 + 2sin x 5
5
or 5 ≥ ≥ 1.
(3 + 2sin x)
The range of f(x) is [1, 5].
(x − 1)
Connector 16: If f(x) = , for all real x except x = 0 and g(x) = x 2 + 1 for all real x, find g o f (1) and f o g (–1)
x
Solution: f(1) = 0, g o f(1) = g(0) = 1.
1
g( –1) = 2, f o g(–1) = f(2) = .
2
Connector 17: Find the range of the function f(x) = |x - 1| + |x - 2|, x ∈ R Y
Solution: For x < 1, f(x) = 1 - x + 2 - x = 3 - 2x
For 1 ≤ x < 2, f(x) = x - 1 + 2 - x = 1
For x ≥ 2, f(x) = x - 1 + x - 2 = 2x - 3 1
The graph of f(x) is shown in the figure.
X
The range of f(x) is easily seen as [1, ∞) 0 1 2
2x + 3, 0 ≤ x ≤1
 4x, 1 ≤ x ≤ 2
Connector 18: Let f(x) =  x 2 + 4, 1 < x ≤ 3 and g(x) =  x
4x +1, x > 3 e , x > 2

Obtain the composite functions g o f and f o g
Solution: For 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, the range of f is [3, 5]
For 1 ≤ x ≤ 3, the range of f is [5, 13]
For x > 3, the range of f is (13, ∞)
We are now in a position to write the composite function g o f.
e2x + 3 , 0 ≤ x ≤1
 2
g o f(x) = e x + 4 , 1 < x ≤ 3
 e 4 x +1 , x > 3

Again, For 1≤ x ≤ 2, the range of g is [4, 8]
For x > 2, the range of g is (e2, ∞)
4(4x) + 1 = 16x + 1, 1 ≤ x ≤ 2
f o g(x) =  x
4e + 1, x >2

2x + 3, 0 < x < 1 x + 1 , 2 < x < 4

Connector 19: If f(x) =  and g(x) = 
2 + 3x, 1 ≤ x < 2 4[x + 1], x ≥ 4
when [x] represents the greatest integer function. Determine g o f(x)

1
Solution: If 0 < x < , then 3 < f(x) = 2x + 3 < 4 ⇒ g(f(x)) = (2x +3) + 1
2
1
If ≤ x < 1 , then 4≤ f(x) = 2x + 3 < 5 ⇒ g(f(x)) = 4[2x + 3 + 1]
2
1.32 Functions and Graphs

If 1 ≤ x < 2, then 5 ≤ f(x) = 2 + 3x < 8 ⇒ g(f(x)) = 4[2 + 3x + 1]

 1
2x + 4, 0 < x < 2

 1 20, 1
 2x + 4 , 0 < x < ≤ x <1
2  2
 
 1 4
\ g(f(x)) = 4[2x + 4], ≤ x < 1 = 24, 1≤ x <
 2  3
 4[3x + 3], 1 ≤ x < 2 28, 4 5
≤x<
  3 3
 5
32, ≤x<2
 3
Connector 20: The parametric form of representation of a curve is given by x = 2t - t3, y = 1 + 3t. Find the equation of the
curve as a relation between x and y.
y −1
Solution: y = 1 + 3t ⇒ =t
3
3
2(y − 1)  y − 1  2y 2 1 3
x = 2t - t3 ⇒ x = −  = − −  y − 3y(y − 1) − 1
3  3  3 3 27 
2y 2 1 3 1 2 1 1
= − − y + y − y+
3 3 27 9 9 27
⇒ 27x = 18y - 18 - y3 + 3y2 - 3y + 1
⇒ y3 - 3y2 - 15y + 27x + 17 = 0
Connector 21: Sketch the curve y
{ y } = sin x, x ∈ R
where, { x } denotes the fractional part
x
of x −2π 0 2π 4π
Solution:
Graph of y = sinx
y
Since {y} is always lying [0, 1), in the
graph of {y} = sin x is as shown below.
No part of the curve {y} = sinx lies in (p, 2p), (3p,
4p), (5p, 7p), …….
−2π −π 0 π 2π 3π 4π x
as well as (-p, 0), (-3p, -2p), …..
Connector 22: Sketch the curve
y = {ex}
where, {ex} denotes the fractional part of ex. y
Solution:
Since y = {ex},
1
between x = 0 and x = log 2, ex lies between 1 and 2
0 x
between x = log2 and x = log3, ex lies between 2 and 3
Hence, the graph of y = {e } will be as shown below.
x
Graph of y = ex
 Functions and Graphs 1.33

0 log2 log3 log4 x

Breaks are there in the graph at x = 0, log2, log 3, log 4, ……….

Connector 23: Sketch the graph of
y = |2 - |x - 2||
Solution: Stage 1 Stage 2
Graph of y = |x| Graph of y = |x - 2|
y y

0 x 0 2 x

Stage 3 Stage 4
Graph of y = - |x - 2| Graph of y = 2 - |x - 2| = - |x - 2| + 2

y y
2
0 2 x

4 x
0 2

Stage 5 y
Graph of y = |2 - | x - 2||
OR
2
y = |2 - |x - 2||
when x < 2, y = |2 - (2 - x)| = |x|
O 2 4 x
when x > 2, y = |2 - (x - 2)| ± |4 - x|
when x = 2, y = |2 - 0| = 2
The graph of the function is as shown above
Connector 24: Parametric form of representation of the equation of a curve is given as
1 1
x = (t + 1) , y = (t − 1) . Represent the equation of the curve in the form f(x, y) = 0.
2 2

4 4
Solution: We have to eliminate t from the relations
1
(t + 1)
2
x=
4
1.34 Functions and Graphs

1
(t − 1)
2
y=
4
4x - 4y = (t +1)2 - (t - 1)2 = 4t
t=x-y
Hence the equation of the curve is
4y = (x - y - 1)2 = x2 + y2 + 1 - 2xy - 2x + 2y
OR
x2 + y2 - 2xy - 2x - 2y + 1 = 0
t − t2 t2 − t3
Connector 25: Parametric form of representation of the equation of a curve is given as x = and y = . Rep-
resent the equation of the curve in the form f(x, y) = 0. 1 + t2 1 + t2
Solution: We have
t (1 − t ) t 2 (1 − t )
x= ; y =
(1 + t2) 1 + t2

y
⇒ =t
x
y y
1+ 
x  x y 1 x2 y (x + y )
⇒x= = ( x + y ) × × = 2
y 
2
1+  2 
x 2
x x +y 2
x + y2 ( )
x 
or y(x + y) = x(x2 + y2)
x
Connector 26: Find the domain of f(x) = sec −1 where [x] represents the greatest integer function.
x − [x]
x
Solution: We note that for integer values of x (positive or negative), x - [x] = 0 consequently, is not defined
for integer values of x. x − [x]
x
When x lies between -1 and +1, < 1 . Which means that the function is not defined for x lying
x − [x]
between -1 and +1. Therefore, the domain of f is given by |x| ≥ 1 excluding integer values of x.
p 
Connector 27: Find the range of the function f(x) = sin  [x 2 ] where, [x2] represents the greatest integer function.
2 
Solution: When 0 < x < 1, [x2] = 0, and therefore, f(x) = 0. When x > 1, [x2] will be natural numbers. In this case, f(x)
= - 1, 0 or 1.
\ Range of f(x) is {- 1, 0, 1}.
 Functions and Graphs 1.35

TOPI C GR I p

Subjective Questions

1. Find the Domain of the following functions.

(i) f(x) = log log x

(ii) f(x) = sin x − 1

x+2
(iii) f(x) = + sin− 1x.
log10 (1 − x)

4 − x2
(iv) f(x) = , where, [x] is the greatest integer function.
[x]+ 2
 3 
(v) f(x) = sin−1  4 + 2sin x 

( )
(vi) f(x) = 1 − log 4 x 2 + 6x − 5 + 1 − x 2 .

(vii) f(x) = [x]2 − 4[x] + 3 where, [x] represents the greatest integer function.

(viii) f(x) = sin {log 2 log 3 x}

 4 
( )
(ix) f ( x ) = log10 x 2 − 1 + sin 
 x + 2 
(
− log e 1 + x 2 )
2. Find the range of the following functions.
ex + e− x
(i) f(x) =
2
(ii) f(x) = − x 2 − 6x − 5
−p p
(iii) f(x) = cos[x], < x < where, [x] is this greatest integer function.
2 2
(iv) f(x) = cos2x + sin2x
(v) f(x) + g(x) where, f(x) = x + 5, x ≤ 0 and g(x) = 5, x ≥ 0
3. If f(x) = – 1 + | x – 1|, – 1 ≤ x ≤ 3, g (x) = 2 – | x + 1|, –2 ≤ x ≤ 2. Draw their graphs, find g o f(x) and f o g(x)
1 1
4. If f(x) = ; g(x) = f (f(x)) ; and h(x) = f ( f (f(x))) , find .
2+x f(x) g(x) h(x)
5. f(x) satisfies the relation, f (x) + f (y) = f (x + y). Show that f(x) is an odd function. Also find f(10) if f(1) = 2
 x + 1
6. If f(x) is an even function defined in the interval (– 5, 5) find 4 real values of x satisfying the equation f(x) = f 
 x + 2 
7. Plot the graphs of the following functions and write its range
(i) f(x) = x2 − 1.
(ii) f(x) = |x2 − 1|, where x ∈ R
1.36 Functions and Graphs

8. Sketch the following curves. From the sketches drawn explain the procedures for getting the graphs of the curves
y = f (x + k), y + k = f(x) and y + h = f (x + k) from the graph of the curve y = f(x).
(i) y = | x |, y = | x – 1 |, y + 3 = | x |, y – 2 = | x – 3 |
(ii) y = x + 2 – [x + 2], y – 1 = x – [x], where, [ ] represents the greatest integer function.
9. Find the periods of the following functions.
(i) y = 4 cos (2x + 1)
(ii) y = 2 sin x + cos 3x
(iii) y = sin 4x + 3 cos (x/2)
(iv) y = e x −[x] , where, [x] represents the greatest integer function.
(v) y = | sin x |
 x
( )
10. If f(x) = cos (p[x]) + cos [p2 ]x + sin [− p2 ]  where, [x] represents the greatest integer function, find the values of
 3
p p
(i) f   (ii) f (− p) (iii) f   (iv) f(p)
2 4

Straight Objective Type Questions

Directions: This section contains multiple choice questions. Each question has 4 choices (a), (b), (c) and (d), out of
which ONLY ONE is correct.
2x
11. Domain of the function f(x) = is
1+ x
(a) (−∞, ∞) (b) (−∞, −1) ∪ [0,∞) (c) (−1, 1) (d) (−1, ∞)
12. The graph of f(x) = 2(x − 1)2+ 3, f : R → R is symmetric about the
(a) line x = 1 (b) line y = x (c) y-axis (d) line y = −x
3
13. If f(x) = , g(x) = f f(x) and h(x) = f f f(x), then the value of f(x) × g(x) × h(x) is
1+ x
27 27 3 3
(a) (b) (c) (d)
4x + 7 (1 + x)3 (1 + x) (x + 4) (1 + x)2
1
14. Let f(x) = the domain of f is the set of all real numbers. Then the set of possible values of p is
2
x − px + 4
(a) (−4, 4) (b) p can take any real value except −4 and 4
(c) (−∞, −4) ∪ (4, ∞) (d) {4, −4}
15. Which of the following functions can be represented by the given graph? Y
(a) f(x) = max {|x|, x2}
(b) f(x) = min {|x|, x2}
(c) f(x) = |x| + (x −1)2 (− 1, −1) (1, 1)

 x 2 , − 1 ≤ x ≤ 1
(d) f(x) =  O X
 x , x ∉[−1, 1]
 Functions and Graphs 1.37

Assertion–Reason Type Questions

Directions: Each question contains Statement-1 and Statement-2 and has the following choices (a), (b), (c) and (d), out
of which ONLY ONE is correct.
(a) Statement-1 is True, Statement-2 is True; Statement-2 is a correct explanation for Statement-1
(b) Statement-1 is True, Statement-2 is True; Statement-2 is NOT a correct explanation for Statement-1
(c) Statement-1 is True, Statement-2 is False
(d) Statement-1 is False, Statement-2 is True
16. Statement 1
A relation R is defined on the set of real numbers.
x R y if x − y is positive. Then, R is neither reflexive nor symmetric.
and
Statement 2
A relation R on a set A is reflexive if (x, x) ∈ R for all x ∈ A and R is symmetric if (x, y) ∈ R implies (y, x) ∈ R.
17. Statement 1
x 2 − 5x − 9
f(x) = 2 , x ∈ R is not a one one function.
3x + 2x + 7
and
Statement 2
f(x) is not one one, if for any x1, x2 ∈ domain of f(x) where x1 ≠ x2, then f(x1) = f(x2).
18. Statement 1
Let f : R → [2, 4] where f(x) = 3 + cos2x. Then, f(x) is not bijective.
and
Statement 2
Let I1 and I2 denote intervals ∈ R and the domain of f(x) be I1. If f(x) is one one and the range of f(x) be I2, f(x) is a
bijective function.
19. Statement 1
2p
Period of f(x) = sin3x cos[3x] − cos3x sin[3x] where [ ] denotes the greatest integer function, is .
3
and
Statement 2
Period of {x} where { } denotes the fractional part of x, is 1.
20. Statement 1
If f(x) = sin− 1 (log x), then f(1) = 0.
and
Statement 2 O 1
graph of f(x) = logax, 0 < a < 1 is.
1.38 Functions and Graphs

Linked Comprehension Type Questions

Directions: This section contains 2 paragraphs. Based upon the paragraph, 3 multiple choice questions have to be
answered. Each question has 4 choices (a), (b), (c) and (d), out of which ONLY ONE is correct.
Passage I
A hostel of a school has designed a menu table to be followed throughout the year. This is to be followed on all days from
Sunday to Saturday of the week. They have the menu 0 to 6 to be followed on Sunday to Saturday in that order. A particular
year, which is not a leap year, has started on a Sunday. Denote the number of the day from the beginning of the year as t; w
is the number of weeks from the beginning of the year and x is the remainder when t is divided by 7.
21. The equation to find out the correct table on any day of the year has the graph, which is
(a) a straight line (b) periodic
(c) a parabola (d) a set of discrete points
22. The functional equation is
(a) t = 7w + x (b) x = 7w + t
(c) t2 = 7 x (d) (t1,x1), (t2,x2)……
23. What is the first day of July on which Sunday table is to be followed?
(a) 8 July (b) 1 July (c) 15 July (d) 2 July
Passage II
y
0 , x < a
The unit step function u(x − a) is defined as u(x − a) = 
1 , x ≥ a 1
The graph of y = u(x − a) is as shown below:
Domain of u(x − a) is R and its range is {0, 1}.
0 a x
Answer the following questions.

24. Let f(x) = [x] 0 ≤ x < 3

Where [ ] denotes the greatest integer function. The representation of f(x) in terms of unit step function is
(a) f(x) = u(x) + u(x − 1) +u(x − 2) + (x − 3), 0 ≤ x ≤ 3 (b) f(x) = u(x − 1) + u(x − 2) + u(x − 3), 0 ≤ x < 3
(c) f(x) = u(x − 1) − u(x − 2) + u (x − 3), 0 ≤ x < 3 (d) f(x) = u (x − 1) + 2u(x − 2) + 3u (x − 3), 0 ≤ x < 3

25. Graph of y = f(x), 0 ≤ x < 3 is shown below

2
Representation of f(x) in terms of the unit step function is given by
(a) f(x) = x{u(x) − u(x − 1)} − 2u (x − 2) 1
(b) f(x) = x{u(x) − u(x − 1)} − u(x − 2) + 2u(x − 3), 0 ≤ x < 3
(c) f(x) = x {u(x) − u(x − 1)} − u(x − 1) + 3u(x − 2), 0 ≤ x < 3 0 1 2 3 x
(d) f(x) = xu(x) − u(x − 1) + 2u(x − 2), 0 ≤ x < 3
−1
26. Representation of the function
 x3 , 0≤ x <1

f(x) =  x − 1, 1≤ x <3
0, x≥3

interms of the unit step function is
(a) x3[u(x) − u(x − 1)] + (x − 1) [u(x − 1) − u(x − 3)] (b) x3u(x) + (x − 1) u(x − 1)
(c) x3[u(x) − u (x − 1)] + (x − 1) u(x − 2) + u(x − 3) (d) x3u(x) + (x − 1) [u(x) − u(x − 1)] + u(x − 2)
 Functions and Graphs 1.39

Multiple Correct Objective Type Questions

Directions: Each question in this section has four suggested answers of which ONE OR MORE answers will be correct.
1
27. Given f(x2 − 1) = x4 − 5x2 + 6 and g(x) =
x
1
(a) Domain of (g  f)x is R − {0} and (g  f) (1) =
2
1
(b) Domain of (g  f)x is R − {1, 2} and (g  f) (0) =
2
(c) Domain of (f  g)x is R − {0} and (f  g) (1) = 0
(d) Domain of (f  g)x is R − {1, 2} and (f  g) (0) = 0
10 x − 1
28. If f(x) = , g(x) = sinx and h(x) = cosx
10 x + 1
(a) h(x) . (f  g)x is an odd function (b) g(x) . (f  h)x is an odd function
(c) f(x) . (h  g)x is an odd function (d) f(x) . h(x) . g(x) is an odd function
29. If f(x + 2) + f(x − 2) = f(x) and f(0) = 0, then
(a) f(x) is a periodic function with period 6 (b) f(x) is periodic function with period 12
12 6
(c) ∑ f(r) = 0 (d) ∑ f(2r) = 0
r =0 r =0

Matrix-Match Type Questions

Directions: Match the elements of Column I to elements of Column II. There can be single or multiple matches.
30.
Column I Function Column II Graph

(a) y = −e−x (p)

1
(b) y = e −|x| − (q)
3

(c) |y| = sinx (r)

(d) |y| = |log |x|| (s)

1.40 Functions and Graphs

I IT AS S I GNMENT E XER C I SE

Straight Objective Type Questions

Directions: This section contains multiple choice questions. Each question has 4 choices (a), (b), (c) and (d), out of
which ONLY ONE is correct.
31. Domain of the function f(x) = −(x 2 − 1) is
(a) [−1, 1] (b) {x ∈ R/x ≤ 0} (c) null set (d) {x ∈ R/x ≥ 0}
2
x − x +1
32. Domain of the function f (x) = is
x2 + x + 1
(a) R (b) (0, ∞) (c) R – {1} (d) {−1, 1}
x+3
33. The range of the function f(x) = , x ≠ −3 is
x+3
(a) {3, −3} (b) R − {−3} (c) all positive integers (d) {−1, 1}
1
34. Range of the function y = x + , x > 0, is
x
(a) R (b) (−∞, ∞) (c) [2, ∞) (d) [1, ∞)
35. f : x → y is a given function. Then f exists if
-1

(a) f is one-one (b) f is onto

(c) f is one-one but not onto (d) f is one-one and onto
2x − 1
36. If f (x) = , then f –1 (x) =
2x + 1
1+ x 2x + 1 1 + 2x 2+x
(a) (b) (c) (d)
2 (1 − x ) 2x − 1 1 − 2x 2−x
37. If f(x) = 2x2 – 2x + 4 and f (2α) = 4f (α), then α is equal to
(a) 4 (b) 3 (c) 0 (d) −2
x −1
38. If f(x) = , then f(2x) in terms of f(x) is
x +1
f (3x ) + 1 3f ( x ) + 1 2f ( x ) + 1 2f ( x ) +1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
3f ( x ) − 3 f (x ) + 3 2f ( x ) − 1 3f ( x ) + 2

39. If f(x + 2) = (x + 3)2 − 2x, then f(x) =

(a) x2 − 2 (b) x2 + 5 (c) x2 + 4x + 9 (d) (x + 5)2 −2(x + 2)
40. Let f(x) = 5x2 + 3x – 4, x ∈ R. Then f(x) is a/an
(a) periodic function (b) odd function
(c) even function (d) neither even nor odd
41. Which of the following is an odd function?
ex + e− x ex − e− x ex − e− x ex − e− x
(a) f1(x) = (b) f2(x) = (c) f3(x) = (d) f4(x) =
2 2e x 2e − x 2
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 thy brethren of thy father’s house, which were
better than thyself:
¹ Hebrew made to go a whoring.

12. a writing] This is the only place in which any writing of Elijah
is mentioned. Even in Jehoshaphat’s reign Elijah seems to have
been no longer among the living; compare 2 Kings iii. 11 (where
Elisha seems already to have taken Elijah’s place). That the writing
was a prophecy of Elijah denouncing Jehoram in anticipation of his
reign is not only utterly improbable, but the plain words of the
Chronicler do not seem even to suggest it. It is possible to suppose
that some adaptation of words of Elijah to suit Jehoram’s case was
placarded by an unknown hand outside Jehoram’s palace; but again
the explanation seems more elaborate than the simple statement
warrants. It is more probable therefore that the Chronicler means
plainly a letter from Elijah, and ignores the anachronism involved in
supposing the prophet to have been alive in Jehoram’s reign. So
great wickedness seemed to him to require a rebuke from a well-
known prophet, and it is put into the mouth of Elijah, who, as the
great opponent of the idolatry of Ahab and Jezebel, seemed to be
the most proper person to pronounce the denunciation. The style of
the letter requires a late date, and the author is perhaps the
Chronicler himself. See further the Introduction § 7, p. xlviii.

¹⁴behold, the Lord will smite with a great

plague ¹ thy people, and thy children, and thy
wives, and all thy substance:
¹ Hebrew stroke.

14. a great plague] For “plague” compare xvi. 28, 29. Jehoram’s
“plague” is described in verses 16, 17.
 thy substance] Genesis xii. 5; the Hebrew word includes both
“goods” and “chattels” (i.e. live stock).

¹⁵and thou shalt have great sickness by

disease of thy bowels, until thy bowels fall out
by reason of the sickness, day by day ¹.
¹ Or, year after year.

15. day by day] margin, year after year; a prolonged sickness.

16, 17 (no parallel in Kings).

The Invasion of the Philistines and Arabians.

The Chronicler’s theory of life demanded that disasters should

mark the close of this wicked reign, and in view of the licence which
marks the Chronicler’s reconstruction of the history, it must be
allowed that a raid by the very peoples who had paid tribute to
Jehoshaphat (xvii. 11) may be only a conjecture to suit the
requirements of his religious conviction. But neither the absence of
the story from Kings, nor yet the religious appropriateness of the
attack entails its rejection as unhistorical. The comparative fulness
and vigour of the Chronicler’s account of these reigns yields many
suggestive indications (some of which have already been noted)
favouring the view that he had before him valuable independent
traditions of Edomite and Philistine hostilities against Judah which
were referred to this period. That being so, the possible historicity of
this tradition in verses 16, 17 must be admitted; and it should be
noted that such a raid would be a most natural sequel to Jehoram’s
loss of control over Edom recorded in verse 8.

¹⁶And the Lord stirred up against Jehoram the

spirit of the Philistines, and of the Arabians
which are beside the Ethiopians:
 16. stirred up ... the spirit] Perhaps not without the instigation of a
prophetical party, of which Eliezer of Mareshah may have been a
leading representative (see xx. 37). For the phrase “stirred up,”
compare xxxvi. 22 and 1 Chronicles v. 26.

which are beside the Ethiopians] Hebrew Cushites—probably

certain Arabian tribes, though it seems likely that the Chronicler
understood the name to mean the Ethiopians of Africa (see the note
on Zerah the Ethiopian, xiv. 9). Ancient geographical ideas were very
inexact. Herodotus regarded all the land east of the Nile as part of
Arabia. Distant lands are apt to be conceived of as all more or less
“beside” one another. Thus the present writer has heard a Tyrolese
peasant woman remark that she supposed “Russia and Japan were
both beside England.” We may assume that in the Chronicler’s
source Arabian Cushites were meant.

¹⁷and they came up against Judah, and brake

into it, and carried away all the substance that
was found in ¹ the king’s house, and his sons
also, and his wives; so that there was never a
son left him, save Jehoahaz ², the youngest of
his sons.
¹ Or, belonging to. ² In chapter xxii. 1, Ahaziah.

17. and brake into it] The proper meaning of the Hebrew verb is
“to make a breach in a city-wall [and so take the city]”; compare xxxii,
1. Here and in Isaiah vii. 6 the word is applied to a whole country.

in the king’s house] It is most unlikely that the invaders (if the raid
be historical) actually entered Jerusalem, and almost certain that the
Chronicler did not mean to imply that they did. Probably therefore we
should translate, as the margin, belonging to the king’s house.
Part of the royal possessions and the royal household might well
have been in the camp; see below, the note on xxii. 1.
 Jehoahaz] In xxii. 1 he is called Ahaziah, which is only another
form of the name, the prefix Jeho- of the one, and the ending -iah of
the other being each the representative of the Divine name Jehovah.
The name in either form means “Jehovah hath taken” (or “grasped”).
Parallel instances are the names Jehoshaphat and Shephatiah
(verse 2) and Jehonathan and Nethaniah in xvii. 8.

18‒20 (compare 2 Kings viii. 24).

Death and Burial of Jehoram.

¹⁸And after all this the Lord smote him in his

bowels with an incurable disease. ¹⁹And it
came to pass, in process of time, at the end of
two years, that his bowels fell out by reason of
his sickness, and he died of sore diseases.
And his people made no burning for him, like
the burning of his fathers.
19. by reason of his sickness] LXX. μετὰ τῆς νόσου, i.e. in the
course of his sickness.

no burning] compare xvi. 14 (note).

²⁰Thirty and two years old was he when he

began to reign, and he reigned in Jerusalem
eight years: and he departed without being
desired; and they buried him in the city of
David, but not in the sepulchres of the kings.
20. he departed without being desired] literally without desire: i.e.
he lived so that none desired him, or he lived as no one desired.
Compare LXX., ἐπορεύθη οὐκ ἐν ἐπαίνῳ, literally “he walked without
praise.”
 but not in the sepulchres of the kings] According to Kings he “was
buried with his fathers.” Compare xxiv. 25, xxviii. 27.

Chapter XXII.
1‒4 (= 2 Kings viii. 25‒27).
The Reign of Ahaziah.

¹And the inhabitants of Jerusalem made

Ahaziah ¹ his youngest son king in his stead:
for the band of men that came with the
Arabians to the camp had slain all the eldest.
So Ahaziah the son of Jehoram king of Judah
reigned.
¹ In chapter xxi. 17, Jehoahaz.

1. the inhabitants of Jerusalem, etc.] In consequence of the great

disaster to the royal house, the people play a more prominent part
than usual in deciding the succession to the throne; compare 2 Kings
xxiii. 30.

to the camp] or to the host. The sense seems to be that the

princes of the royal house were with the army in the field and were
slain by a surprise attack of a party from the Philistine and Arabian
forces (xxi. 16). The LXX. reads, Ἄραβες οἱ Ἀλειμαζονεϊς, i.e.
apparently “the Arabians of Mazin”; but in all probability this reading
is a mere error derived from a transliteration of the Hebrew word
rendered “to the camp” (see Torrey, Ezra Studies, p. 74).
 ²Forty and two ¹ years old was Ahaziah when
he began to reign; and he reigned one year in
Jerusalem: and his mother’s name was
Athaliah the daughter ² of Omri. ³He also
walked in the ways of the house of Ahab: for
his mother was his counsellor to do wickedly.
¹ In 2 Kings viii. 26, Two and twenty.

² Or, granddaughter.

2. Forty and two years old] The LXX. “twenty years old” is
preferable, agreeing nearly with 2 Kings viii. 26, “two and twenty
years old” (Hebrew and LXX.).

daughter of Omri] So 2 Kings viii. 26, but more correctly

“daughter of Ahab” (2 Kings viii. verse 18).

⁴And he did that which was evil in the sight of

the Lord, as did the house of Ahab: for they
were his counsellors after the death of his
father, to his destruction.
4. after the death of his father] This phrase suggests that he
acted as regent in his father’s lifetime during his father’s two years’
illness.

5, 6 (= 2 Kings viii. 28, 29).

The Alliance with Jehoram of Israel.

⁵He walked also after their counsel, and went

with Jehoram the son of Ahab king of Israel to
 war against Hazael king of Syria at Ramoth-
gilead: and the Syrians wounded Joram.
5. Joram] or Jehoram. The variation is unimportant.

⁶And he returned to be healed in Jezreel of the

wounds ¹ which they had given him at Ramah,
when he fought against Hazael king of Syria.
And Azariah ² the son of Jehoram king of
Judah went down to see Jehoram the son of
Ahab in Jezreel, because he was sick.
¹ 2 Kings viii. 29, and in the Septuagint and Syriac versions.
The text has, because the wounds which &c.

² In verse 1, Ahaziah.

6. Jezreel] A city some distance to the north of Samaria, giving its

name to the plain of Jezreel (Esdraelon). Ahab had a house there (1
Kings xxi. 1), probably a country house judging from the incident of
Naboth’s vineyard. It is the modern Zer‘in, a town situated on a hill
commanding a wide view towards the west and the east, Bädeker,
Palestine⁵, p. 244.

Ramah] i.e. Ramoth-gilead (see xviii. 2, note).

Azariah] Read, as margin, Ahaziah.

7‒9 (compare 2 Kings ix. 16‒26, 27, 28, x. 11‒14).

The Death of Ahaziah.

7‒9. These verses give a hasty summary of the passages in

Kings The Chronicler’s version differs in some particulars from Kings
The divergences may largely be due to the extreme brevity of
Chronicles, and they do not absolutely require a variant form of the
tradition for their explanation (so Torrey, Ezra Studies, p. 74),
particularly if Samaria here in Chronicles denotes not the city but
simply the province. Verse 7 is a brief but sufficient abridgment of 2
Kings ix. 16‒26 from the point of view of Ahaziah’s concern in the
affair. On the other hand there is great probability in the view that the
Chronicler’s account goes back to a version of the tradition
independent of that in Kings; see the notes on verses 8, 9; and
compare Cook in the Jewish Quarterly Review for 1908, p. 612.

⁷Now the destruction ¹ of Ahaziah was of God,

in that he went unto Joram: for when he was
come, he went out with Jehoram against Jehu
the son of Nimshi, whom the Lord had
anointed to cut off the house of Ahab.
¹ Hebrew treading down.

7. destruction] Rather, ruin, or downfall, LXX., καταστροφή).

Ahaziah’s brethren fell with him (verse 8).

had anointed] compare 2 Kings ix. 1‒10.

⁸And it came to pass, when Jehu was

executing judgement upon the house of Ahab,
that he found the princes of Judah, and the
sons of the brethren of Ahaziah, ministering to
Ahaziah, and slew them.
8. the sons of the brethren of Ahaziah] LXX. “the brethren (i.e. the
kinsmen) of Ahaziah”: so also 2 Kings x. 13. The brethren (in the
strict sense of the word) of Ahaziah had already been killed (verse
1).
 ministering] According to 2 Kings they were going to “salute the
children of the king and the children of the queen” (probably a courtly
expression for “salute the king and the queen”). Their murder in
Kings is clearly regarded as subsequent to Ahaziah’s death,
whereas in Chronicles the attack on Ahaziah (verse 9) apparently is
placed after the murder of the brethren as recorded in the present
verse. It is possible, however, to suppose that verses 8 and 9 are not
meant to be related to each other in a time sequence, and that
verses 7, 8, 9 are all relatively independent statements.

⁹And he sought Ahaziah, and they caught him,

(now he was hiding in Samaria,) and they
brought him to Jehu, and slew him; and they
buried him, for they said, He is the son of
Jehoshaphat, who sought the Lord with all
his heart. And the house of Ahaziah had no
power ¹ to hold the kingdom.
¹ Or, And there was none of the house of Ahaziah that had
power &c.

9. now he was hiding in Samaria] If Samaria means the city, then

according to Chronicles Ahaziah fled southward from Jezreel; while
according to 2 Kings his flight was westward to Megiddo (to be
identified with Khan el-Lejjun, Bädeker, Palestine⁵, p. 228). Perhaps
however Samaria means the province (as in xxv. 13; Ezekiel iv. 10).
Even so this account of Ahaziah’s wounding and death differs
markedly from that in Kings, where nothing is said of his hiding, but
simply that he went out with Joram when Jehu encountered Joram
(so here verse 7), was wounded, fled to Megiddo, and died there, but
was carried back by his servants to Jerusalem and there buried.
Here it is stated that he was captured, brought to Jehu, and slain (?
before him). The place of his burial is unnamed, but it would readily
be supposed that he was buried by Jehu’s servants and not at
Jerusalem. These divergences in verses 8, 9 are curious and are
most naturally explained as originating in a variant form of the
tradition.

10‒12 (= 2 Kings xi. 1‒3).

The Reign of Athaliah.

¹⁰Now when Athaliah the mother of Ahaziah

saw that her son was dead, she arose and
destroyed all the seed royal of the house of
Judah.
10. destroyed] This is the reading of Kings and of the LXX. of
Chronicles The Hebrew reads spake with, which is perhaps a
euphemism; compare the English “deal with.”

¹¹But Jehoshabeath ¹, the daughter of the king,

took Joash the son of Ahaziah, and stole him
away from among the king’s sons that were
slain, and put him and his nurse in the
bedchamber ². So Jehoshabeath, the daughter
of king Jehoram, the wife of Jehoiada the
priest, (for she was the sister of Ahaziah,) hid
him from Athaliah, so that she slew him not.
¹ In 2 Kings xi. 2, Jehosheba.

² Or, chamber for the beds.

11. Jehoshabeath] In Kings “Jehosheba.” The two are forms of

the same name; compare “Elisabeth” (Luke i. 7) and “Elisheba”
(Exodus vi. 23), a similar pair.
 in the bedchamber] margin, in the chamber for the beds, i.e.
perhaps in a store room in which bed furniture was kept: a
convenient but an uncertain interpretation.

the wife of Jehoiada the priest] Compare xxiii. 1. This relationship

is not given in Kings.

¹²And he was with them hid in the house of

God six years: and Athaliah reigned over the
land.
12. with them] i.e. with Jehoiada and Jehoshabeath. In Kings
“with her.”

in the house of God] “The chamber for beds” (which was perhaps
in the palace) was only a temporary hiding-place.
 Chapter XXIII.
1‒11 (compare 2 Kings xi. 4‒12).
The Conspiracy against Athaliah.

The account in Kings of the famous conspiracy which resulted in

the downfall and death of Athaliah the queen mother and the
coronation of the child Joash has the marks of a graphic and
accurate narrative. The Chronicler evidently desired to reproduce it
word for word, but in one point he was obliged to alter it in
accordance with his ideas. In Kings the plot is engineered by the
high-priest Jehoiada with the help of the officers (“captains of
hundreds”) and men of the Carites and the guard, (i.e. the royal
body-guard), who were foreign mercenaries. But the statement in 2
Kings xi. 4, 11, that these men who were both laymen and foreigners
were permitted by the high-priest to be within the court of the
Temple, though no doubt correct in point of fact (see Ezekiel xliv. 6
f.), was inconceivable to the Chronicler. In his account therefore the
soldiers of the guard vanish, and the “captains of hundreds” are
prominent Levites, who organise the conspiracy by gathering the
Levites and chief men throughout Judah (verse 2); and, further,
careful directions are given (verse 6) that none shall enter the
Temple save priests and Levites “for they are holy.” The passage is
an interesting example of the Chronicler’s procedure in the interests
of the ecclesiastical order to which he belonged and in which he
believed so firmly.

¹And in the seventh year Jehoiada

strengthened himself, and took the captains of
hundreds, Azariah the son of Jeroham, and
Ishmael the son of Jehohanan, and Azariah
 the son of Obed, and Maaseiah the son of
Adaiah, and Elishaphat the son of Zichri, into
covenant with him.
1. strengthened himself] Compare i. 1 (note); the phrase does not
occur in the parallel passage of Kings.

Azariah, etc.] The names of course are not in Kings (see previous
note). The individual names add to the naturalness of the
Chronicler’s account. It is unlikely that the Levitical contemporaries
of the Chronicler had any reliable traditions enabling them to say
who probably were the leading Priests or Levites of Jerusalem in the
time of Athaliah and Joash. Perhaps the Chronicler has simply
chosen names which were suitable for Levites to bear.

captains of hundreds] In 2 Kings “captains over hundreds of the

Carites (i.e. Cherethites) and of the guard.” The Chronicler takes the
captains to be captains of Levites.

²And they went about in Judah, and gathered

the Levites out of all the cities of Judah, and
the heads of fathers’ houses of Israel, and
they came to Jerusalem.
2. gathered the Levites] This statement is not found in Kings—
see the head-note.

Israel] See xi. 3 (note).

³And all the congregation made a covenant

with the king in the house of God. And he said
unto them, Behold, the king’s son shall reign,
as the Lord hath spoken concerning the sons
of David.
 3. all the congregation] Contrast 2 Kings xi. 4, where the
“covenant” is a secret agreement between Jehoiada and the officers
of the guard.

hath spoken concerning] Compare 2 Samuel vii. 16; 1 Chronicles

xvii. 17.

⁴This is the thing that ye shall do: a third part

of you, that come in on the sabbath, of the
priests and of the Levites, shall be porters of
the doors ¹;
¹ Hebrew thresholds.

4. This is the thing that ye shall do] The arrangements as given

here and in 2 Kings are not entirely clear owing to our ignorance
regarding some of the places referred to. The Chronicler did not
clearly understand the scheme in Kings, but he was not troubled
thereby. He was concerned only to see that in his account the
Levites replaced the soldiers of the guard and that no unlawful
person entered the precincts of the Temple. According to Kings, it
would appear that it was the custom on the Sabbath for two-thirds of
the royal guards to be free and for one-third to be on duty at the
palace. In order to avoid arousing suspicion this last third was,
according to Jehoiada’s directions, to be at the palace as usual, but
it was to be subdivided into thirds and so distributed as to close the
various means of communication between the palace and the rest of
the city. Thus Athaliah was to be held as in a trap by her own guards
(2 Kings xi. 5, 6). The two-thirds who were free from duty on the
Sabbath were to be stationed in the Temple about the young king to
guard him at his coronation.

The arrangements are differently and no doubt less correctly

stated in Chronicles In the first place Levitical Temple guards take
the place of the royal guards; secondly, the only division of the
guards recognised is a simple division into thirds; finally, the stations
of the different divisions are differently given, viz., one-third in the
Temple, one-third in the palace, and one-third at “the gate of the
foundation.”

Using the modern terms “battalion” and “company” for the

divisions and subdivisions given in Kings, the arrangements may be
stated in a form which allows easy comparison between Kings and
Chronicles, as follows:—

(i) 2 Kings xi. 5‒7.

(Royal guards in three battalions.)

1st battalion on duty at the king’s house (palace).

A company within the palace (verse 5),

B company at the gate of Sur,

C company at another gate (“behind the guard,” verse 6).

2nd and 3rd battalions off duty, but brought into the house of the
Lord (the Temple) by Jehoiada (verse 7).

(ii) 2 Chronicles xxiii. 4, 5.

(Levites in three bands.)

Band I (= 1st battalion C company of 2 Kings) in the house of

God, the Chronicler supposing that “the house” (2 Kings xi. 6) means
the house of the Lord. More probably it means “the house of the
king” (2 Kings xi. verse 5).

Band II (= 1st battalion A company of 2 Kings) at the king’s house

(so 2 Kings).

Band III (= 1st battalion B company of 2 Kings) at the gate of “the

foundation.”
 (The Chronicler passes over the 2nd and 3rd battalions, because
he has already assigned their duty to 1st battalion C company.).

of the priests and of the Levites] Not in Kings. The words are a
mistaken but intentional gloss of the Chronicler, for it is clear that in
Kings lay guards are meant.

porters of the doors] margin, of the thresholds, i.e. of the

Temple according to the Chronicler, for the word for “doors” (or
“thresholds,” sippim in Hebrew) is always used for the thresholds of
some sanctuary, e.g. of the Tabernacle (1 Chronicles ix. 19, 22), of
the Temple of Solomon (2 Chronicles iii. 7), of (apparently) some
Israelite shrine (Amos ix. 1). In the parallel passage (2 Kings xi. 6)
however “the watch of the house” clearly means “the watch of the
king’s house” (2 Kings xi. verse 5).

⁵and a third part shall be at the king’s house;

and a third part at the gate of the foundation:
and all the people shall be in the courts of the
house of the Lord.
5. a third part shall be at the king’s house; and a third part at the
gate of the foundation] These two-thirds according to the scheme
given above were both stationed about the palace, but they are not
to be reckoned as two-thirds of the whole guard.

the gate of the foundation] “Gate of JSVD” (Hebrew). This is

certainly the “Gate of Sur” (SVR in Hebrew) of 2 Kings xi. 6. Possibly
however we should read “Gate of SVS (or SVSIM)” i.e. “Horse Gate”
(verse 15; compare 2 Kings xi. 16) both here and in Kings.

⁶But let none come into the house of the

Lord, save the priests, and they that minister
of the Levites; they shall come in, for they are
 holy: but all the people shall keep the watch of
the Lord.
6. let none come into the house of the Lord] It is clear on the
contrary from Kings (verse 11) that the royal guards (who were
laymen) were brought into the Temple itself under Jehoiada’s
directions. The Chronicler is evidently at pains to guard against the
notion that such a breach of ritual took place.

all the people] Not mentioned in Kings; but compare 1 Kings xi.
14.

⁷And the Levites shall compass the king round

about, every man with his weapons in his
hand; and whosoever cometh into the house,
let him be slain: and be ye with the king when
he cometh in, and when he goeth out.
7. into the house] 2 Kings “within the ranks.” Any one who should
attempt to break through the ranks of the guard to get near to the
king was to be killed. According to the Chronicler Jehoiada’s
precaution would protect the sanctity of the Temple as well as the
person of the young king.

⁸So the Levites and all Judah did according to

all that Jehoiada the priest commanded: and
they took every man his men, those that were
to come in on the sabbath, with those that
were to go out on the sabbath; for Jehoiada
the priest dismissed not the courses.
8. the Levites and all Judah] In 2 Kings “the captains over
hundreds.” See notes on verse 4.
 for Jehoiada the priest dismissed not the courses] Not in Kings.
The Levites (1 Chronicles xxiii. 6), the priests (1 Chronicles xxiv. 1),
and the king’s army (1 Chronicles xxvii. 1 ff.) were each divided into
“courses,” but it is clear from the context that courses of Levites are
meant here.

⁹And Jehoiada the priest delivered to the

captains of hundreds the spears, and
bucklers, and shields, that had been king
David’s, which were in the house of God.
9. shields] Hebrew shĕlāṭīm; see note on 1 Chronicles xviii. 7.

¹⁰And he set all the people, every man with his

weapon in his hand, from the right side ¹ of the
house to the left side of the house, along by
the altar and the house, by the king round
about.
¹ Hebrew shoulder.

10. with his weapon] The Hebrew word (shelaḥ) means a “missile
weapon.”

¹¹Then they brought out the king’s son, and

put the crown upon him ¹, and gave him the
testimony, and made him king: and Jehoiada
and his sons anointed him; and they said, God
save the king ².
 ¹ Or, put upon him the crown and the testimony.

² Hebrew Let the king live.

11. put the crown upon him, and gave him the testimony] So LXX.
and Hebrew both here and in 2 Kings xi. 12. Note that the words
“gave him” are not in the Hebrew What then is the meaning of “put
the crown ... the testimony”? It is supposed that by “the testimony”
some document inscribed with laws, a charter binding king and
people to live according to its precepts, is meant, and that this
document was placed in the hands or on the head of Joash along
with the crown. The wearing of an inscription or of a document on a
solemn occasion, though strange to Western thought, is not alien
from Eastern methods; compare Exodus xxviii. 36 ff.; Deuteronomy
vi. 6‒8; Job xxxi. 35, 36; but evidence of such a ceremony at the
coronation of a monarch is lacking. Hence it is tempting to think that
we should read as the true text of Kings “put upon him the crown
and the bracelets”—a brilliant conjecture made by Wellhausen,
which involves in Hebrew only the addition of one consonant to the
present text, but again there is no satisfactory evidence that
bracelets were put on the king at his coronation: Wellhausen relied
on 2 Samuel i. 10. Further, it is very probable that the error (if it is
one) was present in the text of Kings which lay before the Chronicler,
and therefore in Chronicles “the testimony” may be the original
reading.

Jehoiada and his sons] In Kings, “they anointed him” (without

specifying the actors).

God save the king] Literally, Let the king live!

12‒15 (= 2 Kings xi. 13‒16).

Death of Athaliah.

¹²And when Athaliah heard the noise of the

people running and praising the king ¹, she
 came to the people into the house of the
Lord:
¹ Or, of the people, of the guard, and of those who praised the
king.

12. running] The word might mean “the guard” (literally runners)
—see the margin It has that meaning in Kings, but the Chronicler
interprets it literally as the participle of the verb.

praising the king] Perhaps verses were extemporised in praise of

a king at his coronation, just as over a maiden at her marriage;
compare Psalms lxxviii. 63.

she came] Athaliah was allowed to pass the palace guard, but
now it was too late for her to save her crown.

¹³and she looked, and, behold, the king stood

by his pillar at the entrance, and the captains
and the trumpets by the king; and all the
people of the land rejoiced, and blew with
trumpets; the singers also played on
instruments of music, and led the singing of
praise. Then Athaliah rent her clothes, and
said, Treason, treason.
13. by his pillar] compare 2 Kings xxiii. 3 (= 2 Chronicles xxxiv.
31, “in his place”). Although “pillar” is attested by 2 Kings xxiii. 3, the
phrase is curious. Perhaps we should here read “in his place,” as in
xxxiv. 31: the difference in Hebrew is very slight.

at the entrance] In 2 Kings as the manner was.