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Zoo and Wild Animal Dentistry
Zoo and Wild Animal Dentistry

Edited by

Peter P. Emily DDS

Certification Periodontics, Endodontics, and Oral Surgery
Hon. Dipl. American Veterinary Dental College

Edward R. Eisner AB, DVM

Diplomate American Veterinary Dental College
Founding AVDC Certificate Holder Zoo and Wildlife Dentistry
This edition first published 2021
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Emily, Peter, editor. | Eisner, Edward R., editor.
Title: Zoo and wild animal dentistry / edited by Peter P Emily, Edward R
Eisner.
Description: Hoboken, NJ : Wiley-Blackwell, 2021. | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020028100 (print) | LCCN 2020028101 (ebook) | ISBN
9781119545811 (cloth) | ISBN 9781119545859 (adobe pdf) | ISBN
9781119545873 (epub)
Subjects: MESH: Dental Care–veterinary | Dentistry–veterinary | Animals,
Zoo | Animals, Wild
Classification: LCC SF867 (print) | LCC SF867 (ebook) | NLM SF 867 | DDC
636.089/76–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020028100
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020028101

Cover Design: Wiley

Cover Image: Courtesy of Edward R. Eisner

Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by SPi Global, Pondicherry, India

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Dedicated to the Peter Emily International
Veterinary Dental Foundation
and
its ongoing improvement of oral health in captive animals worldwide
 vii

Contents

List of Contributors xi
Forewordxiii
About Peter Emily xv
Acknowledgementsxvii
Introduction xix

Part I A History of Veterinary Dentistry and of Teeth, and Dental Therapy of Wild Animals 1

1 History of Veterinary Dentistry, Including Development of Oral and Dental Treatment of Wild and Zoo,
Safari Park and Refuge Animals 3
Colin E. Harvey

2 Odontology: A History of Teeth 7

Peter P. Emily

3 Special Considerations Regarding Equipment and Instruments 11

4 Dental Form and Function as it Relates to Dental Therapy of Wild Animals  19

5 Carnivore Dental Therapy 29

5A Conventional (Standard/Normograde) Endodontics Overview 29
5B Surgical Endodontics 39
5C Periodontics 43
5D Caries and Endodontic Access Preparation and Restoration 44
5E Combined Endodontic-Periodontal Therapy 45
5F Oral Surgery 48

6 Herbivore Endodontic Therapy 59

6A Standard and Surgical Endodontics 59

7 Marsupial and Herbivore Abscesses 63

8 Elephant Dentistry 65
8A Tusk Therapy for Hog, Walrus, Elephant and Hippopotamus 66
8B Practical Elephant Dentistry 69
Gerhard Steenkamp
viii Contents

9 Primate Dentistry  79
9A Endodontics 79
9B Caries and Restorative Dentistry 82
9C Periodontal Disease 86

10 Avian Fractured and Maloccluded Beaks 87

10A Beak Fracture Repair: Materials and Methods 88
10B Orthobeakics 92
10C Beak Repair for Amphibians 97
10D Beakistry: Orthognathic Corrections and Surgical Repair of Avian Beaks 99
Roberto S. Fecchio

11 Marine Mammal Dentistry 119

Steven E. Holmstrom

12 Practical Anesthesia for Captive Wild Animals  131

Felicia Knightly

Part II Pertinent Dental Information, of 352 Species most often treated in Sanctuaries and Zoos 139

13 Carnivores: Families: Felid, Bear, Canid, Racoon, Weasel, Civet, Hyena 141
13A Big Cats 143
13B Small Cats 151

14 The Bear Family 155

14A Big Bears 155
14B Small Bears 159

15 The Primates 161

15A Lower Primates: Prosimians: Prosimii – Long Face, Prominent Whiskers, Slightly
Sideways-Looking Eyes, Nocturnal 162
15B Higher Primates 166

16 Tree Shrews 177

17 The Dog Family 179

18 The Racoon Family 185

19 The Weasel Family: Weasels and Polecats 189

20 The Mongoose Family: Viverridae Civets and Genets Binturong 195

21 The Hyena Family: Strictly Carnivores 199

22 Marsupials 201

23 Larg Herbivores: The Ungulates 209

23A Primitive Ungulates 209
23B The Hoofed Mammals 213
 Contents ix

24 Small Herbivores: Rodents  245

24A Squirrel-Like Rodents 245
24B Mouse-Like Rodents 250
24C Cavy-Like Rodents 255
24D Other Cavy-Like Rodents 258
24E Old World Porcupines 259

25 Lagomorphs 261

26 Elephant-Shrew 265

27 Insectivores 267

28 Edentates 271

29 Bats 275

30 Monotremes 277

31 Marine Mammals 279

31A Whales, Porpoises, and Dolphins 279
31B Seals and Sea Lions 283
31C Sea Cows and Manatees 287

32 Amphibians 289

33 Reptiles 291

34 Avian 295
34A Birds of Prey 295
34B Scavangers 298
34C Psittacine Birds 301
34D Ground-nesting Birds and Shorebirds 303
34E Aquatic Birds 308

Appendix I Taxonomy 315

Appendix II Types of Dentition 317
Appendix III Dental Formulas 319
Appendix IV Feeding Adaptations 333

Glossary of Dental Terms  335

Further Reading 339

Index341
 xi

­List of Contributors

Edward R. Eisner AB, DVM Steven E. Holmstrom, BS, DVM

Diplomate American Veterinary Dental College Diplomate American Veterinary Dental College
Founding AVDC Certificate Holder Zoo and Wildlife Founding AVDC Certificate Holder Zoo and Wildlife
Dentistry Dentistry
Castle Rock, CO, USA San Pedro, CA, USA

Peter P. Emily, DDS Felicia Knightly, DVM

Certification Periodontics, Endodontics, and Oral Surgery Senior Veterinarian
Hon. Dipl. American Veterinary Dental College Memphis Zoo
Lakewood, CO, USA Memphis, TN, USA

Roberto S. Fecchio, DVM, MS, PhD Gerhard Steenkamp, BSc, BVSc, MSc, PhD
Founding AVDC Certificate Holder Zoo and Wildlife Founding AVDC Certificate Holder Zoo and Wildlife
Dentistry Dentistry
ABRAVAS, PhD and MSC by University of São Paulo Associate Professor Department of Companion Animal
São Paulo, Brazil Clinical Studies
Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria
Colin E. Harvey, BVSc, FRCVS Pretoria, South Africa
Diplomate American Veterinary Dental College
Diplomate American College of Veterinary Surgeons
Professor Emeritus of Surgery and Dentistry School of
Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania
Philadelphia, PA, USA

­Foreword
I am pleased to write this foreword for Drs. Emily and
Eisner’s textbook, the first entirely dedicated to zoo and
wild animal dentistry.
Ever since I met Dr. Emily for the first time in the 1980s,
we have enjoyed stimulating discussions on comparative
odontology and I am grateful to him for introducing me to
Osborn’s concept of tribosphenic molar teeth. I also share
with him and Dr. Eisner a strong interest in oral pathology
occurring in animals and a curiosity about natural history
in general, and its relation to dentition and dental pathol-
ogy in particular. Since then, my research and teaching
interests have directed me more to comparative dental
pathology and odontology, respectively, while the authors
have spearheaded clinical dentistry in zoo and wild ani-
mals, for which they should be commended.
Dentistry is, or should be, an essential part of the veteri-
nary care of zoo and wild animals in captivity, both in
terms of preventative care as part of their long‐term hus-
bandry, and in addressing dental conditions as they occur.
The latter is the focus of this book. Great advances have
been made in the practice of dentistry in domestic animals
over the past decades. Zoo and wild animals should also
benefit from these advances. There is no reason to believe
that pain of dental origin, be it acute or chronic, is any less
severe and debilitating in animals than it is in humans,
greatly affecting their quality of life. The basic premise of
being a veterinarian is to prevent and address pain in ani-
mals entrusted to our care. The stakes and challenges are
particularly high in zoo and wildlife dentistry. Even under
the best of circumstances and with the best of intentions of
the care‐takers, captivity of wild animals typically is associ-
ated with unphysiological conditions in terms of environ-
ment and diet. Wild animals in captivity must be housed in
safe facilities – unfortunately, the combination of fences
and boredom can cause significant dental injury. The
human‐animal bond in this case has two components: the
zoo’s animal care‐taker has a very strong personal bond
while the zoo’s administration and the public typically
xiii
would like to see an animal on display with an intact
dentition.
Though the use of non‐evidence based and non‐FDA‐
approved materials and instruments should not be pro-
moted, it is an unavoidable fact that procedures on
non‐domestic species may require medications and instru-
ments that are not FDA‐approved for use in those species.
In addition, some dental materials, such as MTA, are cost‐
prohibitive to use in large volumes; hence “Dr. Emily’s
MTA’s recipe”, which I found to exemplify this book:
empirical, practical and helpful. The practicality and help-
fulness are important, given the fact that getting the proce-
dure done in a timely fashion is especially important in
these animals, in order to minimize the duration of
anesthesia.
This is an important textbook and addition to the veteri-
nary dental and zoological medicine literature. While this
book is not an authoritative textbook on comparative
odontology, like Berkovitz and Shellis’ The Teeth of
Mammalian Vertebrates (2018), nor a historical treatise on
comparative dental pathology, like Colyer’s Variations and
Diseases of the Teeth of Animals (1936), it is a very practical
compilation of the authors’ many years of clinical experi-
ence treating dental problems in captive wild animals.
Veterinary dentists may get called upon to see one of a
species once in their career. The authors of this text have
seen at least one case of the diseases and species described,
and have generously shared their experience with their
readers.
Frank J. M. Verstraete
DrMedVet BVSc MMedVet Dipl AVDC Dipl EVDC Dipl
ECVS AVDC‐ZWD FF‐AVDC‐OMFS
Professor of Dentistry and Oral Surgery
Department of Surgical and Radiological Sciences
School of Veterinary Medicine
University of California—Davis

­About Peter Emily
Figure 1 Ed Eisner and Peter Emily, on Mulholland Drive,
Burbank, CA USA, after completing a Dental Rescue in southern
California, USA, 2009.
Peter Emily, a practicing dentist for people, has studied com-
parative odontology and has a passion for helping improve
the oral health of wild, as well as pet animals since 1969. He
has dedicated decades of his life to improving oral health and
comfort, especially for captive animals; animals that have
been rescued from abusive, illegal, or financially unsustain-
able situations and placed in “retirement facilities,” sanctuar-
ies where they can safely live the rest of their life to the fullest.
He was my mentor, providing me with a dental education far
exceeding any the finest veterinary schools had to offer in the
1980s and beyond. I will always be indebted to Peter for
teaching me the technical nuances of dental practice, but
even more so for the many dental insights that help elevate a
good dental practice to that of one providing exceptional out-
comes. The key to his brilliance and the value of his teachings
has, even more than the technical education, been the shar-
ing of the art of case assessment and treatment planning. The
technical aspect of good dentistry is a cookbook science,
achievable in several years of diligent study. The successful
xv
art of case assessment and therapeutic planning is the result
of many more years of astute observation and creative appli-
cation of those technical skills. These skills are never needed
more than when dealing with the complex problems of large
and small wildlife mammals and birds that are the residents
of sanctuaries, zoos, and the natural habitats throughout the
world. This is where Peter Emily excels, and this is where he
is most comfortable.
­1982
For eight years people who knew of both Pete and my inter-
est in veterinary dentistry kept telling us we should meet
and finally we did. It was in November, 1982. Peter was a
certified national dog show judge. He performed dentistry
on dogs and cats and sometimes on the animals at the
Denver Zoo, Denver, Colorado USA. In 1982, at the inaugu-
ration of the new animal hospital at the Denver Zoo, some-
one who knew both Pete and I, spotted us at the soiree and
introduced us to each other. That was the beginning of a
many‐decade friendship. In February of 1983, Peter and I
travelled together to the Western States Veterinary
Conference in Las Vegas, Nevada where the American
Veterinary Dental Society was having one of its first meet-
ings. A few of the pioneers of the veterinary dental evolu-
tion, Gary Beard, Ben Colmery, Tom Mulligan, Don Ross,
and Chuck Williams, were delivering dental presentations.
Peter and I had found our home; people who spoke our
language. These were not the only people dabbling in vet-
erinary dentistry at the time, but they were among the first.
Bob Wiggs, Colin Harvey, Sandra Manfra Marretta, Keith
Grove, Steve Holmstrom, Ron Gammon, Gary Goldstein,
Ken Lyon, and Chris Visser were also among the pioneers.
They and Pete and I all bonded quickly. We all felt the call-
ing, we were all accomplished photographers and could
share our work visually, we all didn’t mind travelling to
spread the word, and we all knew that we had something
important to give to veterinary medicine.
xvi ­About Peter Emil
Pete came to my small animal practice every Thursday
for the next three years. He would identify dental problems
while performing as a dog show judge, and have the own-
ers schedule for dental treatment at my office. I would also
identify dogs and cats within my practice that needed
advanced‐level dental care and schedule them for
Thursdays. Peter was an artist. He was a real artist. He not
only performed excellent root canal therapy, gold crown
work, and periodontal surgery, he also made bronze sculp-
tures and gold pendant jewelry from dental gold. Weekly,
for three years, I learned dentistry by the side of Peter. Peter
was, in reality, a frenetic artist, but he was not a business-
man. He cared little about fees, which are so very impor-
tant for the survival of any for‐profit practice. He just
wanted to help the animals.
Peter would not have anything to do with fees for ser-
vices, and I arranged for Peter to take home the fee for the
dental procedure itself, while I retained the fees for the
examination, anesthesia, hospitalization and dispensed
medications. It resulted in approximately a 50:50 split, with
Pete reluctantly letting me stuff a check into his shirt
pocket as he packed up to leave my office each week.
Pete was a very significant positive force in the accelera-
tion of the evolution of veterinary dentistry. A number of
us had been performing advanced‐level animal dentistry
since the 1970s, but Pete helped further educate the pio-
neers in veterinary dentistry and gave us the knowledge to
improve our animal dental services. Pete was instrumental
in creating the first two important examinations; first the
qualifying examination for the newly formed Academy of
Veterinary Dentistry (AVD) in 1986, and, second, the quali-
fying examination for the American Veterinary Dental
College (AVDC) in 1989. He lectured throughout the world,
teaching and preaching the value of advanced level dental
care for animals.
­ 005: The beginning of the Peter
2 great privilege for me to be able to help him compile this
Emily International Veterinary Dental
Foundation
The late Robert Bruce Wiggs of Dallas, TX, another of the
original veterinary dental pioneers in its modern evolution,
was in Denver. Pete invited Bob and myself to coffee at a
breakfast restaurant. He shared with us that he had recently
received a significant and unexpected return on an earlier
investment.
Pete, age 73, viewed this as a chance to fulfill his dream,
to help captive animals throughout the world, and he
wanted some close friends to help manage the project.
First, with Peter’s participation, we enlisted Steve
Holmstrom, veterinary dentist from San Carlos, CA, and
Ron Ferrendelli, a local fellow dentist and former class-
mate of Peter, along with Bert Dodd, another veterinary
dentist then of Austin, TX. We established a plan to gener-
ate enough working capital to launch a small private foun-
dation while conserving his assets. The Board of Directors
was expanded and membership adjusted. Susanne Pilla
was hired as Managing Director of the private foundation
formed in 2005, and which in turn became the public
501(c)(3) charitable Peter Emily International Veterinary
Dental Foundation (PEIVDF). Three years after the birth
of his idea, Peter’s Foundation had three sets of portable
dental equipment and thirty clinicians who donated their
time, talent and energy several times a year to mount res-
cue missions to animal sanctuaries and zoos throughout
the United States, providing free dental care to African
lions, tigers, mountain lions, bears, primates, herbivores,
birds, and other captive animals. As of writing this book,
the PEIVDF has a thirteen‐person Board of Directors, and
nine‐person Advisory Committee to help plan rescue mis-
sions. Today, the Foundation is setting up its most ambi-
tious undertaking so far ‐ affiliating with operations in
South Africa. Peter’s dream is becoming a reality.
Peter Emily has received national and international rec-
ognition, including from the American Animal Hospital
Association. He is also the namesake of veterinary dental
awards distributed at the Annual Veterinary Dental Forum
each year. He will long be recognized as a giant in the field
of veterinary dentistry and as a very special person in the
hearts of all who have known him. He is one of a kind. His
knowledge of comparative odontology is immense. It is a
information for all to see and share and for the benefit of
animals now and in the future that will be the benefactors
of this shared information.
Edward R. Eisner, AB, DVM
Diplomate American Veterinary Dental College
Founding Certificate Holder in Zoo and Wildlife Dentistry

­Acknowledgements
We want to express appreciation to the members of the
Foundation for Veterinary Dentistry, for their ongoing ded-
ication to improving and maintaining animal oral health.
From Peter Emily
I have had a lifelong passion devoted to helping animals.
As a child, living with my grandparents Dominec and
Josephine Primavera, I gained a culture of helping
orphaned animals. We rescued injured birds and goats, as
well as stray dogs and cats in Denver, Colorado; splinted
broken legs and wings, and nursed them back to health. I
applied to veterinary school, medical school and dental
school and had my choice of careers. My first choice was
veterinary medicine, but I was influenced by my peers to go
to dental school first, and then to veterinary school. As fate
would have it, marriage during dental school stalled my
planned educational succession, but not my personal pas-
sion and studies of comparative dental anatomy and
pathology.
Dr. Father Trane, a Jesuit priest at Regis University was
influential throughout my formative years, encouraging
my humane curiosity regarding oral health in all species. I
practiced human dentistry after graduating from Creighton
School of Dentistry, Omaha, Nebraska in 1959. Shortly
after, I met Alan Krause, DVM. Both of us were certified
dog show judges for the American Kennel Club and had
special interest in the dental standards for the many recog-
nized dog breeds. Dr. Krause made it possible and assisted
me in continuing my passionate pursuit for improving ani-
mal oral health.
In the 1970s, Dr. Richard Cambry, veterinarian at the
Denver Zoological Gardens, invited me to consult and treat
dental disease in many of their exotic species, which I con-
tinue to do. It has given me inspiration to continually
develop improved dental techniques for the many species
of captive animals.
xvii
In 1983, Dr. Eisner and I attended the Western States
Veterinary Conference in Las Vegas, Nevada where we met
and joined forces with some of the veterinary dental pio-
neers including the speakers, Drs. Gary Beard, Ben
Colmery, Tom Mulligan and Chuck Williams, in what was
to become a lifelong professional friendship and the organ-
ized beginning of the evolution of contemporary animal
dentistry. It has continued to fuel my insatiable desire to
improve dental techniques practiced by veterinarians.
I also, wish to thank, among others, Drs. Colin Harvey
and Robert Bruce Wiggs, for their friendship and joint col-
laboration in the pursuit of the advancement of veterinary
dental techniques and service.
From Edward Eisner
A number of people, in addition to Dr. Peter Emily, have
been “father” figures in my life, influencing the pathway I
have traveled throughout my developing professional
career. At the age of 13, I knew I wanted to be a veterinar-
ian. Though, raised in New York State where my father and
his father before him were New York City Wall Street attor-
neys, I spent five teenage years in northwest Montana,
under the influence and tutelage of a rancher and wilder-
ness guide, Sam Wicker. It was through Sam that I gained a
true appreciation for hard work, individual responsibility,
completing tasks without complaining, and the ways of,
and management of, large and sometimes unruly animals,
including horses, mountain lions, wolves and bears in the
mountains 100 miles beyond the convenience of the paved
road. My formative high school years were spent at The
Millbrook School for Boys, a boarding school in the rolling
hills of Dutchess County, in upstate New York. There, my
science teacher, and founder of The Millbrook School Zoo,
Dr. Frank Trevor took me under his wing, teaching me sci-
entific process, as well as the responsible care of the wild
zoo inhabitants that we managed. In the process of my
xviii ­Acknowledgement
maturation, I held summer jobs traveling throughout the
west as a livestock inspector for Oppenheimer Industries
(OI), the largest livestock management company in the
United States, headquartered in Kansas City, Missouri, and
managing cattle in 14 states. CEO of OI, Larry Oppenheimer,
gave me freedom and independent responsibility as well as
access to the genetic information of his prized Hereford
show herd via the first computerized herd program which
was headquartered in Kansas City. This experience fur-
thered my interest in the scientific process of understand-
ing the power of genetics. I also worked as a farmhand for
Ed Behrens, President of the Dairy Herd Improvement
Association of New York State, at his Highland Hills Dairy
Farm, where Ed continued my tutelage in uncompromised
and thorough work ethic, working the land daily from
before dawn to after dark.
My infatuation with the management of animals con-
tinued in my late teens and early 20 years, as I worked as
a wilderness guide in the Bob Marshall Wilderness in
northwest Montana and again in the Pipestone Wilderness
in Alberta, Canada where I rode 2500 miles in the sum-
mer of 1956. At Cornell University in the New York
Veterinary School, Professor Dr. Steven Roberts mentored
me. Among other helpful attributes, he was on the Cornell
veterinary school admissions committee, coach and vet-
erinary caretaker of the Cornell polo team horses, and
author and professor of equine obstetrics. I played polo
for him, managed the team after an injury and received
guidance from him before taking my job as the livestock
inspector. Dr. Francis Fox, professor of livestock medicine
and surgery at Cornell imprinted on me the importance
of maintaining my skills in physical diagnosis, even in the
presence of rapidly advancing automated technology.
Throughout all of this, my father impressed upon me, by
example, the importance of being ethical in my many
pursuits. I am appreciative to all of these people, and oth-
ers, who helped to shape my personal life as well as my
professional profile that has spanned more than 55 years
in a very rewarding professional career in the veterinary
medical profession, culminating in 40 years of immersion
in the evolution of advanced dental care for animals, and
most lately, in joining Peter Emily in his crusade to help
captive animals in the many sanctuaries, zoos and animal
parks of the world.

Introduction
The purpose of this book is to educate the reader as to the
essence of therapeutic modalities and pitfalls when per-
forming dentistry on captive animals in sanctuaries, zoos
or in the field. To cover every aspect of dentistry, or every
species encountered, is beyond the scope of this book. We
have included the most frequent species and dental pathol-
ogies that clinicians will see and be asked to treat. We hope
this work will expand wildlife animal dental knowledge,
resulting in increased success of dental procedures in the
field.
It should be emphasized that dentistry and oral surgery
is similar to other veterinary disciplines in that success of a
clinician is dependent on knowledge, expertise, equip-
ment, and patient compliance. The same ingredients make
a good dentist as do a good surgeon, and the treatment for
a number of oral conditions involve surgery. There are
unique endodontic morphologies present in various spe-
cies, especially large felids, that make it essential that the
practitioner obtain hands-on tutoring before attempting
endodontic therapy for large felids. One should be well
rested, well prepared, well equipped and well skilled, espe-
cially before attempting to treat wild animals in zoological
or sanctuary settings, where often, because of anesthetic
risk, there will be only one opportunity to perform therapy.
Well rested is self-explanatory. An alert, aware and ener-
getic individual is one who can provide a smoothly exe-
cuted procedure. A well-prepared individual is one who
knows the protocol and instrumentation of planned proce-
dures, as well as that of alternative procedures that might
be required. Skill comes with experience, and experience
comes with practice. Additionally, the well-prepared clini-
cian will be well equipped. Using the appropriate instru-
ments, well maintained, will help to lessen procedure time,
minimize patient discomfort and reassure the clinician
that they have performed a proper procedure in the best
way possible.
Through the skill of veterinary dentists, enhanced com-
fort can be achieved for these animals who cannot help
themselves, and improved longevity can be realized by the
xix
reduction of chronic oral pain and stress experienced by
these animals who are less often treated.
Increased knowledge of the species-specific anatomy,
physiology and oral function will be invaluable in achiev-
ing proper diagnosis and treatment. This does not reduce
the importance of hands-on experience, as each case and
each animal is unique. For example, the vast majority of
tiger upper canines have a bulbous apical root canal mor-
phology with an extended apical delta at the root end ter-
minus. Thus, treatment for each species will be different,
and will require adaptation in the field.
Wildlife dentistry is infrequently encountered in veteri-
nary practice. The diverse dental findings as to endodontic
morphology, occlusal, and radicular forms, tooth sizes, and
numbers of teeth all complicate exotic animal dentistry.
Difficulty in obtaining routine oral examination to inter-
cept developing problems and provide routine dental
maintenance is a large factor in maintaining or regaining
oral health. Additionally, poor financial rewards, lack of
exotic animal dental knowledge and education, all contrib-
ute to the challenges of providing successful oral care for
these animals.
All the dental disciplines practiced in human and small
animal dentistry can be practiced in exotic animal or zoo
dentistry. However, the many dental morphological and
pathological differences seen in the various species create
treatment challenges that can extend far beyond routine
procedures. Dental problems can be multiple, complex,
and often unseen in domestic small animal dentistry.
Therapy can be complicated by limited oral access in some
species. Most zookeepers are untrained in recognition of
developing dental problems. This results in advanced den-
tal pathology before the condition becomes clinically evi-
dent. Because of advanced levels of pathology, therapy is
often more difficult and with uncertain prognosis for
success.
Zoo dentistry includes many and varied species. New
technologies are now beginning to be seen, or at least con-
templated, in the treatment of some of the large species. If
xx Introduction
we consider, for example, that an elephant tusk is an upper
lateral incisor, with pulp tissue and an open apex, then we
can pursue the possibility of endodontic therapy for
affected tusks rather than the very difficult procedure of
tusk extraction.
Avian species primarily present with lost or fractured
beak segments or beak malocclusion resulting from poor
nutrition. Replacement of lost beak segments can be per-
formed with dental acrylic, threaded pins, ligature wire
and cyanoacrylate. Congenital or traumatic malocclusion
or “cross beak” is not uncommon, especially in psittacine
birds. Active rubber orthodontic ligatures and threaded pin
anchors can sometimes effectively correct this form of mal-
occlusion. Like birds, the most common dental problem
seen in reptiles is oral trauma, and the same principles of
repair as employed in avian dentistry can be utilized. For
example, turtles, can present with “beak” fracture. Dental
acrylics, threaded wire, and cyanoacrylate can rehabilitate
these animals. Though not a dental procedure, the repair of
fractured turtle shells with dental materials is also a com-
monly successful and practical procedure.
An excellent example of advanced pathology with lim-
ited therapy and success is seen in mandibular and maxil-
lary abscesses in herbivores and ruminants. Their dentition
is primarily selenodont, which has parallel rows of cres-
cent-shaped occlusal ridges that run in a mesial to distal
direction. Selenodont dentition is the principal dental form
in the order Artiodactyla, which includes most sheep, cat-
tle, antelope, deer, camels, boars, and hogs. However, the
animals most affected with mandibular/maxillary
abscesses are the Marsupialia, primarily kangaroos and
wallabies. Their molar form is a rather primitive tribos-
phenic form – that is, having three basic cusps. They are
the protocone (the lingual cusp of the upper molar – it is
generally narrow), the metacone (the posterior buccal
cusp), and the paracone (the anterior buccal cusp). There
are accessory cusps on metacone and paracone, termed
metaconule and paraconule. These accessory cusps, such
as the metaconule, are very important in Artiodactyle mas-
ticatory function.
The principal dental morphological difference between
marsupials and placental species is the relative shape of the
external part of the molar. The other dental form found in
common herbivores is lophodont dentition. Lophodont den-
tition has parallel ridges that course across the entire coronal
width from lateral to medial. Lophodont dentition is found
in the order Perrisodactyla, as well as the families Tapiridae
and Rhinocerotidae (the tapir and the rhinoceros).
It is impractical, though possible, to develop successful
techniques for orthodontics, restoratives, crown coverage,
and possibly bridge procedures in wildlife dentistry, but
many oncology cases present unique therapeutic chal-
lenges that can be managed with diagnostic and therapeu-
tic help of oncology specialists.
­Periodontal Disease
Most forms of periodontal disease seen in domestic animals
can be found in exotic animals, with treatment similar to
that performed in humans. Primates display periodontal
disease very similar to humans. Extensive periodontitis
with advanced tooth-supporting bone loss can also be
severe in non-primates, especially so in orangutans, where
it is accompanied with the usual symptoms of bacterial
infection and general malaise. Periodontal therapy is
diverse, ranging from simple prophylaxis to advanced surgi-
cal gingival flap procedures with bone augmentation, lat-
eral sliding flaps, and advanced procedures that also include
surgical exodontia. Cases of gingival hyperplasia can be
treated with either electro-surgery or sharp dissection.
Many of the anatomical peculiarities and proposed treat-
ments in this book may not be found elsewhere in print, as
they are the result of an accumulation of 50 years of per-
sonal hands-on treatment and personal experience while
working on thousands of animals among hundreds of spe-
cies. We still have much to learn, and with dedication we
will continue to improve our ability to help the many spe-
cies that cannot help themselves as we provide better oral
health, comfort and increased longevity in animals world-
wide. This book provides a foundation of information. We
hope that future contributors will add to this information
in an ever-expanding source of information that will serve
to help improve and maintain improved oral health in the
many species of animals throughout the world.
Finally, due to the constraints of length within the Table
of Contents, it has not been possible to list the most com-
mon (but not inexhaustible) 352 species found in animal
sanctuaries and zoos throughout the world. However, these
are listed in the index and should be easily identifiable,
helping all readers to identify the myriad of animals they
may be called upon to examine and treat.
Peter P. Emily, DDS, Certification Periodontics,
Endodontics, and Oral Surgery, Hon. Diplomate American
Veterinary Dental College
 1

Part I
A History of Veterinary Dentistry and of Teeth,
and Dental Therapy of Wild Animals

History of Veterinary Dentistry, Including Development of Oral and Dental
Treatment of Wild and Zoo, Safari Park and Refuge Animals
Colin E. Harvey
Surgery and Dentistry School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
This review is limited to a narrow definition of den-
tistry – conditions affecting the teeth, periodontium and
jaws, and treatment of these structures. Mention of the
major infectious oral diseases that affect wild, as well as
domestic herbivores, such as viral stomatitis for example,
are not included.
Veterinary dental history can be considered as having
two major periods, the first in which the horse was the
focus of most attention, because of its importance for trans-
portation, mechanical power, military use and sport. The
jaws and teeth were important because bits are used to con-
trol speed and direction of motion in horses. The internal
combustion engine was invented in the mid-1850s; by the
early 1990s, this form of transportation and mechanical
power was rapidly displacing the horse and, as a result,
equine dentistry no longer has the critical societal impor-
tance it once had.
The second period is ongoing, and is largely based on
application of human dental procedures to pet domestic
animals. As experience with these procedures, initially in
dogs, grew, they started to be applied to non-domesticated
species by a pioneering group of human dentists and vet-
erinarians. Experience with dental treatment of food ani-
mals is largely limited to management of tooth loss in
sheep.
We only have a very incomplete glimpse of what was
known about animal dentistry in the ancient world,
because much of the records have been lost. The fire in the
largest library of the ancient world, at Alexandria in 48 BCE,
was catastrophic – 700 000 volumes were lost.
The ancient Greeks produced several important veteri-
nary manuscripts, such as “The Veterinary Art, Inspection
of Horses,” by Simon of Athens (430 BCE), which includes
an accurate description of eruption times and aging of
horses by examination of the teeth. Aristotle’s “History of
Animals’” (333 BCE) also includes a section on aging by
Zoo and Wild Animal Dentistry, First Edition. Edited by Peter P. Emily and Edward R. Eisner.
© 2021 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2021 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
3
teeth of horses, and comments on periodontal diseases in
horses.
The Roman Empire produced some practical veterinary
material, though much of it was copied from Greek sources.
Around 400 CE, Chiron wrote a series of books on animals;
Book VI includes material on tumors of the jaw, diseases of
the teeth and management of fractured jaws, and Book
VIII includes a description of the dentition. “The Veterinary
Art” by Vegetius (450–500 CE) is the major Roman veterinary
contribution; it describes use of splints for managing
broken jaws, and aging of horses by teeth; this manuscript
was translated and printed as a book one thousand years
later, in 1528 – one of the first veterinary books printed.
Written c550–580 CE, originally in Sanskrit, the work of
Ippocras was translated into Greek or Arabic in the ninth
century, then from Arabic to Latin – it is now known to
exist only as a fifteenth-century manuscript in Latin; it
includes a section on determining the age of the horse by
examining the teeth, and vices and bit injuries, also an
operation for “chesel,” which is extraction or shortening of
the tushes (canines) and corner incisors to accommodate
the bit.
With the degeneration of the Greek and Roman empires,
the focus of learning shifted eastward to the Byzantine
Empire. In about 950 CE, the “Hippiatrika” was written by
order of Emperor Constantine VII. This tome contained all
Greek and Latin veterinary manuscripts in Constantinople,
collected and arranged; it includes a section on Dentition.
It was translated by Ruellius from Greek to Latin and
printed in 1530 in Paris.
The fascination of Arabs with horses was recognized in
some important manuscripts; one, written about 1100 CE
by Ibn-al-Awan in Spain, includes a section on dentition.
Around 1200 CE, Abou Bekr produced “The Naceri” in
Egypt; Book 11 includes a section on dentition and dental
operations.
4 Part I: History of Veterinary Dentistry, Teeth & Dental Therapy
Beyond the translation of ancient sources, there was very
little real progress for about one thousand years, until,
starting in the thirteenth century in Italy, ancient manu-
scripts translated into Italian also began to include per-
sonal observations of the translator. Ruffus wrote “Equine
Medicine” in 1250, and Rusius wrote “Hippiatria” about
70 years later; the latter includes sections on dentition and
descriptions of lampas, cutting the lip to accommodate the
bit, and an “operation on the teeth to improve the temper”
(extraction of lower canines and corner incisors). Later,
came the equine anatomical masterpieces of Leonardo da
Vinci and Ruini. Though these were important contribu-
tions to the veterinary knowledge base, there was little that
was new in the field of clinical veterinary dentistry.
Northern Europe was largely an intellectual backwater
regarding veterinary medicine until late in the eighteenth
century. Available written materials include an early manu­
script written in Britain in about 1000 CE entitled “The
Medicine of Quadrupeds,” which is largely a compilation
from earlier Roman manuscripts. As an example of what
now seems ridiculous, from the 1723 edition of a book orig-
inally published in 1610: “A horse may have pain in his
teeth through diverse occasions, as partly by the descent of
gross humors from the head down to the teeth and gums.”
Dental extractions in horses have been performed and
described for many centuries. Initially, this was performed
by striking accessible teeth, such as wolf teeth, directly.
“With the horse’s head tied up high, and his mouth opened
wide, take a carpenter’s gouge, place the edge at the foot of the
wolf tooth, turn the hollow side downwards, holding your
hand steady so that the tool may not swerve or slip, then
strike the head of the tool a good stroke wherein you may
loosen the tooth and bend it inwards, then wrench the tooth
out with the hollow side of the tool. Then fill up the empty
hole with salt finely brayed.” Trephining was developed as a
means of opening the frontal and maxillary sinuses for
treatment of nasal diseases caused by glanders or some-
times by dental disease by Lafosse in 1749.
Until the nineteenth century, dental procedures in ani-
mals largely were performed by the owner of the animal, or
by horse leechers, farriers and other often illiterate practi-
tioners. “Learning” was handed down from generation to
generation, mistakes, superstition, and all. Though the
invention of printing in the fifteenth century permitted
major advances in the distribution of material, it did not
necessarily improve the quality of the information. With
few exceptions, there is a distinct lack of critical, observant
minds evident in the “veterinary” books of the sixteenth,
seventeenth and first half of the eighteenth centuries.
By the end of the nineteenth century, though the horse
was losing its critical utility in the human world, equine
dentistry was sufficiently advanced that “Equine Dental
Colleges” were established; these were not associated with
veterinary schools.
Two factors that did bring considerable subsequent pro-
gress to equine dentistry were development of mechanical
gags and of powered dental rasps for “floating teeth.” These
features together resulted in significantly improved ability
to manage occlusal abnormalities.
We now accept without question that anesthesia is essen-
tial for veterinary dental procedures; however, safe, effec-
tive anesthetics are a relatively recent addition to the
veterinary armamentarium. Major advances were use of:
IV opium in dogs in 1665; nitrous oxide gas in cats in 1779;
ether in animals in 1847; barbiturates in 1902; flexible
endotracheal tube in1914; and pentobarbital and pentothal
in 1931–1934.
Small animal dentistry got off to a slow start compared
with horses. The very early descriptions of dental or oral
surgical procedures in dogs sound barbaric (particularly
given the absence of practical anesthetic techniques). The
indications were sometimes based on superstition rather
than medical reality, such as excision of the lyssa (the fibro-
muscular tube that supports the rostral end of the tongue)
to prevent rabies in the dog, described by Pliny (50 CE). On
this topic, six hundred years later, Samuel Johnson (author
of the first English dictionary) says of the “worm” of the
dog’s tongue, “it is a substance, nobody knows what,
extracted nobody knows why”! There were occasional
reports of “advanced” procedures, such as placement of
dentures in dogs, in the late nineteenth century, however,
significant growth in recognition of and means of treating
oral and dental conditions in companion animals did not
occur until the latter part of the twentieth century.
The need for attention to oral health in dogs and cats
was, in part, precipitated by the major change in pet diets
from about 1930 onwards; when domesticated dogs and
cats are required to hunt for their own food, or cadaver
material was their only food provided, the diet provided
significant chewing activity that largely kept severe perio-
dontal disease at bay during the life-time of the animal.
When a defined nutritional profile convenience diet is fed,
there is reduced chewing activity and greater build-up of
dental plaque and calculus, such that periodontal disease
became the most common clinical abnormality observed in
dogs and cats by the end of the twentieth century. When
owners provide hard materials such as cleaned processed
bone, antlers or cattle hooves, or hard nylon toys, in an
attempt to provide chewing activity, the risk of fracture of
teeth increases. In addition, dogs and cats were living
longer, because major viral diseases such as distemper and
parvovirus infection in dogs and panleucopenia in cats
were prevented by vaccination, thus enhancing the likeli-
hood of development of chronically progressive diseases

such as periodontal disease. The result of these changes is
that by mid-twentieth century, the increasing prevalence
and severity of oral and dental diseases in dogs and cats
was recognized, primarily among small animal practitioners
rather than by those in academia. The impact of use of
convenience foods on the oral and dental health of non-
domesticated animals in zoological collections is
considerable, because the mouths cannot be examined
frequently, and brushing or wiping the surfaces of the teeth
as an oral hygiene measure is not possible. This is true not
just of carnivores, but also of herbivores, where, for
example, chopped hay may provide far less chewing activity
than full pasture grazing. Rather than grinding meat and
mixing in additional ingredients as required, as was normal
previously, most zoos now feed diets that match the form
of the natural diet for that species, and provide the essential
micronutrients by, e.g. stuffing them into large raw meat
pieces for carnivores; this combination provides the tearing
and chewing activity necessary to prevent rapid accumu­
lation of dental plaque and calculus.
Another source of new veterinary dental knowledge from
the mid-part of the twentieth century onward has been use
of beagle dogs as a favored animal model for research in
dental school laboratories, which has significantly increased
the canine periodontal knowledge base.
One of the important sources of training for the initial
core group of “dentally aware” small animal practitioners
was human dental practitioners who were invited to con­
sult on canine and feline dental patients. A few human
dentists became critical players in veterinary dental con­
tinuing education programs, and some (such as Drs. Peter
Emily, Peter Kertesz, Mark Tholen, Carl Tinkelman, John
Scheels and Boyd Welsch) were important early contribu­
tors as volunteer dental consultants to zoos and other non-
domesticated animal collections. As companion animal
and particularly zoo and wildlife dentistry developed, the
limitations of human dental instruments became evident,
particularly in endodontics because of the grossly insuffi­
cient length of human endodontic instruments when
­treating a canine tooth in a large dog or a tiger, in which the
root is typically several times as long as the longest human
tooth root.
As veterinary dentistry became a standard part of veteri­
nary medicine in the latter quarter of the twentieth cen­
tury, individual veterinarians began to devote all of their
professional effort to dentistry, and began meeting to dis­
cuss topics of mutual interest. This led to the formation of
the American Veterinary Dental Society in 1976, and to rec­
ognition of dentistry as an area of veterinary specialization
History of Veterinary Dentistry 5
starting in 1987. The leaders of this group of board-­certified
veterinary dentists included several who, like their dental
colleagues mentioned above, volunteered their time as
consultants to zoos; early examples were: Drs. Chuck
Williams (National Zoo, Washington DC), Ben Colmery
(Detroit Zoo), Bob Wiggs (Dallas Zoo), Don Ross (Houston).
A critical step in the development of zoo and wildlife
dentistry has been the willingness of these, and later
individuals, to share their experience; there have been two
Zoo and Wildlife Dentistry conferences, with abstracts of
one of these meetings published in the Journal of Veterinary
Dentistry.
As the content of this book will demonstrate, there are
very unique challenges associated with zoo and wildlife
dentistry; sharing information about successes and failures
is critical to minimize the risk of repetition of failure dur­
ing the learning curve of individual veterinary dentists.
This book is designed to provide a strong collective founda­
tion in that regard.
In 2017, the American Veterinary Dental College recog­
nized the increasing interest in zoo and wildlife dentistry
by establishing an AVDC Zoo and Wildlife Dentistry
Certificate program. A Delphi process and examination
resulted in recognition of 15 founding AVDC-ZWD
Certificate holders. They are: Drs. Kris Bannon, Jan
Bellows, David Clarke, Stephen Coles, Edward Eisner,
Roberto Fecchio, Nadine Fiani, Barron Hall, Steven
Holmstrom, Loic Legendre, Michael Lowder, Clarence
Sitzman, Gerhard Steenkamp, Frank Verstraete and
Douglas Winter. This process included developing a list of
publications on zoo and wildlife dentistry and related top­
ics, which the ZWD Certificate Organizing Committee
plans to make available. Though AVDC-ZWD certificate
holder status is limited to veterinarians, a list of human
dentists who have contributed significantly to the develop­
ment of zoo and wildlife dentistry is under consideration
for recognition for honorary status in the ZWD Certificate
program.
This chapter is based on a review of some of the classic
histories of veterinary medicine, a recent description of
veterinary dental history, a personal collection of veteri­
nary antiquaria accumulated over the last 50 years that
includes items dating to the seventeenth century, and per­
sonal interactions with the pioneers in zoo and wildlife
dentistry. There may be some important sources that I have
missed. I would appreciate receiving comments on this
chapter, and, in particular, details of any sources that I have
not included, or corrections of or different interpretations
of material that I have included.
 7

Odontology
A History of Teeth
Peter P. Emily
Lakewood, CO, USA

The history of teeth mirrors the evolution of the world. As

environmental changes occurred, teeth needed to adapt for
survival. Except for fossilized contents, teeth were the best
clue to the diets that changed dentition over time.
Primate and human dental evolution were nearly as
varied as the evolution of carnivores and herbivores.
Following, is some of the many evolutionary concepts of
herbivore and carnivore evolution. The various theories
on dental evolution hold that teeth evolved from scales of
dermal denticles. Oskar Hertwig showed that skin
denticles and teeth are homologous – skin denticles
being very similar to tricuspid secodont teeth. Evidence
of the ascending Paleozoic fish and reptiles show dermal
plates throughout the palate that led to a primitive dental Figure 2.1 Pelycosaur Edaphosaurus. Source: A.S. Romer [1].
function. The mouth of Pelycosaur Edaphosaurus is an
The Pelycosaurs showed the beginnings of a segrega-
example of palatal nodules. The area of the mouth
tion of the dentition into pre-canine and post-canine
covered in teeth was greatest among these ancient
tooth series. Later, advanced synapsids possessed
reptiles. They were an adaptation for eating hard-shelled
differentia­tion of tooth form in different regions of their
prey, as seen in the Placodonts from the later Triassic
dentition. In the late Triassic period, some forms of rep-
period (see Figure 2.1).
tiles such as Ictidosauria, had mammal-like teeth, yet
As teeth became more specialized, the fixation to the
belonged to a class of reptiles.
jaws by bony attachment evolved. In particular, Pleurodont,
Pelycosaurs show clear evidence of heterodonty in some
Acrodont, Thecodont, and Prothecodont dentition evolved.
species with numerous teeth of equal size but with two
These forms of attachment still remain to the present day.
larger anterior maxillary teeth, which points to the possible
In the long Carboniferous period, adaptation to land
beginning of canine teeth. Dimetrodon and Edaphosaurus
evolved among the oldest reptiles, the synapsid Pleosaurs.
both possessed similar body structure but their mode of
The Transi­tion from gill-breathing to lung-breathing tetra­
life differed appreciably since according to their denti­
pods took place toward the end of the Devonian period, 200
tion, Edaphosaurus was an herbivore, and Dimetrodon a
plus million years BCE. Therapsids bridged the chasm
predacious carnivore (see Figures 2.2–2.4).
between the reptiles and primitive mammals. Therapsidia
had several families that were partially herbivorous and
partially carnivorous. Dicynodon had only one single tooth E
­ arly Evolution
on each side of the maxilla. Some were toothless herbivores.
A second subgroup of therapsids was composed of From their reptilian ancestors, the earliest mammals inheri­
theridonts and cynodonts. They were possibly the first to ted dentition subdivided into incisiform, caniniform as
show mammal-like heterodontous dentition. well as premolar and molariform teeth. Anterior post

Zoo and Wild Animal Dentistry, First Edition. Edited by Peter P. Emily and Edward R. Eisner.
© 2021 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2021 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
8 Part I: History of Veterinary Dentistry, Teeth & Dental Therapy

Dimetrodon

Figure 2.2 Dimetrodon. Source: A.S. Romer [2].

Edaphosaurus

Figure 2.3 Edaphosaurus (From Romer [1968] [2]). Source:

Teeth and Dentition in the Different Groups of Vertebrates page
172, as published in Comparative Odontology, by Bernhard Peyer,
translated and edited by Rainer Zangerl, with a forward by Alfred
S. Romer with permission. University of Chicago Press 1968.
Library of Congress Catalog Card number 66-20578. Previously
published in A.S. Romer an L.I. Price’s article “Review of the
Pelycosauria” in Geological Society of America Special
publications, Volume 28. GS of A Special Publications allows “use
up to three items (. . .figures. . .) from GSL published material
without permission or charge with acknowledgement of source.”
canines were lost and not replaced. Molariform teeth
seemed to have been added to the distal arcade, a dental
characteristic typical to mammals, though this characteris­
tic was not seen in early mammals. Unlike tribosphenic
teeth, their occlusal surfaces require extensive abrasion to
come into occlusion. Marsupials and placentals differenti­
ated from a common ancestral stock of mammals possess­
ing tribosphenic dentition. This differentiation took place
before the end of the early Cretaceous, approximately
100 million years BCE.
The plant-eating ancestral reptilian dinosaurs had leaf-
shaped homodont dentition. Since they were browsers, the
need for broad occlusal surfaces was not seen until the evo-
lution of grazers.
Early mammals of the Triassic period wore the occlusal
surfaces into occlusion as did their reptilian contemporaries.
They had dentition unlike teeth of the tribosphenic pattern.
Their occlusion required a significant amount of abrasion
before they matched. The earliest mammals investigated
by Moss and Pool lacked the prismatic structure of enamel.
The earliest mammal molariform teeth, prior to develop­
ment of a true tribosphenic molar, produced a different
action. This was more of a shearing action between the
crests of the trigon and stylar shelf and those of the talonid
Figure 2.4 Snout fragment of an ichthyosaur (After Quenstedt
from Peyer [3] [1937]). Source: Teeth and Dentition in the
Different Groups of Vertebrates page 144, as published in
Comparative Odontology, by Bernhard Peyer, translated and edited
by Rainer Zangerl, with a forward by Alfred S. Romer with
permission. University of Chicago Press 1968. Library of
Congress Catalog Card number 66-20578. Originally appeared in
Handbuch der vergleichenden Anatomie der Wirbeltiere
Gesamt-Inhaltsubersucht published originally by Urban &
Schwarzenberg and acquired by Elsevier.
and trigon. Food could still be crushed between these
segments. By the early Cretaceous period,100 million years
BCE. Mammals with fully developed tribosphenic dentition
were in existence.
Even though mammals existed as far back as 200 million
years BCE, most of the dentition had been extensively
altered during the previous 100 million years BCE, or more.
The extinction of the dinosaurs around 65.5 million years
BCE precipitated a rapid evolution in mammalian dentition.
E
­ namel
One of the dental features distinguishing the dentition of
reptiles from mammals is their enamel formation. Reptiles
have non-prismatic enamel while mammals have pris-
matic enamel. Reptile enamel is characterized by greater

structural variety and lesser complexity than mammals.
The evolution of non-prismatic enamel to prismatic
enamel was probably the evolution of Tomes’ processes in
modern man. This process is the change from flat secretory
surfaces to a complex assortment of enamel corrugation in
mammals, which secretes prismatic enamel.
How did mammalian dentition evolve from these prehis-
toric reptiles? Many theories have been proposed.
Unfortunately, an adequate picture of the diversity of
organization and dental evolution that existed in this class
of animals during the Mesozoic era is not clear.
D
­ ental Evolution
The two major theories of evolution of prehistoric reptil-
ian homodont dentition to multi-cusped teeth were the
Concrescence Theory and the Differentiation Theory as dis-
cussed by Owen (Owen 1845). The Concrescence Theory
states that multi-cusped mammalian molars are formed
by fusion of a number of simple conical teeth. Support for
this theory came from multi-tuberculates in which molars
had distinct cusps. It was assumed that each cusp repre-
sented a reptilian tooth, as later multi-tuberculates had
more cusps than older species. The Cope–Osborn
Differentiation Theory stated that the most complex
mammalian molar originated from a single-cusped rep-
tile tooth with formation of cusps in front and behind the
original. This led to the additional cusps changing posi-
tion relative to the main cusp in order to form a triangle.
A heel is added by evolutionary differentiation to the tri-
angle in the lower molar, such as the lower carnassial first
molar.
One significant characteristic of the ancient carnivores
is the size of the carnassial teeth in relation to their diets.
In general, most carnivore dentition has changed little
when compared with herbivores. Charles Darwin (1809–
1882) initiated much controversy concerning evolution,
including that of teeth. Darwin’s early writing was a text
entitled “Zoonomia,” in which was presented the theory
of inheritance by acquired characteristics. Though
Zoonomia was based more on speculation than science.
His fossil records of the horse are one of the classic fossil
records showing evolution of teeth. Darwin’s “The Origin
of Species” was a monumental look at the evolution of
species through natural selection. The documentation of
the evolution of teeth grew immeasurably in the nine-
teenth century. It was profoundly influenced by the Cell
Theory, with J. Muller and Oskar Hertwig provoking
thought.
Odontology: A History of Teeth 9
The most extensive research and publication of the
morphology and evolution of teeth was produced by
Richard Owen in 1856. He classified over 13,000 specimens
at the British Museum. His publication dealt a great deal
with teeth, evolution and hereditary changes. Owen was
most remembered for his disputed belief in Darwin’s
theory of evolution and his coining of the word “dinosaur.”
Owen’s two volumes, entitled “Odontology,” published in
1840–1845 became an invaluable research tool for more
than 150 years. Frank Colyer’s, “Variation and Diseases of
the Teeth of Animals” in 1936 is one of the most complete
treatises of Odontology.
M
­ olar Evolution
The evolution to the Tribosphenic molar was the signifying
molar form particular to mammals. With the exception of
the Platypus and the Echidna, all living mammals are
descendants of a common stock characterized by
tribosphenic dentition. In 1936, Simpson coined the word
“tribosphenic” as a replacement for the Cope-Osbornian
“tritubercular” and “tuberculo-sectorial” descriptions used
respectively for essentially euthemorphic upper and lower
molars.
In contrast, tribosphenic dentition is not found in any of
the mammals that appear in the late Triassic, 190 M.Y.B.C.E.
The fossil record of the Jurassic period, 180–35 million
years BCE shows instances of convergence. Only in the
early Cretaceous, 135–25 million years BCE was there a
definite record of mammalian tribosphenic dentition. In
the middle to late Cretaceous period, the fossil record
shows a major adaptive radiation to this kind of dentition.
By the early Cretaceous period, mammals with fully tri-
bosphenic molars were in existence and had begun to
diversify. These early mammals were small carnivores and
omnivores. None showed modification of the dentition
characteristic of mammalian herbivores, nor did the first
mammals with tribosphenic dentition show modifications
of mammalian herbivores.
The tribosphenic dentition of early cretaceous mammals
was not adapted to the demands of an herbivorous diet.
The origin of tribosphenic dentition was one of mammalian
adaptation’s major changes in the terrestrial flora during
this period. The herbivores of the Cretaceous period were
rodent-like creatures that branched off the early mamma­
lian stock before the origin of the tribosphenic dentition.
The Cretaceous period was a long 71-million-year period,
135–66 million years BCE. This is one-third the total history
of the class of Mammalians. A more rapid dental evolution
10 Part I: History of Veterinary Dentistry, Teeth & Dental Therapy
began during the Cenozoic, 64 million years BCE and
evolved without dinosaurian competition.
In 1907, Osborn-Cope presented four principle tenets of
molar evolution that were later revised to a degree by
Hershovitz:
First Principle: The primitive tritubercular type. The tritu­
bercular was ancestral to many if not all of the molar
teeth.
Second Principle: The origin of the tritubercular type from
a single reptilian cone by the addition of lateral
denticles.
Third Principle: Cusp addition or differentiation. New den­
ticle cusps or smaller cones on the sides of original rep­
tilian cone added by budding or outgrowth.
Fourth Principle: Reversed upper and lower triangles. In
the lower molars, the reptile cone is external and the two
denticles internal, while in the upper molars, the reverse
is the case [4].
Patterson’s view found that a broad shelf labial to the
paracone and metacone, carrying a stylocane and other
cusps were charlatanistic to primitive tribosphenic upper
molars. Stylar shelf forms are still present in some
marsupials.
Tribosphenic dentition evolution during the Jurassic
period is distinguished by the morphology and function of
R
­ eferences
1 Romer, A.S. (1945). Vertebrate Paleontology, 3e. Chicago
(IL): The University of Chicago Press.
2 Romer, A.S. (1968). Teeth and Dentition in the Different
Groups of Vertebrates. In: Comparative Odontology, by
B. Peyer, translated and edited by Rainer Zangerl. Library
of Congress Catalog Card number 66-20578. University of
Chicago Press.
3 Peyer, B. (1968). Teeth and Dentition in the Different
Groups of Vertebrates. In: Comparative Odontology, by
molariform teeth. The upper molars have the basic trigon,
consisting of a paracone, metacone and protocone. A broad
shelf labial to the paracone and metacone was characteris-
tic to the primitive tribosphenic upper molar. The lower
molars were divided into a higher mesial trigonid formed by
three cusps and a lower talonid basin that received the
upper protocone. They could produce only two kinds of
action during mastication: food could only be crushed
between the major segments of the upper and lower molars.
The functions of tribosphenic dentition and the time and
place of their origin suggest that their evolution was one of
the adaptations of mammals to a diet based on the expand-
ing fauna. The late Cretaceous period saw an increase in
the modifications of the tribosphenic molar. The extinction
of many mammalian lineages does not seem to be con-
nected to any tooth type or sources of food.
Tooth numbers have evolved from many to few in num-
ber. Early mammals tended to have more teeth than recent
mammals indicating a reduction in tooth numbers. Hence,
in any group, the species with the largest number of teeth
is likely to be the most primitive and somewhat less intel-
ligent. However, the modern river dolphin has approxi-
mately 206 homodont teeth, but remains one of the more
intelligent mammals. Reference the Appendix III Dental
Formulas at the back of this book to compare the number
of teeth with intelligence.
Bernhard Peyer, translated and edited by Rainer Zangerl,
with a forward by Alfred S. Romer with permission.
Library of Congress Catalog Card number 66-20578, 144.
University of Chicago Press.
4 Hershkovitz, P. (1971). Basic Crown Patterns and Cusp
Homologies of Mammalian Teeth. In: Dental morphology
and evolution (ed. A.A. Dahlberg), 95–150. Chicago: The
University of Chicago Press.

Special Considerations Regarding Equipment and Instruments
Dentistry performed in wild animal sanctuaries and zoos is
practiced differently than in the comforts of private com-
panion animal practice. Anesthesia carries more risk for the
hundreds of species encountered, and the staff in many
sanctuaries often have limited expertise and equipment for
monitoring and professionally supporting the long proce-
dure times that may be required to carry out necessary treat-
ments. Because of these limitations, and the condition of
animals when rescued, many of the animals that need treat-
ment have long-standing dental problems, and the facility
will be willing to allow only one chance for us to help them.
Therefore, like the frontier physician who carried a small
bag and made do with what he had, we too must make do
with the equipment we bring with us. Excellent radiographs
are often difficult to obtain in a sanctuary (field conditions),
or zoo venue. Often, a clinician will have to work with what
is available and physical diagnostics, combined with experi-
ence, may become the most useful tools.
Periodontology and periodontal therapy, both medical
and surgical, is important to captive and wild animals. But,
when considering periodontal therapy in humans, dogs or
cats, periodontal therapy is a life-long undertaking, ideally
with constant, periodic re-evaluation and therapeutic
adjustments for this chronic, manageable but incurable
disease. Most sanctuaries and zoos anesthetize their
animals as often as they have to, but as seldom as they need
to, because the anesthetic experience carries a much higher
risk with these animals, and general anesthesia is necessary
even merely to transport them, let alone to perform almost
Zoo and Wild Animal Dentistry, First Edition. Edited by Peter P. Emily and Edward R. Eisner.
© 2021 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2021 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
11
any dental procedure. Consequently, most of these animals
will not have the luxury of repeated anesthetic experiences,
so care must be directed to single-stage (one-time only)
procedures. These procedures are usually in the form of
root canal therapy, occasional surgical extractions, apically
re-positioned gingival flaps or modified surgical osteo-
plasty to treat periodontal disease.
This book is written for competent clinicians who have
dental experience and, at the least, the proper inventory of
materials and equipment to carry out endodontic and sur-
gical treatment in companion animal practice. Periodontal
therapy is discussed as a surgical one-time treatment.
These equipment setups will not be discussed here, but,
some specialized instruments will be described that make
treatment of large carnivores and herbivores possible. Very
specialized instrumentation of tusks of various mammals
is discussed further by Professor Gerhard Steenkamp in his
section on Elephant dental therapeutics.
Clinicians should arrive at a facility carrying with them
equipment, instruments, and supplies to manage
endodontic and surgical needs, including pulp cap therapy,
root canal therapy and surgical extractions, as well as being
able to perform the occasional incisional or excisional
biopsy, tonsillectomy or even a toe amputation when
confronted with previously poorly performed procedures.
Following are some suggested types of equipment,
instruments, and supplies that are helpful when treating
large animals in zoos, sanctuaries and safari camps (see
Figures 3.1–3.24).
12 Part I: History of Veterinary Dentistry, Teeth & Dental Therapy

Figure 3.1 Hand held, battery operated, 2.0 mA X-ray generator,

distributed by iM3. Source: Edward R. Eisner.

Figure 3.2 Nomad, rechargeable battery-operated, hand-held

X-ray generator 2.25 mA. Source: Edward R. Eisner.

Figure 3.3 Scan-X: Supplier – All Pro. Has CR processors to

accommodate any size phosphor film. Source: Edward R. Eisner.

Figure 3.4 CR-7 Durr Medical, supplied by iM3, supplies film

sizes up to and including size 5 film. CR processors for digital
transfer from phosphor film; field efficient, but requires
cleaning. Source: Edward R. Eisner.

Figure 3.5 Dentalaire electric powered table unit. Delivery
systems must have strong torque capabilities. The bone in large
carnivores appears to be more dense than in smaller companion
animals. Source: Edward R. Eisner.
Figure 3.7 120 mm endodontic files, necessary for large
carnivores, are six times longer than those used on people. But,
beginning canal preparation with shorter files used initially, give
better control for coronal canal preparation. Source: Edward
R. Eisner.
Special Considerations Regarding Equipment and Instruments 13
Figure 3.6 Crown-down Technique: Starting with shorter
31mm files and frequent recapitulation will result in less file
damage and better access, while increasing sequentially both in
larger diameter files and to 60 and 120 mm files that can
achieve full working length. Source: Edward R. Eisner.
Figure 3.8 60- and 90-mm gutta percha points are
commercially available but, if not, they can be fabricated by
fusing two shorter gutta percha points by warming and
softening the ends with a cigarette lighter or Bunsen burner,
overlapping the ends, and rolling them together between two
glass slabs. Source: Edward R. Eisner.
14 Part I: History of Veterinary Dentistry, Teeth & Dental Therapy

Figure 3.10 120 mm pluggers and spreaders. It is best to hold

these long instruments close to their working tips to reduce
chances of damage by bending them. Source: Edward R. Eisner.

Figure 3.9 Fabricating these longer gutta percha points ahead

of time creates more efficient procedures. Veterinarians are
often proudest of their ingenuity. Source: Edward R. Eisner.

Figure 3.11 Dental Stopping (gutta percha) is useful for canals

of large diameter. Heating softens them, while a cold glass slab
or alcohol hardens them. Source: Edward R. Eisner.

Figure 3.12 60- and 90-mm Lentulo paste filler. The Figure 3.13 For pulp canals size 90 or greater, for efficiency,
instrument can be loaded from a spatula full of sealant. we favor GuttaFlow 2, followed by a Master Apical Gutta Percha
Instrument will break if stressed (needs at least a size 25 canal. point. Source: Edward R. Eisner.
Source: Edward R. Eisner.
 Special Considerations Regarding Equipment and Instruments 15

Figure 3.14 GuttaFlow 2 can be delivered via a 20-gauge

catheter, but an 18-gauge or even a 14-gauge make delivery Figure 3.15 System B heat and touch system expedites
easier, providing the root canal is wide enough to accommodate melting or severing gutta percha that protrudes from the pulp
them. Source: Edward R. Eisner. canal. Source: Edward R. Eisner.

Figure 3.16 Cordless light cure is handy in the field. Keep it in

its recharger when not in use, to ensure its functionality.
Source: Edward R. Eisner.

Figure 3.17 Lindemann bone-cutting burs have an HP shank,

fit a slow speed handpiece, and come in various lengths, up to
45 mm, suitable for large carnivore surgery. Source: Edward R. Eisner.
16 Part I: History of Veterinary Dentistry, Teeth & Dental Therapy

Figure 3.18 Equine Wolf Tooth Kit affords greater surface area Figure 3.19 Equine Extraction Equipment provides greater
of root contact during extractions. Source: Edward R. Eisner. leverage. Use it wisely so as not to fracture teeth or mandible.
Source: Edward R. Eisner.

Figure 3.20 10 mm osteotome. A few controlled, powerful Figure 3.21 The large 1″ Gouge. Also needs to be used with
impacts are less traumatic than the “semi-automatic” concussion control and finesse. Source: Edward R. Eisner.
effect of multiple lower impact strokes. Source: Edward R. Eisner.
 Special Considerations Regarding Equipment and Instruments 17

Figure 3.22 A large, double-action rongeur for alveoloplasty/
ridge contouring provides patient comfort. RESPECT
EQUIPMENT: A rongeur is not an extraction forceps, nor is it a
pair of pliers; it is designed to make a simple straight cut!
Source: Edward R. Eisner.
Figure 3.23 Vetroson V10® Electro-surgery Unit (Summit Hill
Laboratory. Tinton Falls, NJ, U.S.A.), is used for good hemostasis
as well as for cutting soft tissue. Source: Edward R. Eisner.

Figure 3.24 A portable electrical evacuation system is handy,

and saves using many gauze sponges when providing
visualization of the surgical field. Source: Edward R. Eisner.
 19

Dental Form and Function as it Relates to Dental Therapy of Wild Animals

NOTE: Step-by-step therapeutic examples follow this sec-

tion. Below is an outline indicating effective dental treat-
ment modalities for various tooth types.
Elodont: Teeth that are continuously growing and have
open apices. If vital, elodont teeth are better treated with
pulpotomy. If necrotic, then root canal therapy or extrac-
tion is indicated.
1) Animals with only anterior elodont teeth (most
rodents, e.g. rats, mice, squirrels; elephant tusks; hog
tusks; hippo canines and incisors; upper incisors of hyrax).
2) Animals with both anterior and posterior elodont
teeth. (Examples include Lagomorphs and some rodents
[guinea pigs and chinchilla]; wombats are the sole
marsupials).
3) Animals with only posterior elodont teeth (e.g. eden- Figure 4.2 Female Red River Hog. Only the male has lower
tates [anteaters, armadillo, pangolins and sloths], and tusks and they are canine teeth. Source: Peter Emily collection.
the primitive ungulate [aardvark]).
Artiodactyla: Tusks of hogs, and pigs, including babirusa
Tusks are elodont teeth: are the maxillary and mandibular canines.
Proboscidea: African and Asian elephant tusks are maxil- Artiodactyla: Canines and incisors of hippopotamus
lary lateral incisors (2I2).

Figure 4.1 Warthog – Elodont male mandibular canine teeth

only. Posterior teeth are brachydont, bunodont, and bilophodont. Figure 4.3 Hippopotamus – Heterodont, elodont incisors, and
Source: Peter Emily collection. canines, bunodont molars. Source: Peter Emily collection.

Zoo and Wild Animal Dentistry, First Edition. Edited by Peter P. Emily and Edward R. Eisner.
© 2021 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2021 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
20 Part I: History of Veterinary Dentistry, Teeth & Dental Therapy

Rodentia: Dormice, old and new world rats and mice,

kangaroo rats, squirrels, beavers, and capybara generally
have elodont anterior teeth, brachydont and loxidont
posterior teeth.
Elodont maxillary canines and incisors: Perissodactyla
Rhinoceros has elodont maxillary canines and incisors.
Elodont posterior teeth:
Aardvark [1] – Tubulidenata (primitive ungulate)
Elodont all dentition:
Rodentia: Degu (South American rat), guinea pig, paca,
chinchilla (see Figures 4.6 and 4.7).
Lagomorpha (see Figures 4.8–4.11).

Figure 4.4 Walrus – Maxillary canines are tusks. Elodont

maxillary canines, Bunodont, slightly domed occlusal teeth.
Source: Peter Emily collection.

Elodont maxillary incisors: Hyrax (Atlantogenata)

(Little brother elephant – reference Maasai warriors).
Elodont canines:
Artiodactyla, Suidae: Hogs and pigs, babirusa
Rostral elodont teeth (canines and incisors):
Artiodactyla: Hippopotamus, peccary

Figures 4.6 and 4.7 Guinea pig: The mandibular canines

Figure 4.5 Beaver Rodentia Castoridae Castor (2 species). extend to the last molar. Heterodont, elodont (all dentition),
Elodont incisors, brachydont, and loxidont caudal teeth. dilamdodont occlusal surfaces of posterior teeth.
Source: Edward R. Eisner. Source: Edward R. Eisner.
 Dental Form and Function 21

Figures 4.8–4.11 Lop Rabbit: Mandibular incisor extends to the mesial aspect of the first cheek tooth. Heterodont, elodont
(all teeth), Hypsodont cheek teeth, dilamdodont posterior teeth. Source: Edward R. Eisner.

Wombat: Heterodont, elodont (entire dentition); the only

marsupial in this category. All teeth are aradicular
hypsodont [2].
Bunodont: Dentition that has low crowns (roots are
relatively long compared to the crowns), with prominent
conical cusps on posterior teeth (e.g. pigs, bears, and
browsing herbivores).
Carnivora, Pinnepedia: Walrus (post canines).
Artiodactyla, Hippopotamidae: Hippopotamus molars.
Artiodactyla, Bovidae: Buffalo, cattle, spiral-horned ante-
lopes, browsing antelopes, grazing antelopes, horse-like
antelopes, Gazelles and dwarf antelopes, sheep.
Edentata: Sloths.
Bunodont and Brachydont:
Artiodactyla, suidae: Pigs (Figures 4.12 and 4.13). Figure 4.12 Giant panda: Strongly bunodont, and brachydont.
Giant panda Source: Peter Emily collection.
22 Part I: History of Veterinary Dentistry, Teeth & Dental Therapy

Rodentia: Squirrels and beavers, old and new world rats

and mice, kangaroo rat, porcupines.
Homodont: (Figures 4.18–4.21).
Carnivora, Pinnepedia: Sea lion (homodont posterior teeth)
Edentata: Armadillo, sloth (cheek teeth)
Cetacea: Monophydont: Whales, dolphins, porpoises
(when teeth are present)
Reptilia: Pleurodont homodont: Snakes, lizards

Figure 4.13 Koala: Bunodont, brachydont. Source: Peter Emily

collection.

Brachydont: Browzers. Crowns shorter than roots and

suffer relatively little occlusal wear, with roots that, at
dental maturity, are longer than the crowns; not ever-
growing. Usually omnivores, carnivores:
Carnivora, Canidae, Felidae, Ursidae, Pongidae, Artiodactyla,
Cervidae: Non-grazing herbivores, aka browzers, e.g. tapir,
deer, giraffe (see Figures 4.14 and 4.15).

Figures 4.16 and 4.17 Beaver – Brachydont, loxidont. Source:

Peter Emily Collection.

Figures 4.14 and 4.15 Giraffe: Brachydont (browsers),

bunodont, selenodont. Source: Edward R. Eisner, skull Source:
Peter Emily collection. Figure 4.18 Boa Constrictor. Source: Edward R. Eisner.

Figure 4.19 Python. Source: Edward R. Eisner.
Figures 4.20 and 4.21 Komodo Dragon. Sources: 4.20 Peter
Emily Collection. 4.21 Source: Edward R. Eisner.
Hypsodont: Grazers. High crowns, longer than the roots,
forever growing, whose anatomical crowns shorten
through occlusal attrition with age (e.g. Equidae,
Elephant molars). (Figures 4.22–4.28).
Artiodactyla: Pronghorn antelopes
Perissodactyla: Horses, zebras.
Proboscidea: African and Asian elephant - heterodont, elo-
dont tusks (2I2), hypsodont molars that are loxodont.
Rodentia: Beavers, gerbils, hamsters, squirrels, marmots,
prairie dogs.
Hypsodont and Brachydont: Are treated similarly
endodontically.
Rodentia, Geomyidae: Pocket gopher
Dental Form and Function 23
Figures 4.22–4.24 Impala: Bunodont, selenodont. Sources: 4.22
and 4.23 Source: Edward R. Eisner. 4.24 Peter Emily collection.
Thecodont: Teeth set in a gomphosis (socket), as in dino-
saurs, crocodiles, and mammals, including humans and
rhinoceros.
Endodontic treatment plan similar to dogs, cats, and
humans:
Carnivora (Canidae, Felidae, Mustelidae, Pongidae)
Procyonidae, Ursidae [Bunodont 1M1], Hyaenidae – aard-
wolf [Small caniform (microdontia of premolars),
Homodont]: Heterodont, diphyodont, secodont carnas-
sials teeth brachydont posterior teeth.
Primatomorpha:
Marsupialia: Secodont, bunodont and brachydont or hyp-
sodont 3P3K
24 Part I: History of Veterinary Dentistry, Teeth & Dental Therapy

Figures 4.25 and 4.26 Horses and Zebras have hypsodont (high-crowned; grazers), and are
selenodont. Source: Edward R. Eisner.

Figures 4.27 and 4.28 Perissodactyla: Rhinoceros. Thecodont, brachydont, hypsodont, lophodont (a simpler
crown pattern than the equids), with elodont maxillary canines and incisors. Source: Photo Edward R. Eisner,
skull from Peter Emily collection.

Figures 4.29 and 4.30 Somali Leopard. Sources: 4.29 Edward R. Eisner, 4.30 Peter Emily collection.
 Dental Form and Function 25

Figure 4.31 Clouded Leopard: Secodont, brachydont molar Figure 4.32 Skunk: Secodont, brachydont molar teeth.
teeth. Source: Edward R. Eisner. Source: Edward R. Eisner.

Figures 4.33 and 4.34 African lion: Heterodont, diphyodont, secodont carnassials, brachydont. Sources: 4.33 Edward R. Eisner,
4.34 Peter Emily collection.

Figures 4.35 and 4.36 Maned Wolf: Heterodont, diphyodont, secodont carnassials, brachydont. Sources: 4.35 Edward R. Eisner
4.36 sarefo, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Chrysocyon.brachyurus.jpg#/media/File:Chrysocyon.brachyurus.jpg. CC
BY-SA 3.0.
26 Part I: History of Veterinary Dentistry, Teeth & Dental Therapy

Figure 4.37 Grizzly bear: Heterodont, diphyodont, Figure 4.38 Black bear: Heterodont, diphyodont, brachydont
brachydont posterior teeth. Source: Edward R. Eisner. posterior teeth. Source: Peter Emily collection.

Figure 4.39 Baboon: Heterodont, diphyodont, Figure 4.40 Mandrill: Heterodont, diphyodont, bilophodont,
bilophodont, brachydont posterior teeth. brachydont posterior teeth. Source: Peter Emily collection.
Source: Edward R. Eisner.

Figures 4.41 and 4.42 Chimpanzee: Heterodont, diphyodont, bilophodont, brachydont posterior teeth.
Sources: Edward R. Eisner.
 Dental Form and Function 27

Kangaroo: Diphyodont, secodont, brachydont or hyp-
sodont 3P3.
Koala: Bunodont, brachydont.
Tasmanian Devil: Brachydont, bunodont, bilophodont.
Wombat: Heterodont, elodont (entire dentition); the only
marsupial in this category. All teeth are aradicular
hypsodont [2].
Wallaby: Diphydont, secodont 1st premolar, brachydont
molars, hypsodont incisors

Figure 4.43 Wallaby Denver Zoo, Denver, Colorado USA. Source: Figure 4.44 Wallaby. Source: Auckland Zoo, Auckland, NZ 2018
Edward R. Eisner. (Wallaby B60012-X-000000CC-3).

Figure 4.45 Wallaby. Source: Auckland Zoo, Auckland, NZ 2018 Figure 4.46 Tazmanian Devil. Source: Coralee Eisner with
(Wallaby B60012-X-000000CE-3). permission.
28 Part I: History of Veterinary Dentistry, Teeth & Dental Therapy

Figure 4.49 Tazmanian Devil. Source: Auckland Zoo, Auckland,

NZ 2018 (Wallaby B60012-X-000000CC-3).

Figure 4.47 Tazmanian Devil. Source: Coralee Eisner with

permission.

Figure 4.48 Tazmanian Devil. Source: Auckland Zoo, Auckland, Figure 4.50 Tazmanian Devil. Source: Auckland Zoo, Auckland,
NZ 2018 (Wallaby B60012-X-000000CC-3). NZ 2018 (Wallaby B60012-X-000000CC-3).

­References

1 Miles, A.E.W. and Grigson, C. (eds.) (2003). Colyer’s 2 Pelizzone, I., Di Ianni, F., Volta, A. et al. (2017). Computed
Variations and diseases of the teeth of animals. Cambridge: tomographic features of incisor pseudo-odontomas in
Cambridge University Press. prairie dogs (Cynomys ludovicianus). Vet. Radiol.
Ultrasound 58 (3): 273–283.
 29

Carnivore Dental Therapy

Carnivore endodontics present the vast majority of dental
problems when dental service is requested in captive
animal sanctuaries and zoos in the United States.
Endodontic therapy with a competent understanding and
treatment of varied canal morphology in animals that will
be seen only once is paramount.
NOTE: A trigeminal tick in carnivores, such as lip-
smacking and a sideways head jerk, may be due to a
fracture of the second cervical vertebra.
5
­ A Conventional (Standard/Normograde)
Endodontics Overview
agent, followed by 5.0% sodium hypochlorite and saline
irrigation. The canal is dried with, long absorbent points
and usually fitted with a gutta percha point. Obturation
with special attention to canal morphology and total apical
seal is critical. Always monitor every step radiographically.
Root canal K files and reamers are utilized to provide
adequate canal space for smaller files to complete the root
canal preparation. Surgical endodontics is the treatment of
choice rather than extraction when canal obstruction that
cannot be cannulated is encountered, because it is more
efficient and salvages the affected tooth. Below are three
case examples and associated treatment plans (see
Figures 5A.1–5A.6).

Initial radiographic diagnosis in large felids is essential to

determine pathology and endodontic morphology, espe-
cially when unique apical canal morphology is
encountered.
Root canals calcify with age making initial access to
older canals difficult. Canal access can be one to two
centimeters deep and often cannot be gained alone with
high-speed burs in a dental handpiece. Endodontic access
to intact crowns is begun at the mesial gingival border of
the canine crown with a high speed #331 or #4, 6 or 8 bur
to provide initial depth and access direction. Completed
access, can be gained with an HP and long shaft #4 round
bur or a #43 Irwin wire drill bit, purchased from an Ace
Hardware (USA) or other hardware stores. This drill has a
similar diameter to an HP dental bur and will fit comfortably
Figure 5A.1 Seven-year old tiger. Complicated crown fracture
in a slow-speed hand piece. of upper right canine #104, with complete covering of healthy
Initial canal file placement can be somewhat difficult in epithelium. The apical anatomy shows a completely
small diameter root canals, where file breakage is common. encompassing lamina dura and absence of pathology (arrow). A
surgical operculectomy was performed. The exposed coronal
Root canal preparation is followed with a small diameter
surface presented a solid occlusal calcification. Treatment plan:
reamer or K files, sequencing to large diameter files Light planing of coronal surface margins to remove rough
lubricated with RC Prep® or another dentinal chelating fracture segments. Source: Edward R. Eisner.

Zoo and Wild Animal Dentistry, First Edition. Edited by Peter P. Emily and Edward R. Eisner.
© 2021 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2021 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
30 Part I: History of Veterinary Dentistry, Teeth & Dental Therapy
Figure 5A.2 22-year old mountain lion. Right lower canine
#404 has internal and external root resorption (◯). Treatment
Plan: Rx surgical extraction. Source: Edward R. Eisner.
Figure 5A.4 15-year old tiger (See also Figures 5A.5 & 5A.6
below). Complicated crown fracture right upper canine #104.
Image shows endodontic working length. Source: Edward R. Eisner.
Figure 5A.6 15-year old tiger. Under-filled apical delta. Time
constraints prevented additional therapy. Apicoectomy
scheduled for next visit. Source: Edward R. Eisner.
Figure 5A.3 22-year old mountain lion. Right lower canine
#404 has been surgically extracted. Source: Edward R. Eisner.
Figure 5A.5 15-year old tiger. Radiograph shows lucent
infected apical delta (◯). Source: Edward R. Eisner.
­Atypical Tiger Apical Anatomy
The majority of cases seen in zoos and sanctuaries are large
felid endodontic conditions with tigers being most com­
mon species. Most endodontic root canal morphology
follows a narrowing cornucopia-like taper from the coronal
aspect to the apex, as in the tiger (Figures 5A.4-5A.6)
shown above. The apical canal in both upper and lower
tiger canine teeth often does not end in a fine taper, but in
an amorphic bulbous formation. In addition, the upper
canines frequently have an apical delta terminating into a
 Carnivore Dental Therapy 31

blunted apex (Figures. 5A.7 and FA.8 below). It is very dif- After apical obturation, (see Figures 5A.7–5A.8,
ficult to obturate these atypical apical bulbous areas with 5A.9.1–5A.9.3, and 5A.10.1–5A.10.2 below), the remainder of
conventional endodontic procedures and be assured an the endodontic obturation is completed with conventional
apical seal. The bulbous apex in the tiger upper canine gutta percha placement, and restoration of access preparation,
teeth commonly has a connecting elongated fan-shaped
apical delta, extending to a blunt and slightly frayed root
end that requires special attention for successful apical
obturation. Though both upper and lower canines can have
bulbous canal apexes, this special apical delta formation
seems more commonly found in upper canine teeth.

Figure 5A.9.1 Tiger canine tooth (see also Figures 5A.9.2

and 5A.9.3). Maxillary canine morphology, presenting blunted
irregular apex with apical delta exits (right of image ◯).
Source: Edward R. Eisner.

Figure 5A.7 A 16-year old, 350 lb. neutered male tiger. An Figure 5A.9.2 Radiograph of tiger canine tooth from above
apical bulbous canal and apical delta with a blunt frayed apical photo. Source: Edward R. Eisner.
root end (→) in a lower canine tooth. Source: Edward R. Eisner.

Figure 5A.8 Successful obturation of both bulbous apical canal

and apical delta of the 16-year-old tiger above. Source: Edward Figure 5A.9.3 Tiger canine tooth showing incomplete
R. Eisner. mid-canal obturation (◯). Source: Edward R. Eisner.
32 Part I: History of Veterinary Dentistry, Teeth & Dental Therapy

Figure 5A.10.1 & 5A.10.2 Left upper tiger canine #204 showing typical flared root canal apex (→) and frayed apical delta
terminus (◯). Source: Peter Emily collection.

Figure 5A.10.3 Tiger study skull showing flared root canal

apex, and turbinates. Source: Peter Emily collection.

Figure 5A.10.5 Apical bulb and flared apical delta of tiger

maxillary canine. Source: Peter Emily Collection.

Figure 5A.10.4 Endodontic failure. Obturation (→) incomplete. Figure 5A.11.1 Dental Stopping (gutta percha). Source: Edward
Tiger maxillary canine tooth. Source: Peter Emily Collection. R. Eisner.
 Carnivore Dental Therapy 33

Figure 5A.11.3 Dental stopping after being rolled and shaped

Figure 5A.11.2 Softening dental stopping so that it can be
on a glass slab. Source: Edward R. Eisner.
shaped to conform to the root canal. Source: Edward R. Eisner.

B
­ leeding Canals

Bleeding canals are commonly the result of retained pulp

tissue. Bleeding is frequently seen from fresh fractures to
upper canine teeth of large felids. Removal of all pulp tis-
sue from endodontically involved canines with bulbous
chambers and dentinal serrations is often not possible.
Residual pulp tissue in these areas is usually the cause of
bleeding. Treatment is the same as the above first method,
but with the use of a dry cement mixture. This procedure
should be utilized for all exotic carnivores, regardless of
apical anatomy. MTA apical plugs placed and radiographi-
cally verified before completing conventional obturation
assures a greater margin of success in animals seen only
once. Final obturation may be accomplished with other
methods, such as crown down lateral condensation, or
with a product like Gutta Flow 2® (Coltene/Whaledent,
Cuyahoga Falls, Ohio, USA). Figure 5A.12.1 Five-year old diabetic lemur, “Mitzi.” Image shows
NOTE: Always check the presence or absence of a internal pulp resorption of right upper canine #104. Treatment
root end lamina dura to ascertain tooth vitality (see Plan: normograde root canal therapy. Note absence of periapical
lamina dura and periapical boney lysis. Source: Edward R. Eisner.
Figures 5A.12.1–5A.12.2 below).
Complete obturation of the apical terminus is the most
important aspect of standard root canal therapy (see
Figures 5A.13.1–5A.13.2).
As written above, the canines are the most commonly
involved teeth and therapy is similar in technique described
for large carnivores in that the same procedures, instru-
mentation, obturation, and restoration are followed. Early
detection of endodontic disease in Canidae, and small
Felids, (Cheetah, Lynx Rufus and Canadensis, Ocelot, and
Serval) are treated with similar endodontic techniques as
are utilized in domestic Canids and Felids. At the time of
writing, obturation with initial 4–6 mm apical placement
of MTA has shown the best results. Future development of
materials and instruments may replace current therapeutic
Figure 5A.12.2 The five-year old lemur, “Mitzi” (1) above.
recommendations. Currently, the development of new fill- Normal left upper canine #204 with complete apical lamina
ing materials containing MTA are increasing endodontic dura. Source: Edward R. Eisner.
Another random document with
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huomenna? — tiedusti Ivan Fjodorovitš aivan erikoisen ja ärtyneen
uteliaisuuden kiihoittamana.

— Se on kyllä niin, että edeltäpäin ei voi tietää.

— Sitäpaitsi sinä silloin putosit vinniltä.

— Vinnille minä kiipeän joka päivä, voin pudota huomennakin

vinniltä. Tai jos en vinniltä, niin putoan kellariin, kellarissa käyn myös
joka päivä, on asiaa.

Ivan Fjodorovitš katsoi häneen pitkään.

— Sinä syötät pajuköyttä, minä huomaan sen, mutta minä en

oikein ymmärrä sinua, — lausui hän hiljaa, mutta ankarasti. — Aiotko
huomenna ryhtyä teeskentelemään kolme päivää kestävää
kaatuvataudin kohtausta, vai mitä?

Smerdjakov, joka oli katsellut maahan ja taas leikkinyt oikean

jalkansa kärjellä, asetti oikean jalkansa paikalleen, työnsi sen sijaan
eteenpäin vasenta jalkaansa, nosti päänsä ja lausui hymähtäen:

— Jos minä voisinkin sen tempun tehdä, toisin sanoen tekeytyä

semmoiseksi, ja koska se ei ole ensinkään vaikeata kokeneelle
miehelle, niin minulla on tässä myös täysi oikeus käyttää tätä keinoa
pelastaakseni itseni kuolemasta; sillä kun minä makaan taudin
kourissa, niin vaikkapa Agrafena Aleksandrovna tulisikin heidän
isänsä luo, niin eivät he silloin voi kysyä sairaalta ihmiseltä: »Miksi et
ilmoittanut?» Hävettää heitä toki itseäänkin.

— Äh, piru! — huusi äkkiä Ivan Fjodorovitš, ja hänen kasvonsa

vääristyivät vihasta. — Mitä sinä aina pelkäät henkesi puolesta!
Kaikki nuo veli Dmitrin uhkaukset ovat vain kiihtymyksen sanoja
eivätkä mitään muuta. Ei hän sinua tapa. Tappaa, mutta ei sinua!

— Tappaa kuin kärpäsen ja ennen muita minut. Mutta enemmän

kuin tätä minä pelkään toista asiaa: että minun luullaan olleen
liitossa heidän kanssaan, kun he tekevät jotakin päätöntä isälleen.

— Miksi sinun luultaisiin olleen osallisena?

— Siksi luullaan olleen osallisena, kun minä heille nuo merkit

ilmaisin suurena salaisuutena.

— Mitkä merkit? Kenelle ilmaisit? Piru sinut vieköön, puhu

selvemmin!

— Minun täytyy täydellisesti tunnustaa, — sanoa venytti

Smerdjakov pedanttisen levollisesti, — että tässä on eräs salaisuus
minulla ja Fjodor Pavlovitšilla. He, kuten itse suvaitsette tietää (jos
vain suvaitsette sen tietää), ovat jo muutamana päivänä, kun tulee
yö tai vain iltakin, heti lukinneet ovensa sisäpuolelta. Te olette lopulta
alkanut joka kerta palata aikaisin ylös huoneeseenne, ja eilen te ette
ollenkaan mihinkään poistunut, ja siksi kenties ette tiedäkään, miten
huolellisesti he nyt ovat alkaneet sulkea yöksi ovensa. Ja tulkoonpa
itse Grigori Vasiljevitš niin he eivät avaa hänelle, ennenkuin ovat
hänet äänestä varmasti tunteneet. Mutta Grigori Vasiljevitš ei tule,
sillä minä palvelen nykyjään yksin heitä huoneissa, — niin he itse
määräsivät siitä hetkestä alkaen, kun alkoivat tuon hommansa
Agrafena Aleksandrovnan kanssa, mutta yöksi minäkin nyt heidän
määräyksestään poistun ja vietän yöni sivurakennuksessa, jossa en
saa puoliyöhön asti nukkua, vaan minun on vahdittava, noustava ja
kierrettävä ympäri pihan sekä odotettava, milloin Agrafena
Aleksandrovna tulee, koska he jo muutamana päivänä ovat häntä
odottaneet kuin hullut. He ajattelevat näin: hän, sanovat he, pelkää
Dmitri Fjodorovitšia (he nimittävät häntä Mitjaksi) ja tulee sentähden
myöhemmin yöllä takateitä luokseni; ja sinä, sanovat, vahdi häntä
puoliyöhön asti ja myöhempäänkin. Ja jos hän tulee, niin juokse sinä
ovelle ja koputa oveeni tai ikkunaan puistosta kädellä kaksi
ensimmäistä kertaa hiljempää, näin: yks, kaks, ja sitten heti kolme
kertaa nopeammassa tahdissa: kop-kop-kop. Silloin, sanovat, minä
heti ymmärrän, että hän on tullut, ja avaan sinulle hiljaa oven. Toisen
merkin he neuvoivat minulle siltä varalta, että tapahtuu jotakin
erikoista: ensin kaksi kertaa nopeasti: kop-kop, ja sitten vähän ajan
kuluttua vielä yksi kerta paljon kovemmin. Silloin he ymmärtävät, että
on jotakin äkillistä tapahtunut ja että minun pitää välttämättömästi
tavata heitä, ja avaavat myös minulle ja minä menen sisälle
ilmoittamaan. Tämä kaikki siltä varalta, että Agrafena Aleksandrovna
ei voisi itse tulla, vaan lähettäisi jonkin sanan; sitäpaitsi Dmitri
Fjodorovitš voivat myös tulla, niin hänestäkin on ilmoitettava, että
hän on läheisyydessä. Kovin he pelkäävät Dmitri Fjodorovitšia, niin
että jos Agrafena Aleksandrovna jo olisi tullut ja he olisivat hänen
kanssaan sulkeutuneet lukon taakse ja Dmitri Fjodorovitš silloin
ilmestyisi lähettyville, niin silloinkin on minun velvollisuuteni
ehdottomasti heille heti siitä ilmoittaa koputtamalla kolme kertaa, niin
että ensimmäinen merkki, johon kuuluu viisi koputusta, merkitsee:
»Agrafena Aleksandrovna tulivat», ja toinen merkki, kolme
koputusta: »On hyvin tärkeä asia»; näin itse minua useampaan
kertaan opettivat näyttämällä ja selittämällä. Ja koska koko
maailmassa nämä merkit tunnen vain minä ja he, niin he ilman
mitään epäilyksiä ja huutamatta mitään (heitä peloittaa kovin ääneen
vastaaminen) avaavat oven. Nämä merkit juuri myös Dmitri
Fjodorovitš nyt on saanut tietää.
 — Miksi on saanut tietää? Oletko sinä ilmoittanut? Kuinka sinä olet
uskaltanut ilmoittaa?

— Tästä samasta pelosta juuri. Ja kuinka minä olisin uskaltanut

salata heiltä? Dmitri Fjodorovitš ahdistelivat joka päivä: »Sinä petät
minua, sinä salaat minulta jotakin? Minä katkaisen molemmat
koipesi!» Silloin minä heille ilmoitin nuo samat merkit, jotta he
ainakin näkisivät minun alamaisuuteni ja siten tulisivat vakuutetuiksi,
että minä en petä heitä, vaan kaikin tavoin annan heille tietoja.

— Jos luulet, että hän aikoo käyttää näitä merkkejä ja tahtoo tulla
sisälle, niin älä päästä häntä.

— Mutta jos minä itse makaan taudinkohtauksessa, kuinka minä

silloin estän pääsemästä, jos vaikka rohkenisinkin olla heitä
päästämättä tuntien heidän hurjuutensa.

— Äh, piru vieköön! Miten sinä olet niin varma siitä, että
kaatuvatauti tulee, hitto sinut vieköön? Pidätkö sinä minua pilkkanasi
vai?

— Kuinka minä uskaltaisin pitää teitä pilkkana, ja onko nyt

pilanteon aika, kun on semmoinen pelko? Aavistan, että kaatuvatauti
tulee, minulla on sellainen aavistus, se tulee jo pelkästä pelosta.

— Äh, hitto! Jos sinä makaat sairaana, niin Grigori vahtii. Ilmoita
edeltäpäin Grigorille, tämä ei päästä häntä.

— Merkkejä minä en uskalla millään tavalla ilmaista Grigori

Vasiljevitšille ilman herran käskyä. Mitä taas siihen tulee, että Grigori
Vasiljevitš kuulee heidät eikä päästä tulemaan, niin he juuri tänään
ovat sairastuneet eilisestä, ja Marfa Ignatjevna aikoo huomenna
ryhtyä heitä parantamaan. Niin he äsken sopivat. Tämä
parantaminen heillä on hyvin mielenkiintoista: Marfa Ignatjevna
tietää erään ryytiviinan, ja heillä on aina sitä, se on väkevää, jostakin
ruohosta tehtyä, he tuntevat sellaisen salaisen keinon. Tällä
salaisella lääkkeellä he parantavat Grigori Vasiljevitšia noin kolme
kertaa vuodessa, kun heillä kolottaa pahasti ristiluita aivan kuin olisi
jotakin halvausta, kolmisen kertaa vuodessa. Silloin he ottavat
pyyheliinan, kostuttavat sen tässä ryytiviinassa, ja Marfa Ignatjevna
hieroo hänen selkäänsä puoli tuntia, kuivaksi asti, se tulee ihan
punaiseksi ja turpoaa, ja sitten he antavat hänen juoda sen, mitä
pullossa vielä on jäljellä, sekä lukevat samalla jonkin rukouksen, ei
kuitenkaan ihan kaikkea viinaa, sillä pienen osan he tässä
harvinaisessa tapauksessa jättävät itselleen ja myös juovat sen. Ja
molemmat, sanon teille, koska eivät ole juoppoja, samassa
kellahtavat nurin ja nukkuvat hyvin pitkän ajan sikeästi; ja kun Grigori
Vasiljevitš herää, niin hän melkein aina tämän jälkeen on terve,
mutta Marfa Ignatjevnalla herätessään tämän jälkeen on aina
päänkivistystä. Niin että siis jos Marfa Ignatjevna huomenna täyttää
tämän aikeensa, niin tokkohan he mitään kuulevat ja tokkohan voivat
estää Dmitri Fjodorovitšiä pääsemästä. He nukkuvat.

— Mitä hölynpölyä! Ja tämä kaikki sattuu aivan kuin vartavasten

yhteen samalla kertaa: sinulla on kaatuvatauti, ja nuo molemmat
ovat tiedottomina! — huudahti Ivan Fjodorovitš. — Kunhan vain et
sinä itse tahtoisikin johtaa asioita siihen, että sattuisi tuolla tavoin? —
pääsi yhtäkkiä hänen suustaan, ja hän rypisti uhkaavasti
kulmakarvojaan.

— Kuinka minä tahtoisin niin johtaa… ja miksi johtaa, kun tässä

kaikki riippuu yksinomaan Dmitri Fjodorovitšista ja vain hänen
ajatuksistaan… Jos he tahtovat jotakin tehdä, niin he sen tekevät,
jos taas eivät, niin enhän minä tahallani heitä tänne kuljeta
tuupatakseni heidät isänsä luo.

— Miksi hän tulisi isän luo ja vielä salaa, jos, kuten sinä itse sanot,
Agrafena Aleksandrovna ei ensinkään tulekaan, — jatkoi Ivan
Fjodorovitš vihasta kalveten. — Itsehän sinä sanot sitä ja olet kaiken
aikaa täällä asuvana ollut vakuutettu siitä, että ukko vain kuvittelee ja
että hänen luokseen ei tule tuo elukka. Miksi Dmitri tunkeutuisi ukon
luo, jos tuo ei tule? Puhu! Minä tahdon tietää sinun ajatuksesi.

— Itse suvaitsette tietää, miksi tulevat, mitäpä tässä minun

ajatuksillani on tekemistä? Tulevat yksinomaan ilkeydessään tai
epäluuloisuudessaan esimerkiksi siinä tapauksessa, että minä olen
sairaana, epäilevät ja menevät kärsimättömyydessään etsimään
huoneesta kuten eilisellä kerralla: eikö muka hän ole jotenkin
sattunut livahtamaan heidän huomaamattaan. Heillä on myös
täydellisesti tiedossaan, että Fjodor Pavlovitšilla on valmiina iso
kirjekuori ja siihen on suljettu kolmetuhatta ruplaa kolmella sinetillä,
köytetty nauha ympäri ja kirjoitettu heidän omalla kädellään.
»Enkelilleni Grušenjkalle, jos hän tahtoo tulla», ja myöhemmin,
kolme päivää sitten, he kirjoittivat siihen alle vielä: »ja
kananpoikaselleni». Tämäpä juuri on epäilyttävää.

— Roskaa! — huudahti Ivan Fjodorovitš melkein raivostuneena. —

Dmitri ei mene ryöstämään rahoja ja tappamaan vielä sen lisäksi
isäänsä. Hän olisi eilen voinut tappaa hänet Grušenjkan tähden
niinkuin raivostunut hölmö ainakin, mutta hän ei mene ryöstämään!

— He tarvitsevat nyt rahoja, tarvitsevat äärimmäisen kipeästi, Ivan

Fjodorovitš. Te ette tiedäkään, miten tarvitsevat, tavattomasti, —
selitti Smerdjakov levollisesti ja huomattavan täsmällisesti. — Noita
samoja kolmeatuhatta he sitäpaitsi pitävät ikäänkuin omina
rahoinaan ja ovat itse selittäneet minulle näin: »Minulle», sanovat,
»on isä vielä velkaa tasan kolmetuhatta». Ajatelkaa tämän lisäksi,
Ivan Fjodorovitš, että tässä on jonkinmoinen totinen totuuskin: sehän
on melkein varmasti niin, täytyy sanoa, että Agrafena
Aleksandrovna, jos he vain itse sitä haluavat, välttämättömästi
saavat heidät menemään kanssaan naimisiin, itse herran Fjodor
Pavlovitšin nimittäin, jos vain tahtovat, — no, ehkäpä he tahtovatkin.
Minähän sanon muuten vain, että hän ei tule, hän kukaties tahtoo
enemmänkin, se on tulla suorastaan rouvaksi. Minä tiedän itse, että
heidän kauppiaansa Samsonov puhui hänelle aivan avoimesti, että
tästä ei sukeudu ensinkään mikään tyhmä juttu, ja sitä puhuessaan
he nauroivat. He itse eivät älyn puolesta ole ensinkään tyhmä. Ei
heidän maksa mennä naimisiin sellaisen paljaskintun kanssa kuin
Dmitri Fjodorovitš. Kun nyt tämä otetaan huomioon, niin
ajatelkaahan itse, Ivan Fjodorovitš, että silloin ei Dmitri Fjodorovitšille
eikä myöskään teille veljenne Aleksei Fjodorovitšin kanssa jää
kerrassaan mitään isänne kuoleman jälkeen, ei ruplaakaan, sillä
sentähden juuri Agrafena Aleksandrovna menevätkin naimisiin
heidän kanssaan, jotta antaisivat siirtää kaikki omalle nimelleen ja
saisivat itselleen kaikki, mitä on kapitaalia. Mutta jos teidän isänne
kuolisi nyt, kun ei mitään tämmöistä ole tapahtunut, niin jokainen
teistä saa neljäkymmentätuhatta varmasti heti paikalla, myöskin
Dmitri Fjodorovitš, jota he niin vihaavat, sillä mitään testamenttiahan
he eivät ole tehneet. Tämän kaiken Dmitri Fjodorovitš tietää sangen
hyvin…

Ivan Fjodorovitšin kasvoissa näytti jotakin vääristyvän ja

värähtävän.
Hän punastui äkkiä.
 — Miksi sinä siis, — keskeytti hän äkkiä Smerdjakovin, — kaiken
tämän jälkeen kehoitat minua menemään Tšermašnjaan? Mitä sinä
tahdoit sillä sanoa? Minä matkustan pois, ja täällä teillä tapahtuu
tämmöistä. — Ivan Fjodorovitš sai vaivoin vedetyksi henkeä.

— Aivan oikein, — lausui Smerdjakov hiljaa ja varovasti, mutta

tarkkasi samalla katsettaan pois kääntämättä Ivan Fjodorovitšia.

— Kuinka, aivan oikein? — kysyi Ivan Fjodorovitš vaivoin hilliten

itsensä ja silmät uhkaavasti säkenöiden.

— Minä puhuin teitä säälien. Teidän sijassanne minä heti jättäisin

kaikki täällä… mieluummin kuin istuisin tämmöisen asian äärellä…
— vastasi Smerdjakov katsellen mitä vilpittömimmän näköisenä Ivan
Fjodorovitšin säkenöiviin silmiin. Molemmat olivat vaiti.

— Sinä näytät olevan suuri idiootti ja tietenkin… hirveä roisto! —

lausui Ivan Fjodorovitš nousten äkkiä penkiltä. Sitten hän aikoi
mennä pikkuportista sisälle, mutta pysähtyi äkkiä ja käännähti
Smerdjakoviin päin. Tapahtui jotakin omituista: Ivan Fjodorovitš puri
äkkiä huultaan aivan kuin suonenvedossa, puristi kätensä nyrkkiin ja
hetkinen vielä, niin hän olisi syöksynyt Smerdjakovin kimppuun.
Tämä huomasi sen samalla hetkellä, vavahti ja riuhtaisihe
taaksepäin. Mutta hetki meni ohi Smerdjakoville tuhoa tuottamatta, ja
Ivan Fjodorovitš kääntyi jälleen portille ääneti ja ikäänkuin
neuvottomana.

— Minä matkustan huomenna Moskovaan, jos tahdot tietää, —

huomisaamuna aikaisin, — siinä kaikki! — lausui hän äkkiä häijysti,
selvästi ja kuuluvasti, ja ihmetteli myöhemmin itse, miksi hänen
tarvitsi silloin sanoa tämä Smerdjakoville.
 — Se on kaikkein parasta, — puuttui tämä puheeseen, aivan kuin
olisi tätä odottanutkin, — siinä on vain se, että Moskovasta teitä
voidaan sähköteitse vaivata täältä käsin, jos sattuu jotakin sellaista.

Ivan Fjodorovitš pysähtyi uudelleen ja kääntyi taas nopeasti

Smerdjakoviin päin. Mutta oli kuin tässäkin olisi tapahtunut muutos.
Koko hänen tuttavallisuutensa ja ylimielisyytensä oli hävinnyt
silmänräpäyksessä; hänen kasvoissaan kuvastui tavatonta
tarkkaavaisuutta ja odotusta, joka nyt kuitenkin oli arkaa ja
matelevaa: »Etkö sano vielä jotakin, etkö lisää», — semmoista oli
luettavana hänen kiinteässä, Ivan Fjodorovitšiin imeytyneessä
katseessaan.

— Eikö sitten Tšermašnjasta kutsuttaisi myös… jos sattuisi jotakin

sellaista? — karjaisi äkkiä Ivan Fjodorovitš koroittaen ties mistä
syystä äkkiä hirveästi ääntään.

— Myöskin Tšermašnjasta… vaivaavat… — mutisi Smerdjakov

melkein kuiskaten, mutta katsellen yhä erinomaisen kiinteästi Ivan
Fjodorovitšia suoraan silmiin.

— Moskova on vain kauempana ja Tšermašnja lähempänä ja sinä

kai säälit kyytirahoja, vai kuinka, kun ehdotat Tšermašnjaa, vai
säälitkö minua, että joudun tekemään suuren mutkan?

— Aivan oikein… — mutisi Smerdjakov jo sortuvalla äänellä,

hävyttömästi hymyillen ja valmiina taas suonenvedontapaisessa
jännityksessä hyppäämään ajoissa syrjään. Mutta Smerdjakovin
hämmästykseksi alkoi Ivan Fjodorovitš yhtäkkiä nauraa ja meni
nopeasti sisälle pikkuportista yhä edelleen nauraen. Ken olisi
katsahtanut hänen kasvoihinsa, olisi varmaankin päätellyt, ettei hän
nauranut ollenkaan sentähden, että hänellä oli niin kovin hauska.
Eikä hän itsekään olisi mitenkään voinut selittää, mikä hänen sillä
hetkellä oli. Hän liikkui ja kulki kuin kouristuksen vallassa.

7.

»Älykkään ihmisen kanssa kannattaa kyllä keskustella.»

Ja samalla tavalla hän puhuikin. Kun hän juuri sisälle astuessaan

kohtasi salissa Fjodor Pavlovitšin, niin hän äkkiä huusi tälle käsillään
huitoen: — Minä olen menossa omaan huoneeseeni ylös enkä
teidän luoksenne, näkemiin, — ja meni ohi koettaen olla
katsahtamatta isään. Saattoihan ukko tällä hetkellä tuntua hänestä
erittäin vastenmieliseltä, mutta noin kursailematon vihamielisen
tunteen ilmaisu oli yllättävää Fjodor Pavlovitšistakin. Ukko ilmeisesti
oli tahtonut hänelle mahdollisimman pian sanoa jotakin ja oli sen
takia vartavasten tullut saliin häntä vastaan; mutta kuultuaan
tämmöisen kohteliaisuuden hän pysähtyi ääneti ja seurasi pilkallisen
näköisenä silmillään portaita ylös ullakkokerrokseen menevää
poikaansa, kunnes tämä katosi näkyvistä.

— Mitä hän tarkoitti? — kysyi hän nopeasti Smerdjakovilta, joka oli

tullut sisälle Ivan Fjodorovitšin jäljessä.

— Ovat vihainen jostakin, kuka heidät ymmärtää, — mutisi tämä

vältellen.

— Hitto hänestä! Olkoon vihainen! Tuo pöytään teekeittiö ja korjaa

sitten joutuin luusi, pian. Eikö kuulu mitään uutta?
 Alkoivat juuri senlaatuiset kyselyt, jommoisten johdosta
Smerdjakov äsken oli valitellut Ivan Fjodorovitšille, nimittäin
odotettua naisvierasta koskevat, mutta me jätämme nämä kyselyt
tässä esittämättä. Puolen tunnin kuluttua talo oli lukossa ja hullu
ukonrahjus käyskenteli yksin huoneissa jännittävän odotuksen
vallassa kuunnellen, eikö jo kajahda viisi sovittua kopahdusta, ja
katsellen silloin tällöin ulos pimeistä ikkunoista, joista ei näkynyt
mitään muuta kuin yö.

Oli jo hyvin myöhä, mutta Ivan Fjodorovitš ei vieläkään nukkunut,

vaan mietti. Hän kävi myöhään makuulle tänä yönä, vasta kello
kahden ajoissa. Mutta me emme rupea kertomaan koko hänen
ajatustensa juoksua, eikä ole sopiva aikakaan meidän syventyä
tuohon sieluun: tälle sielulle tulee oma vuoronsa. Ja vaikka
koettaisimme jotakin kertoakin, niin tehtävä olisi varsin vaikea, sillä
ne eivät olleet ajatuksia, olivatpa vain jotakin hyvin epämääräistä ja,
mikä on tärkeintä, liian kiihtynyttä. Hän tunsi itse, että kaikki langat
olivat päässeet hänen käsistään. Häntä kiusasivat myös monet
omituiset ja miltei aivan odottamattomat mielihalut, esimerkiksi:
sydänyön jälkeen alkoi hänen mieleensä äkkiä sietämättömän
kovasti tehdä lähteä alas, avata ovi, mennä sivurakennukseen ja
tappaa Smerdjakov, mutta häneltä kysyttäisiin, miksi hän sen teki,
eikä hän itse kykenisi täsmälleen esittämään mitään syytä paitsi
ehkä sen, että tämä lakeija oli tullut hänelle vastenmieliseksi ja oli
hänen mielestään pahin solvaaja, mitä maailmassa saattoi olla.
Toiselta puolen valtasi tänä yönä useampaan kertaan hänen
sydämensä jokin selittämätön ja nöyryyttävä arkuus, joka — hän
tunsi sen — vei häneltä äkkiä ruumiillisetkin voimat. Hänen päätään
kivisti ja pyörrytti. Jokin vihamielisyys ahdisti hänen sieluaan, aivan
kuin hän olisi hankkiutunut kostamaan jollekin. Hän vihasi myös
Aljošaa, kun muisteli äskeistä keskusteluaan hänen kanssaan, vihasi
joinakin hetkinä suuresti itseäänkin. Katerina Ivanovnaa hän ei
muistanut juuri ajatellakaan, ja tätä hän myöhemmin suuresti
ihmetteli, varsinkin kun hän hyvin muisti, kuinka hän edellisenä
aamuna komeasti kehuessaan Katerina Ivanovnan luona, että lähtee
huomenna Moskovaan, oli sydämessään jo silloin kuiskannut
itsekseen: »Tämähän on pötypuhetta, et sinä lähde eikä sinun ole
niin helppo irtautua kuin nyt kerskut.» Muistellessaan paljon
myöhemmin jälkeenpäin tätä yötä Ivan Fjodorovitš erikoisella
vastenmielisyydellä muisti, miten hän väliin äkkiä oli noussut
sohvalta ja hiljaa, aivan kuin hirveästi peläten, että häntä pidetään
silmällä, oli avannut oven, mennyt portaille ja kuulostanut, miten
alhaalla, alakerroksen huoneissa, liikkui ja käyskeli Fjodor Pavlovitš,
kuunnellut pitkän aikaa, noin viisi minuuttia, omituisen uteliaisuuden
valtaamana, henkeään pidätellen ja sykkivin sydämin, mutta miksi
hän oli tehnyt tämän kaiken, miksi kuunnellut, — sitä hän ei tietysti
itsekään tietänyt. Tätä »tekoa» hän sittemmin koko elämänsä ajan
nimitti »inhoittavaksi» ja piti sitä koko elämänsä ajan sisimmässään,
sydämensä salaisimmassa sopukassa, koko elämänsä alhaisimpana
tekona. Fjodor Pavlovitšia itseään kohtaan hän ei noina hetkinä
tuntenut mitään vihaa, vaan oli vain koko sydämestään utelias
tietämään: kuinka hän kävelee siellä alhaalla, mitä hän esimerkiksi
nyt mahtaa huoneessaan tehdä, hän koetti arvata ja ajatella, miten
Fjodor Pavlovitš siellä alhaalla mahtoi katsella pimeistä ikkunoista ja
äkkiä pysähtyä keskelle huonetta ja odottaa, odottaa, — eikö joku
koputa. Tätä varten Ivan Fjodorovitš meni ulos portaille pari kertaa.
Kun kaikki hiljeni ja myös Fjodor Pavlovitš kävi makaamaan, niin
Ivan Fjodorovitškin kävi makuulle vahvasti toivoen, että nukkuisi
mahdollisimman pian, koska tunsi olevansa hirveästi näännyksissä.
Ja tosiaankin: hän vaipui äkkiä syvään uneen ja nukkui mitään unia
näkemättä, mutta heräsi aikaisin, kello seitsemän tienoissa, kun jo oli
valoisaa. Avattuaan silmänsä hän hämmästyksekseen yht'äkkiä tunsi
itsessään harvinaisen tarmonpuuskan, hyppäsi nopeasti ylös ja
pukeutui nopeasti, veti sitten esille matkalaukkunsa ja alkoi
viivyttelemättä sitä kiireesti täyttää. Parahiksi hän oli saanut
edellisenä aamuna kaikki liinavaatteensa pesijältä. Ivan Fjodorovitš
ihan naurahti ajatellessaan, että kaikki oli niin järjestynyt, ettei
mikään estänyt matkustamasta äkkiä pois. Lähtö oli todellakin
äkillinen. Vaikka Ivan Fjodorovitš eilen olikin sanonut (Katerina
Ivanovnalle, Aljošalle ja sitten Smerdjakoville) lähtevänsä
huomenna, niin hän eilen maata pannessaan, sen hän muisti sangen
hyvin, ei sillä hetkellä ollut ajatellutkaan lähtöä, ainakaan hän ei
ensinkään ollut ajatellut, että hän aamulla herättyään ensityökseen
hyökkää täyttämään matkalaukkuaan. Viimein oli matkalaukku ja
käsilaukku valmiina: kello oli jo noin yhdeksän, kun Marfa Ignatjevna
astui hänen huoneeseensa tehden joka päivä uudistuneen
kysymyksensä: — Missä suvaitsette juoda teetä, huoneessanneko
vai menettekö alas? Ivan Fjodorovitš meni alas. Hän oli miltei iloisen
näköinen, vaikka hänessä, hänen sanoissaan ja eleissään, oli jotakin
hapuilevaa ja kiirehtivää. Tervehdittyään kohteliaasti isäänsä ja
kysyttyään erityisesti hänen vointiaankin hän, odottamatta muuten
isänsä vastauksen loppua, ilmoitti muitta mutkitta lähtevänsä tunnin
kuluttua Moskovaan, kokonaan pois talosta, ja pyysi toimittamaan
hevosia. Ukko kuunteli ilmoitusta ollenkaan ihmettelemättä, eikä,
perin sopimattomasti kyllä, osoittanut murehtivansa poikansa lähtöä:
sen sijaan hän yhtäkkiä alkoi kovasti touhuta, kun muisti juuri silloin
erään tärkeän oman asiansa.

— Voi sinua! Kas vain! Et sanonut eilen… no, sama se,

voimmehan nytkin järjestää. Tee minulle, veli veikkonen, suuri
palvelus, pistäydy Tšermašnjassa. Sinunhan tarvitsee vain poiketa
Volovjan kievarista vasempaan, kaikkiaan noin kaksitoista virstaa, ja
siinä se Tšermašnja jo onkin.

— Hyväinen aika, en minä voi: rautatielle on matkaa

kahdeksankymmentä virstaa, ja juna lähtee asemalta Moskovaan
kello seitsemän illalla — nipin napin ennätän siihen.

— Ennätät huomenna tai sitten ylihuomenna, mutta poikkea

tänään Tšermašnjaan. Suurenko vaivan sinulle tuottaa isän
rauhoittaminen! Jos asiat eivät pidättäisi täällä, niin minä jo aikoja
sitten olisin itse kiitänyt sinne, sillä siellä on kiireellinen ja
harvinainen asia, mutta täällä minulla… ovat nyt toisenlaiset ajat…
Näetkö, siellä on tuo minun metsikköni, kahdessa palstassa,
Begitsevissä ja Djatškinissa, takamailla. Maslovit, ukko ja poika,
kauppiaat, antavat vain kahdeksantuhatta hakkuuoikeudesta, mutta
viime vuonna pyrki toinen ostaja sitä ottamaan ja lupasi kaksitoista,
mutta hän ei ollut täkäläinen, siinäpä se onkin. Sillä täkäläisten
kaupoista ei nyt ole mihinkään: Maslovit, isä ja poika, jotka omistavat
satojatuhansia, pitävät valtaa kourissaan; minkä he määräävät
hinnaksi, siihen on tyytyminen, eikä täkäläisistä kukaan uskalla heitä
vastaan käräjöidä. Mutta Iljinskin pappi kirjoitti tänne viime torstaina,
että sinne on tullut Gorstkin, kauppias hänkin, minä tunnen hänet,
hän on siitä kallisarvoinen, että ei ole täkäläinen, vaan Pogrebovista,
eikä siis pelkää Maslovia, kun ei ole täkäläinen. Annan metsiköstä,
sanoo, yksitoistatuhatta, kuuletko? Mutta hän viipyy täällä, kirjoittaa
pappi, enää vain viikon. Nyt kun sinä menisit sinne, niin tekisit
sopimuksen hänen kanssaan…

— Kirjoittakaa papille, tämä tekee sitten kaupat.

— Ei hän osaa, siinäpä se onkin. Tuo pappi ei osaa pitää silmiään

auki. Hän on aivan erinomainen mies, minä olisin valmis uskomaan
hänelle heti kaksikymmentätuhatta talletettaviksi ilman kuittia, mutta
hän ei osaa katsoa eteensä, aivan kuin ei olisi ihminenkään, variskin
voi häntä vetää nenästä. Ja kuitenkin hän on oppinut mies,
ajattelehan. Tuo Gorstkin on ulkoasultaan kuin talonpoika, kulkee
sinisessä mekossa, mutta luonteeltaan hän on täysi roisto, sepä juuri
onkin meidän yhteinen onnettomuutemme: hän valehtelee, siinäpä
se. Valehteli toissa vuonna, että vaimonsa on kuollut ja että hänellä
jo on toinen vaimo, eikä siinä ollut lainkaan perää, ajattelehan,
hänen vaimonsa ei ole koskaan kuollut, elää nytkin ja pieksää häntä
joka kolmas päivä perin pohjin. Nyt olisi siis otettava selville:
valehteleeko hän vai puhuuko totta, että tahtoo ostaa ja maksaa
yksitoistatuhatta?

— Enhän minäkään voi tässä mitään tehdä, minäkään en osaa

pitää silmiäni auki.

— Seis, malta, kyllä sinäkin kelpaat, sillä minä neuvon sinulle

kaikki hänelle tehtävät temput, Gordtkinille nimittäin, minä olen jo
kauan ollut asioissa hänen kanssaan. Näetkö: pitää katsella hänen
partaansa; hänen partansa on punainen, iljettävä, ohut. Jos parta
tärisee ja hän itse puhuu sekä on äkäinen, — silloin asiat ovat
oikealla tolalla, hän puhuu totta, tahtoo saada kaupat syntymään;
mutta jos hän silittää partaansa vasemmalla kädellään ja
naurahtelee, — no, silloin hän koettaa pimittää, suunnittelee
konnankoukkuja. Hänen silmiinsä ei pidä koskaan katsoa, silmistä ei
saa mitään selvää, se on sameata vettä, hän on lurjus, — katso
partaa. Minä annan sinun viedä hänelle kirjelapun, näytä se hänelle.
Hän on Gorstkin, vaikka ei olekaan Gorstkin, vaan Ljagavyi, mutta
älä sinä sano häntä Ljagavyiksi, hän loukkautuu [ljagavyi = eräs laji
metsäkoiria]. Jos saat hänen kanssaan kaupat sujumaan ja näet,
että menee hyvin, niin kirjoita heti tänne. Kirjoita ainoastaan näin: »Ei
valehtele, luullakseni.» Pidä kiinni yhdestätoistatuhannesta, yhden
tuhannen voit pudottaa, enempää älä pudota. Ajattele: kahdeksan ja
yksitoista — siinä on kolmen tuhannen erotus. Nämä kolmetuhatta
minä saan aivan kuin olisin ne löytänyt, eihän ostaja ole noin vain
löydettävissä, mutta rahaa tarvitaan hyvin kipeästi. Kun ilmoitat, että
on tosi kysymyksessä, niin minä itse lennän täältä sinne ja päätän
kaupan, koetan jotenkuten saada siihen aikaa. Mutta mitäpä minä
sinne nyt ajaisin, jos koko juttu on kotoisin papin päästä? No,
menetkö vai etkö?

— Äh, ei ole aikaa, säästäkää minut siitä.

— Voi, tee palvelus isällesi, minä pidän sen muistissani! Teillä ei

kenelläkään ole sydäntä, siinä se on! Mitä sinulle merkitsee päivä tai
kaksi? Mihin sinä nyt olet menossa, Venetsiaanko? Ei sinun
Venetsiasi häviä kahdessa päivässä. Minä lähettäisin Aljoškan,
mutta onko Aljoškasta tämmöisiin asioihin? Minä vain sen vuoksi,
että sinä olet älykäs mies, näenhän minä sen. Et ole metsän ostelija,
mutta sinulla on silmät päässä. Tässä on kyseessä vain katsominen,
puhuuko mies tosissaan vai eikö. Minä sanon, katso partaa: jos
parta tärisee, — silloin on tosi kysymyksessä.

— Te itse siis koetatte työntää minut tuohon kirottuun

Tšermašnjaan, niinkö? — huudahti Ivan Fjodorovitš naurahtaen
ilkeästi.

Fjodor Pavlovitš ei huomannut tuota ilkeyttä tai ei tahtonut sitä

huomata, vaan kiinnitti huomionsa naurahdukseen:

— Sinä siis menet, menet? Minä raapustan sinulle heti paikalla

kirjelipun.
 — En tiedä, menenkö, en tiedä, matkan varrella teen päätökseni.

— Miksi matkalla, päätä heti. Ystäväiseni, päätä! Kun sopimus

ottaa syntyäkseen, niin kirjoita minulle pari riviä, anna ne papille, hän
lähettää minulle heti sinun lippusi. Sitten en enää pidätä sinua, voit
mennä Venetsiaan. Pappi toimittaa sinut omilla hevosillaan takaisin
Volovjan kievariin…

Ukko oli suorastaan riemuissaan, kirjoitti kirjelipun, lähetettiin

hakemaan hevosia, pantiin pöytään aamiainen, konjakkia. Kun ukko
oli hyvällä tuulella, niin hän aina alkoi olla kovin avomielinen, mutta
tällä kertaa hän tuntui pidättyväiseltä. Dmitri Fjodorovitšista
esimerkiksi hän ei virkkanut ainoatakaan sanaa. Ero taasen ei häntä
ollenkaan liikuttanut. Tuntuipa kuin hän ei edes oikein löytäisi
puheenaihetta; Ivan Fjodorovitškin huomasi tämän selvästi: »Hän on
tosiaankin kyllästynyt minuun», ajatteli hän itsekseen. Vasta
saattaessaan poikaansa kuistilta ukko ikäänkuin tuli jonkin verran
rauhattomaksi ja pyrki suutelemaan. Mutta Ivan Fjodorovitš ojensi
hänelle kiireesti kätensä puristettavaksi ja ilmeisesti tahtoi karttaa
suutelemista. Ukko ymmärsi sen heti ja hillitsi silmänräpäyksessä
itsensä.

— No, Jumalan nimeen, Jumalan nimeen! — toisteli hän kuistilta.

—
Tulethan vielä joskus elämässäsi? Tulekin, otan aina ilomielin
vastaan.
No, Kristus olkoon kanssasi!

Ivan Fjodorovitš nousi matkavaunuihin.

— Hyvästi, Ivan, älähän kovin pahasti moiti! — huudahti isä

viimeisen kerran.
 Koko kotijoukko oli tullut saattamaan: Smerdjakov, Marfa ja
Grigori. Ivan Fjodorovitš lahjoitti heille jokaiselle kymmenen ruplaa.
Kun, hän jo istui vaunuissa, niin Smerdjakov juoksi laittamaan
paremmin peitettä.

— Näetkö… minä menen Tšermašnjaan… — pääsi äkkiä Ivan

Fjodorovitšin suusta, lennähti aivan omia aikojaan taas niinkuin
eilenkin, ja hän naurahti sen lisäksi omituisen hermostuneesti.
Kauan hän tätä muisteli sitten jälkeenpäin.

— Ihmiset puhuvat siis totta, että älykkään ihmisen kanssa

kannattaa kyllä keskustella, — vastasi Smerdjakov lujasti ja loi
terävän katseen Ivan Fjodorovitšiin.

Vaunut lähtivät liikkeelle ja kiitivät pois. Matkamiehen mieli oli

surullinen, mutta hän katseli halukkaasti ympärilleen silmäillen
peltoja, kukkuloita, puita, hanhiparvea, joka lensi hänen päänsä
yläpuolella ylhäällä kirkkaalla taivaalla. Ja yht'äkkiä hän tunsi olonsa
hyväksi. Hän koetti päästä keskusteluun ajomiehen kanssa, ja hänen
mieltään kiinnitti suuresti jokin kohta siitä, mitä mies hänelle vastasi,
mutta hetken kuluttua hän huomasi, että kaikki oli mennyt ohi korvien
ja että hän, totta puhuen, ei edes ollut ymmärtänyt mitä mies hänelle
oli vastannut. Hän vaikeni, hyvä oli olla niinkin: ilma oli puhdas,
raikas, kylmänpuoleinen, taivas oli kirkas. Hänen mielessään vilahti
Aljošan ja Katerina Ivanovnan kuva; mutta hän naurahti ja puhalsi
hiljaa näihin armaisiin haavekuviin ja ne haihtuivat: »Tulee vielä
niidenkin aika», hän ajatteli. Kievarissa suoriuduttiin nopeasti,
vaihdettiin hevoset ja lähdettiin kiitämään Volovjaa kohti.
»Minkätähden älykkään ihmisen kanssa kannattaa kyllä keskustella,
mitä hän tällä tahtoi sanoa?» nousi äkkiä voimakkaasti hänen
mieleensä. »Ja minkätähden minä ilmoitin hänelle, että menen
Tšermašnjaan?» Saavuttiin Volovjan kievariin. Ivan Fjodorovitš nousi
ajopeleistä, ja kyytimiehet kerääntyivät hänen ympärilleen. Koetettiin
tehdä sopimus poikkeamisesta Tšermašnjaan, jonne oli kaksitoista
virstaa kylätietä ja oli mentävä yksityisten hevosilla. Hän käski
valjastamaan. Sitten hän meni sisälle kestikievaritaloon, katseli
ympärilleen, loi silmäyksen emäntään ja palasi äkkiä ulos portaille.

— Ei tarvitse lähteä Tšermašnjaan. Enkö minä myöhästy,

veikkoset, kello seitsemän lähtevästä junasta?

— Ennätämme parhaiksi. Onko valjastettava?

— Valjasta heti paikalla. Meneekö kukaan teistä huomenna

kaupunkiin?

— Menee kyllä, tämä Mitri menee.

— Etkö voisi, Mitri, tehdä erästä palvelusta? Pistäydy isäni Fjodor

Pavlovitš Karamazovin luona ja sano hänelle, että minä en mennyt
Tšermašnjaan. Voitko vai etkö?

— Miksi en pistäydy, pistäydynpä kyllä; tunnemme Fjodor

Pavlovitšin jo pitkistä ajoista.

— Tästä saat juomarahaa, sillä kenties hän ei anna… — alkoi Ivan

Fjodorovitš iloisesti nauraa.

— Ehkäpä todellakaan eivät anna, — nauroi myös Mitri. — Kiitos,

herra, ehdottomasti toimitamme asian.

Kello seitsemän illalla Ivan Fjodorovitš astui rautatievaunuun ja

lähti kiitämään Moskovaan. »Pois kaikki entinen, lopussa on entinen
maailma iäksi, älköön siitä enää kuuluko älköönkä mainittako mitään;
uuteen maailmaan, uusille paikoille ja taakse katsahtamatta!» Mutta
riemun asemesta laskeutui hänen sieluunsa äkkiä semmoinen
pimeys ja hänen sydäntään alkoi jäytää semmoinen murhe, jollaista
hän ei koskaan ennen koko elämänsä aikana ollut tuntenut. Hän
ajatteli koko yön; vaunu kiiti, ja vasta päivän koittaessa, kun jo oltiin
saapumassa Moskovaan, hän yhtäkkiä ikäänkuin tuli tajuihinsa.

— Minä olen roisto! — kuiskasi hän itsekseen.

Mutta Fjodor Pavlovitš oli poikansa lähdettyä hyvin tyytyväinen.

Kokonaista kaksi tuntia hän tunsi olevansa miltei onnellinen ja
ryypiskeli konjakkia: mutta äkkiä talossa sattui perin harmillinen ja
kaikille perin epämiellyttävä asia, joka heti teki Fjodor Pavlovitšin
hyvin levottomaksi: Smerdjakov meni kellariin jotakin hakemaan ja
putosi alas ylimmältä portaalta. Oli onni edes se, että pihalla silloin
sattui olemaan Marfa Ignatjevna ja kuuli sen oikeissa ajoin.
Putoamista hän ei nähnyt, mutta kuuli sensijaan huudon, erikoisen ja
omituisen huudon, jonka hän kuitenkin jo vanhastaan tunsi, —
kaatuvatautisen huudon, kun tämä saa kohtauksen. Oliko kohtaus
sattunut sillä hetkellä, jolloin hän oli menossa portaita alas, niin että
hän silloin tietysti heti pakostakin oli lentänyt alas tunnottomassa
tilassa, vai oliko kohtaus päinvastoin tullut Smerdjakoville, tunnetusti
kaatuvatautiselle miehelle, putoamisen ja tärähdyksen johdosta, —
siitä ei voitu saada selvää, mutta hänet löydettiin kellarin pohjalta
kouristusten ja suonenvedon vallassa sätkyttelemässä ja
vaahtosuisena. Luultiin ensin, että hän varmaankin oli taittanut
kätensä tai jalkansa ja kolahduttanut itseään, mutta »Jumala suojeli»
sentään, kuten Marfa Ignatjevna lausui: mitään sellaista ei ollut
tapahtunut, oli vain vaikeata saada viedyksi hänet ulos kellarista
raittiiseen ilmaan. Mutta pyydettiin naapureita avuksi ja saatiin asia
jotenkuten toimeen. Koko tämän toimituksen aikana oli läsnä myös