Energy Resource New

School of Energy & Environment (SEE)
ENERGY RESOURCES
THAPAR INSTITUTE School of Energy & UEN002: Energy and

OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
Environment (SEE) Environment
What is Energy
Energy is the ability to do work
ü There are two types of energy:

§ Stored (potential) energy
§ Working (kinetic) energy
ü Energy comes in different forms:

§ Heat (thermal)
§ Light (radiant)
§ Motion (kinetic)
§ Electrical
§ Chemical
§ Nuclear energy
§ Gravitational
Energy Scenario
ü Fossil fuels (Petroleum, coal, Natural gas) are the major
sources of energy providing 79% of all commercial energy
in the world
ü Solar, wind, geo-thermal energy and hydroelectricity make

up about 4-5% of our commercial energy
ü Biomass fuels such as wood, peat, charcoal and manure

contribute about 9.5% of energy.
• Biomass is a major energy source for poor countries
providing 35% of their energy
• For poorer countries like Haiti, Bhutan and Malawi biomass
supplies more than 90% of the energy used for heating and
cooking

Energy Units
ü Different physical units to measure different types of energy or fuels:
§ Barrels or gallons for liquid petroleum fuels (such as gasoline,
diesel fuel, and jet fuel) and biofuels (ethanol and biodiesel)
§ Cubic feet for natural gas
§ Tons for coal (a short ton equals 2,000 pounds; a metric
ton equals about 2,205 pounds)
§ Kilowatt hours for electricity
ü To compare fuels with each other, we need to convert their

measurements to the same units. Some popular units for comparing
energy include British thermal units (Btu), barrels of oil equivalent,
metric tons of oil equivalent, metric tons of coal equivalent, and
terajoules

Btu Conversion Factors
Energy source/fuel Physical units and Btu

Electricity 1 kilowatt-hour = 3,412 Btu
Natural gas 1 cubic foot = 1,036 Btu
Motor gasoline 1 gallon = 120,333 Btu
Diesel fuel 1 gallon = 137,381 Btu
Heating oil 1 gallon = 138,500 Btu
Propane 1 gallon = 91,333 Btu
Wood 1 cord = 20,000,000 Btu

World Electricity Production by Source 2017

India’s Installed Generation Capacity (Fuel wise) as on 30.09.2022
CATAGORY INSTALLED GENERATION % of SHARE IN Total
CAPACITY(MW)
Fossil Fuel
Coal 204.079 50.0%
Lignite 6.620 1.6%
Gas 24,824 6.1%
Diesel 562 0.1%
Total Fossil Fuel 2,36,086 57.9%
Non-Fossil Fuel
RES (Incl. Hydro) 164.930 40.4%
Hydro 46,850 11.5 %
Wind, Solar & Other RE 118.080 29.0 %
Wind 41.666 10.2 %
Solar 60,814 14.9 %
BM Power/Cogen 10,206 2.5 %
Waste to Energy 495 0.1 %
Small Hydro Power 4,899 1.2 %
Nuclear 6,780 1.7%
Total Non-Fossil Fuel 171,710 42.1%
Total Installed Capacity 407,797 100%
(Fossil Fuel & Non-Fossil Fuel)

Energy Production & Changing Energy Sources
Between 1970-2014, global average per capita energy

consumption has increased by approximately 45%
Non-Commercial Animal Energy
Energy Sources Fossil Fuel (Coal, Petroleum &

Conventional its products, N. Gas, Surface
Non Renewable water, Nuclear Material)
Commercial
Biomass fuel (Fuel wood,
Non-Conventional crop residues & animal
Renewable waste), Solar, Geothermal,
Wind & Tidal waves

Coal
• Proven coal reserves of the country – 70 billion tonnes

• National demand as on 2018 – 550 million tonnes
• Domestic production is around 360 million tonnes
• Therefore, deficit of 190 tonnes and therefore dependence on
imports.
• Coal consumption pattern
• Power sector – 60 %
• Steel – 14 %
• Cement – 5 %
• Miscellaneous – 21 %
• Type of coals – Anthracite, Bituminous, Sub-bituminous & Lignite

Typical Content of Coal

Coal Conversion Processes
Liquid Fuels
Transport,
Liquefaction Industry ,
(Gasoline& Chemicals
methanol)
Heating
Combustion Heat Work

Coal Electrical
Energy
Transport,
Gaseous Industry ,
Gasification Fuels Chemicals
(syngas)

Indian Scenario: Coal
More than 65% of India's electricity generation capacity
comes from thermal power plants, with 85% of the
country's thermal power generation being coal-based.
Figure: Primary Energy Consumption Matrix of Commercial Fuels

Hurdles in Coal Sector
Causes of lack of development in coal sector

Ø Slow development of sector
Ø Under utilization of mine capacity
Ø Low output per man-shift
Ø Delays in project implementation
Ø Power constraints
Ø Labour unrest
Ø Coal movement problems
Ø Falling quality

Petroleum
ü Petroleum: Petra (rock) + oleum (oil)

ü It is a fossil fuel formed by the decomposition and bacterial
anaerobic reactions on buried vegetation and animal masses
under favorable temperatures and pressures and marine
surroundings over several million centuries.
ü Oily bituminous liquid that may vary from colour less to black
ü Complex mixture of numerous hydrocarbons and a small
amount of different substances

Overview of Exploration and Production Process
ü Geological Survey and Exploration of Oil and Natural Gas

ü Drilling of Petroleum Wells and Gas Wells
ü Production of Crude Oil and Natural Gas in Refineries
ü Storage and Transport of Crude Oil and Natural Gas
ü Distribution/ Marketing of liquid petroleum and liquid/ gaseous
Petroleum Products
ü Supply to Consumers

ü One million tonne of crude oil on fractional distillation
provides about 0.8 million tonnes of petroleum
ü Percent composition
- 25% Petrol (C6-C12)
- 45-60% Diesel and kerosene (C6-C22)
- 15-20% Naphtha (C8-C30)
- 8-10% Fuel Oil (C30-C80)
- 2-5% Asphalt (C50-C100)

ü India has thirty-five major fields onshore (primarily in Assam and
Gujarat) and four major offshore oil fields (near Bombay, south of
Pondicherry, and in the Palk Strait)
ü The oil field with the greatest output is Bombay High, with 402,797
barrels per day production, about fifteen times the amount produced
by the next largest fields.
ü Total reserves are estimated at 4.33 billion barrels.
ü 40 % in transport sector and 60% in industrial sector more than half

of the total consumption of petroleum is being imported

Natural Gas
ü Natural gas is a fossil energy source.

ü The largest component of natural gas is methane, a compound with one
carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms (CH4). A cubic foot of natural gas
holds a lot of power, about 1,032 Btu.
ü Natural gas also contains smaller amounts of natural gas liquids and
non-hydrocarbon gases, such as carbon dioxide and water vapor.
ü Natural gas is the cleanest burning fossil fuel. When it burns, natural gas
produces mostly carbon dioxide, water vapor and small amounts of
nitrogen oxides.

Natural Gas Resources in India
ü Major sources - Gulf of Cambay (West Coast); Krishna-Godavari Delta

(East Coast), Bombay High
ü Presently, about 65 MMm3 / day of natural gas is supplied to the

consumers.
ü About 40% of NG is used for power generation, 28 % for fertilizer and 32%
for other uses such as industrial, residential etc.
ü Current and future trends - increase in natural gas consumption from

present 65 MMm3/day to 130 MMm3/day (as per 10th plan) - double the
consumption level in five years; & Vision 2025 document predicts
consumption level to rise to 391 MMm3/day – an increase by six fold

Energy Efficiency
üThe final electrical energy obtained is given by
•Ee = Ei * ɳ ----- (1)
•Ei – the amount of energy released from coal combustion (joules)
•ɳ - is the efficiency of energy conversion process
üIn addition transmission and distribution losses result in further

reduction given by:
•Ef = Ee * (1-Ltd) ---- (2)
•Ef - Electricity received at end user (Joules)
•Ltd – Fraction of electricity lost
Hence the relation between initial energy contained in coal and final
electrical energy received at end user is obtained by substituting Eq. (1)
in (2)
Ef = Ei * ɳ * (1-Ltd) ---- (3)

Supercritical Coal Power Plant
ü Supercritical coal plants are a type of coal-fired power plant used in more modern
designs.
ü They differ from traditional coal power plants because the water running through it
works as a supercritical fluid, meaning it is neither a liquid or a gas.
ü This occurs when water reaches its critical point under high pressures and
temperatures, specifically at 22 MPa and 374 °C. As a liquid approaches its critical
point, its latent heat of vaporization begins to decrease until it reaches zero at the
critical point.
ü This means that the amount of energy needed to change the water into steam
becomes less and less, and eventually the water's vaporization phase change is
instant.
ü This reduces the amount of heat transfer to the water that is normally needed in a
conventional coal plant, therefore, less coal is used to heat the same amount of
water. This increases the plant's thermal efficiency by a considerable amount.

Supercritical Coal Power Plant

Efficiency of Supercritical Coal Power Plant
ü These plants are the standard for new coal power plants, as their efficiencies can
reach around 44%, compared to older coal power plants that operate around 33%.
Even higher pressure and temperature power plants are under research and
development, known as ultra-supercritical, potentially reaching an efficiency of near
50%.
ü Improved efficiency corresponds to fewer greenhouse gas emissions, as well as

pollutants like NOx, SOx, and particulate matter which all cause adverse health
effects. A supercritical coal plant (as opposed to a traditional coal plant) will
decrease waste heat produced by 25%, and cut pollution and CO2 by roughly the
same amount.

Nuclear Energy

Nuclear Reactions
Nuclear Fission Nuclear Fusion
Nuclear is the world's second largest source of low-carbon power (29% of the total in 2017).
Nuclear Reactors
• Nuclear reactor, any of a class of devices that can initiate and control a self-
sustaining series of nuclear fissions. Nuclear reactors are used as research
tools, as systems for producing radioactive isotopes, and most prominently
as energy sources for nuclear power plants.
• The first commercial scale nuclear power plant of 180-MW capacity went
into operation in 1956 at Calder Hall, England.
• The first nuclear-powered submarine, the Nautilus, was launched in 1954.
Submarine reactors produce steam that drives a turbine, which in turn
propels the submarine.
• In 2018 nuclear plants supplied 2563 TWh of electricity, up from 2503 TWh
in 2017. This is the sixth consecutive year that global nuclear generation has
risen, with output 217 TWh higher than in 2012.

Core of Nuclear Reactor
Basic Components of core of
nuclear reactor: fuel rods, a
• The energy of a nuclear
moderator, control rods, and a
reactor is derived from coolant.
splitting a heavy nucleus,
such as 235U or 239Pu.
• In a nuclear reactor of a
power plant, the splitting of
the nucleus and sustaining of
the ensuing chain reaction
has to proceed in a controlled
fashion.

Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)
Heat generated in the core is used to generated steam

The steam runs a turbine just like a normal power plant

Pressurized Water Reactor
§ Water in the core heated top
315°C but is not turned into
steam due to high pressure
in the primary loop.
§ Heat exchanger used to

transfer heat into secondary
loop where water is turned to
steam to power turbine.
§ Steam used to power turbine

never comes directly in
contact with radioactive
materials.

Nuclear Power in India
• India has 22 operable nuclear reactors, with a combined net capacity

of 6.2 GWe.
• In 2018, nuclear generated 3% of the country's electricity.
• The Indian government is committed to growing its nuclear power

capacity as part of its massive infrastructure development programme.
The government in 2010 set an ambitious target to have 14.6 GWe
nuclear capacity online by 2024.
• At the start of 2019 seven reactors were under construction in India,

with a combined capacity of 5.4 GWe.

India's Operating Nuclear Power Reactors
Reactor State Type MWe net (each) Commercial operation Safeguards status*
Tarapur 1&2 Maharashtra GE BWR 150 1969 Item-specific, Oct 2009
Kaiga 1&2 Karnataka PHWR 202 1999, 2000 nil

Kaiga 3&4 Karnataka PHWR 202 2007, 2012 nil
December 2010 under new

Kakrapar 1&2 Gujarat PHWR 202 1993, 1995
agreement
Madras 1&2
Tamil Nadu PHWR 202 1984, 1986 nil
(MAPS)
From Jan 2015 under new

Narora 1&2 Uttar Pradesh PHWR 202 1991, 1992
agreement
Rajasthan 1&2 Rajasthan Candu PHWR 90, 187 1973, 1981 Item-specific, Oct 2009
March 2010 under new

Rajasthan 3&4 Rajasthan PHWR 202 1999, 2000
agreement
Rajasthan 5&6 Rajasthan PHWR 202 Feb & April 2010 Oct 2009 under new agreement
Tarapur 3&4 Maharashtra PHWR 490 2006, 2005 nil
Kudankulam 1&2 Tamil Nadu PWR (VVER) 917 December 2014, April 2017 Item-specific, Oct 2009
Total (22) 6219 MWe

Risk and Limitations of
Nuclear energy

Increase of nuclear weapons & Nuclear terrorism
§ Nuclear reactors, reprocessing units and fast breeder reactors are

associated with increased availability of plutonium.
§ Plutonium is used in making nuclear bombs
§ Nuclear waste transportation activity is associated with accident
potential and danger of interception by terrorists
§ Reprocessing of nuclear waste is banned in USA.
§ Nuclear power complexes must be heavily armed with security
forces and surveillance equipment.

Nuclear Waste
§ Most difficult kinds of waste to managed because it is highly hazardous.

§ According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), nuclear
waste is sorted into six general categories.
o spent nuclear fuel from nuclear reactors,
o uranium mill tailings from mining and milling of uranium ore,
o high-level waste from spent nuclear fuel reprocessing,
o low-level waste,
o transuranic waste from defense programs, and
o naturally occurring and accelerator-produced radioactive materials.

Nuclear & Coal Power Plant Environmental Concerns

Emissions Associated with a Nuclear Power Plant and 1000 MWe Coal
Power Plant
*1 kg of uranium-235 will generate as much energy as 3,000 tons of coal without CO2
emissions

EPA Emission Table
COAL OIL NATURAL NUCLEAR

GAS
Carbon
Dioxide 2249 1672 1135 0
Sulfur
Dioxide 13 12 0.1 0
Nitrogen
Oxide 6 4 1.7 0

Non-Commercial
Energy Sources
Conventional
Commercial Biomass fuel (Fuel

wood, crop residues &
Non-Conventional
animal waste), Solar,
Geothermal, Wind &
Tidal waves

Renewable Energy
• Renewable Energy – “any sustainable energy source that comes
from natural environment.”
• Some Aspects of Renewable Energy
• It exists perpetually and is abundant in the environment

continous forever
• Ready to be harnessed, inexhaustible
• It is a clean alternative to fossil fuels
• “energy that is derived from natural process that are replenished
constantly” -- defined by IEA

India’s Need for Renewable Energy
• Limited electricity access to people at present: Pradhan

Mantri Sahaj Bijli Har Ghar Yojana (or Saubhagya)
• Global warming
• Resource scarcity – crude oil (according to International

Energy Agency above 90% imports by 2035)
• Inferior quality coal – low energy density

Biomass as Energy Resource
• Biomass is a plant/animal derived organic matter available

on a renewable basis
• In poorer countries, wood and other biomass fuels still
provide upto 90% of all the energy used
• Versatile fuel:
ü Can be stored & transported
ü Can be converted into high quality gaseous, liquid &
solid fuels & electricity
• If used sustainably, no net release of CO2

Types of Biomass
Resources
• Corn
• Soybean
• Bagasse
• Poplar
• Wood chips
• Municipal solid
waste

Bioenergy Conversion Methodology
Boyle, Renewable Energy, Oxford University Press (2004)

Heat Energy Content

Biomass Direct Combustion

Gasification
Biomass heated with certain amount of oxygen
Temperature range of 900-3,000°F (480-1,650°C)
Gasifies to mixture of CO and H2
o Called “Syngas” for synthetic gas
Mixes easily with oxygen
Burned in turbines to generate electricity
o Like natural gas
Can easily be converted to other fuels, chemicals, and valuable materials

Pyrolysis
Heat bio-material under pressure
o 500-1300 ºC (900-2400 ºF)
o 50-150 atmospheres
o Absence of air/ Carefully controlled air supply
Up to 75% of biomass converted to liquid
Two main methods of pyrolysis: “fast” pyrolysis and “slow” pyrolysis
Tested for use in engines, turbines, boilers
Currently experimental
http://www1.eere.energy.gov/biomass/pyrolysis.html

Pyrolysis Schematic
http://www1.eere.energy.gov/biomass/pyrolysis.html

Biomass Energy for India
Under Gasification programme, 12 Biomass Gasifier plants have been
installed for generating thermal energy. These Gasifiers are up to a
capacity 500 KW .
Success Stories
o 22MW bagasse-based cogeneration project at Shamanur Sugars,
Karnataka – exports 18 MW to Govt. Elec. Board
o Totally indigenous project
o Employment and Economic benefit to area
o 6 MW biomass based power project at Miryalguda, A.P. – uses rice
husk and Prosopis juliflora
o 500 KW Biomass gasifier plant at Sunderbans, W.Bengal – 2 million
people getting electricity from 10 lakh units electricity generated
o Strictly run by cooperative system with no govt. intervention

Anaerobic Digestion Steps for conv biomass to biogas
• It is a type of biochemical conversion involving microbial digestion of

biomass.
• Generates mostly methane and CO2 , with small impurities such as

hydrogen sulfide.
• Gases can be directly burnt or upgraded to superior fuel gas (methane) by

removal of CO2 and other impurities.
• Residue of anaerobic digestion may consist of protein rich sludge and

liquid effluents. These can be used as animal feed or for soil treatment
after certain processing
• In general 1 kg of dry organic matter will produce 0.036 m3 of CH4 (at

STP) or 36 m3 biogas per 1000 kg biomass

Composition of Biogas
Anaerobic digesters also function as a waste disposal system, particularly

for human waste, and can, therefore, prevent potential sources of
environmental contamination and the spread of pathogens

Biogas
Two basic types of biogas plants

(1) Floating gas holder (KVIC model) and (2) Fixed dome type
• Hindrances in success of Biogas plants
o Technical gaps in operation and maintenance
o Cultural practices
o Social stigma
o Climatic variations (winter temperature)
• Around five million family biogas plants (40%) have been installed under
the biogas development program against the total potential of 12 million
domestic biogas gas plants estimated by the MNRE (2017-18).
• In addition to family type biogas plants, 400 biogas off-grid power plants
have been set up with a power generation capacity of about 5.5 MW

Parameters Affecting Anaerobic Digestion
§ The most important determinants of good living conditions for

anaerobic bacteria and therefore efficient gas production, are :
o Temperature
o Retention Time
o pH-level
o Carbon/Nitrogen ratio (C/N ratio)
o Proportion of dry matter in substrate
o Agitation (mixing) of the substrate
§ If any one of these determinants is outside acceptable range, the

digestion may be inhibited

Substrate Temperature and pH in the Digester
Anaerobic fermentation can work in an ambient temperature between
30oC and 70oC and, if colder, the reactor has to be insulated and/or
heated.
Common temperature ranges for bacteria:
Psychrophillic bacteria below: 20oC
Mesophillic bacteria : 20oC – 40oC
Thermophillic bacteria above : 40oC
Methane production is very sensitive to changes in temperature
Optimal production when pH 7.0 – 7.2
Inhibition (due to acids) if pH < 6.2
Inhibition (due to ammonia) if pH > 7.6
Deviation from the optimum range results in Lower gas yield
&Inferior gas quality

C/N ratio is Important
§Microorganisms need nitrogen and carbon for their metabolism
§Methanogenic organisms prefer a C/N ratio of between 10:1

and 20:1
§N must not be too low, or else there will be shortage of nutrient
§ Recommendation: Mix different substrates
If N concentration is too high (>1,700 mg/l of NH4-N) and pH

is high, then growth of bacteria is inhibited due to toxicity
caused by high levels of (uncharged) ammonia

Stirring the Substrate
Stirring improves the efficiency of digestion by:
• Removing metabolites (gas removal)
• Bringing fresh material in contact with bacteria
• Reducing scum formation and sedimentation
• Preventing temperature gradients in the digester
• Avoiding the formation of blind spots (short cuts)
• However, excessive stirring disturbs the symbiotic relationship

between the different bacteria species
• Simple biogas units normally do not have mechanical stirring devises

Floating-drum Unit with Water-jacket

Fixed-dome Biogas Digester
4 2
1
3
Bird´s 4
eye view
1 2 slurr 3
y
Success story of biogas plant – Industrial scale
o Satia paper mills ltd., Muktsar, Punjab: Bio-methanation

(biogas–10,000cum) of black liquor (52,000 cum)
o Savings on 20 to 22 tonnes of rice husk used as fuel
o 15-20% of energy requirement of mill provided by biogas
plant
o Savings on electricity, chemical consumption, low COD
and BOD in wastewater treatment systems

Efficiency of a biogas unit
Input:
1 kg of dry (95%) cattle dung will produce 2.5 kWh (rule of thumb)
1 kg dry (100%) matter can generate 2.5/0.95 = 2.63 kWh

Slurry contains 10% dry matter, thus 1 litre can generate 0.263 kWh
1 litre slurry (27oC, 90 days retention) releases 27 litre biogas
1 m3 of biogas can generate 6 kWh (rule of thumb)

So, 1 lit of slurry generates 0.027*6 = 0.162 kWh
Actual kWh 0.162

Efficiency = = = 0.62
Potential kWh 0.262
62% efficiency and the other 38% energy remains in the slurry
Power available from digester
E = ᶯ HmFmvb
Where Hm is the heat of combustion of methane (56MJ/Kg, 28 MJ/M3) and Fm is the
fraction of methane in the biogas (~0.7).
Volume of biogas is given by:
Vb= Cm0
C is biogas per dry mass of whole input (0.2-0.4 m3) and m0 is the mass of the dry
input.
Volume of fluid is given by:
Vf= m0/pm
Where pm is the density of dry material in the fluid (~50Kg/ m3)
Volume of digester is given by:
Vd= Vf tr
Where Vf is the flow rate of the digester fluid and tr is retention time in digester

Problem 1
Q. The following data are given for a family biogas digester

suitable for the output of five cows: the retention time is 20
days, temperature 30 ℃, dry matter consumed per day = 2
kg/cow, biogas yield is 0.24 m3 per kg. The efficiency of
burner is 60%, methane proportion is 0.8. Heat of
combustion of methane = 28 MJ/m3.
Calculate: (i) the volume of biogas digester, and (ii) the

power available from the digester.

Sol. Mass of the dry input m0= 2 Kg/day x 5 = 10 Kg/day
(1)
!"
We have the relation, fluid volume Vf is =
#$
%&'(/*+,
=
-& .(/! /
= 0.2 m3/day
From expression Vd= Vf tr, the digester volume is
Vd= 0.2 x 20
=4.0 m3
Volume of biogas is Vb = Cm0
= biogas yield input x mass of dry input
=0.24 x 10
=2.4 m3/day
The power available from the digester is
E= ᶯ HmFmvb
=0.6 x 28 x 0.8 x 2.4
= 32.25 MJ/day
= 8.80 kWh/day
Biodiesel
• Bio-diesel is an eco-friendly, alternative diesel fuel prepared from

domestic renewable resources i.e. vegetable oils and animal fats.
• These natural oils and fats are made up mainly of triglycerides.
• These triglycerides when reacted chemically with lower alcohols in
presence of a catalyst result in fatty acid esters.
• These esters show striking similarity to petroleum derived diesel and are
called "Bio-diesel".
• In the US bio-diesels are mainly derived from Soybean oil and in Europe
from the Sunflower oil.

Carbon Rich Platform
Natural plant oils such as soybean, corn, palm, and canola oils
o In wide use today for food and chemical applications
Trans-esterification of vegetable oil or animal fat produces fatty

acid methyl ester
o Commonly known as biodiesel.
Biodiesel an important commercial air-emission reducing additive

/ substitute for diesel fuel
o could be platform chemical for biorefineries.

Biodiesel for India
• Since India is deficient in edible oils, therefore, the non-edible oil like
Karanjia, Jatropha, etc. could be the desirable source for India for
production of bio-diesel.
• These plants could be grown on wasteland, about 80 million hectare of
which is available in India.
• These crops grow in arid and semi-arid region and require almost no
post plantation management and care.
• Since, all the wasteland is available in rural and economically
underdeveloped region, the large-scale bio-diesel production has an
enormous potential for employment and development of these areas.

Biofuel policy and pricing
• The National Policy on Biofuels-2018 inter-alia, allows production of ethanol from damaged
food grains like wheat, broken rice etc. which are unfit for human consumption. The policy
also allows conversion of surplus quantities of food grains to ethanol.
• During the ethanol supply year 2017-18, 150.5 crore litres of ethanol was blended in Petrol
which resulted in foreign exchange impact of about Rs. 5070 crore and carbon emission
reduced to the extent of 29.94 lakh tonnes.
• The National Policy on Biofuels-2018 envisages an indicative target of 20% blending of

ethanol in petrol and 5% blending of bio-diesel in diesel by 2030.
(i) From C-heavy molasses at Rs. 43.46 per litre.
(ii)From B heavy molasses / partial sugarcane juice at Rs.52.43 per litre.
(iii)Price of ethanol for the mills, who will divert 100% sugarcane juice for production of
ethanol thereby not producing sugar, has been fixed at Rs.59.19 per litre.
• In addition, OMCs have fixed the ex-mill price of ethanol derived from Damaged Food
Grains at Rs.47.13 per lit.

Bio-Fuels
Ethanol
• Created by fermentation of starches/sugars
• Active research on cellulosic fermentation
Biodiesel
• Organic oils combined with alcohols
• Creates ethyl or methyl esters
SynGas Biofuels
• Syngas (H2 & CO) converted to methanol, or liquid fuel similar to

diesel

Liquid Transportation Fuels from Biomass
• The different generations are

distinguished primarily by the feedstocks
from which they are derived and the
extent to which they are commercially
developed
• First generation Biofuels: These are

made from sugars, grains, or seeds that
is, from only a specific (usually edible)
portion of a crop

• Second-generation biofuels are those made from land-based non-edible
lignocellulosic biomass, either residues of food crop production (such as corn
stalks or rice husks) or whole-plant biomass (such as grasses or trees)
• Third-generation biofuels : Third-generation biofuels are those that require

considerable research and/or technology advances before they can begin to
approach commercial viability. Fuels in this category include biological solar
hydrogen production and photo-electrochemical fuel production, as well as
algae-derived fuels

Some Market Information…
Biofuel market development during the last 5 years: now ~3% of global gasoline
consumption
Biofuels may share ~10% of world fuel use for transport by 2025
Less than 10% of global biofuels production is internationally traded
But important expansion in global trade: key consumers (EU, US, and Japan)
will not have the domestic capacity to meet internal demand

Environmental merits
Air Quality
Reduce NOx and SO2 emissions
Global Climate Change
Low/no net increase in CO2
Soil Conservation
Soil erosion control, nutrient retention, carbon
sequestration, and stabilization of riverbanks
Water Conservation
Better retention of water in watersheds
Biodiversity and Habitat
Positive and negative changes

Solar Energy

Solar Energy
ü Solar Energy is the most readily available and free source of energy. The
sun radiates about 3.8×1026 watt of power in all directions. Out of this
about 1.7×1017 watt power is intercepted by the earth.
ü The average solar radiation values for India are between 12.5 and 22.7
MJ/ m2. day.
ü Solar Energy can be used directly for heating and lighting home and
buildings, for generating electrical energy, cooking foods, water heating,
drying materials and a variety of commercial and industrial uses.
ü The measured value indicate that the extra-terrestrial solar radiation has
a value of 1353 W/ m2.

Various Routes of Solar Energy Utilization
ü Solar Energy can be utilized through two different routes,

Ø Solar thermal routes
Ø Solar photovoltaic routes.

Solar Thermal Route
ü Solar Energy can be converted into Thermal Energy with the help
of solar collectors and receivers known as Solar-Thermal devices
ü The Solar-Thermal devices can be classified into three categories
• Low-Grade Heating Devices - up to the temperature of 100°
C
• Medium-Grade Heating Devices - up to the temperature of
100°-300° C.
• High-Grade Heating Devices - above temperature of 300° C

Solar Thermal Collectors
ü Solar Thermal collectors gather the thermal energy from the solar
radiation and deliver it to the thermal transport fluid (either gas or
liquid)
ü Receiver systems for medium and high temperature applications:
• Dispersed or distributed receiver systems: parabolic
through collectors with line focus or paraboloid dish collectors
with point focus. Each collector individually heats up its own
receiver and receivers are connected with piping systems for
flow of fluid.
• Central receiver systems: Several heliostats on ground level
reflect the sun light to the single receiver on a tall tower.

Types of Solar Collector
Flat Plate Collector

Components of flat plate
collector
• Cover
• Air Channel
• Absorbent Plates
• Tubes/ conduits
• Insulating Layer
THAPAR INSTITUTE School of Energy & UEN002: Energy and 78

Solar cooker and water heater

Focussing Collectors
ü Focusing systems collect solar energy at a

sufficiently high temperature (~ 300 °C) to
use that energy in a heat engine cycle to
generate electric power efficiently.
ü Tracking the sun is only in one plane for
daily movement of the sun.
ü The reflected light is focused on central line of the parabolic through.

ü The pipe located along the centre line absorbs the heat and the working
fluid is circulated through the pipe.

Parabolic concentrated through collectors
Concentrated solar
cooker

Case study video of solar cooking
at commercial level

Solar cooking

Central Receiver Systems:
solar experiment in krish 3

Components of Solar Thermal Power Plants
Distributed or Dispersed Receiver
central receiver sys

Case study video of solar thermal
power plant installation

Solar thermal power plant installation

Important Aspects of Solar Thermal Collectors
Kw/ m2 in solar radiation on surface

• Concentration Ratio (CR)=
Kw/ m2 in surface of focus of collector
The performance of a collector is evaluated in terms of

its collector efficiency
Energy collected by the collector (J)

• Collector Efficiency =
Energy incident on the collector (J)

Problem 2
Q1. A 4×8-ft solar collector has water circulating through it at the rate of
1.0gallon per minute (gpm) while exposed to sunlight with intensity 300
Btu/ft2-hr. 50% of that sunlight is captured by the collector and heats the
water flowing through it. What would be the temperature rise of the water as it
leaves the collector?
300 Btu/ft2-hr
1 gpm
4’ × 8’
1 gpm

Solution: 300 Btu/ft2-hr
1 gpm
4’ × 8’
ŋ= 50%
1 gpm
q = m C deltaT
Rate of energy absorbed = Rate of change of stored energy
ΔT
n * exposure * area

Direct Conversion of Solar Energy to Electrical
Energy
Solar Photovoltaic Route

Photovoltaic cells
ü Solar Cell or Photovoltaic (PV) cell is a device that is made up of semiconductor

materials such as silicon, gallium arsenide and cadmium telluride, etc.
ü The solar cell is specifically designed with positively (p) and negatively (n) charged
semiconductors sandwiched together to create an electric field. The p-type is produced by
adding atoms—such as boron or gallium—that have one less electron in their outer
energy level than does silicon. The n-type is made by including atoms that have one more
electron in their outer level than does silicon, such as phosphorus. Phosphorus has five
electrons in its outer energy level, not four.
ü When solar cells absorb sunlight, free electrons and holes are created at
positive/negative junctions. If the positive and negative junctions of solar cell are
connected to DC electrical equipment, current is delivered to operate the electrical
equipment.

Working of Solar Photovoltaic cells
knee voltage
Electric Power Output

Efficiency of Solar Cell =
Power Intercepted
Types of Solar Photovoltaic cells
There are three major cell types that classified by its manufacturing technology
and the semiconductor.
ü Crystalline Silicon PV Module: Crystalline silicon (c-Si) is the crystalline forms of

silicon. Two types of crystalline silicon (c-Si) are used to produce PV module i.e.
single crystalline silicon or monocrystalline silicon and multi-crystalline silicon, also
called polycrystalline silicon. It has high conversion efficiencies that average about
10-12%.
ü The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) is driving the development of
high-efficiency crystalline PVs, which includes III-V multijunction materials (with
target efficiency of >30%) and hybrid tandem III-V/Si solar cells. Their six-junction
III-V solar cells have reached an efficiency of 47.1% under concentrated light.

ü Amorphous Silicon PV Module: Amorphous silicon (a-Si) is the non-
crystalline form of silicon. a-Si PV module or thin-film silicon PV
module absorbs light more effectively than crystalline silicon PV
module, so it can be made thinner. The typical efficiency of
amorphous silicon PV module is around 6%
ü Hybrid Silicon PV Module: A combination of single crystalline silicon

surrounded by thin layers of amorphous silicon provides excellent
sensitivity to lower light levels or indirect light. The Hybrid silicon PV
module has highest level of conversion efficiency about 17%.

ü Perovskite Solar Cells: Among the next-generation solar
cells, hybrid metal halide perovskite solar cells (PSCs)
have garnered a great amount of attention
ü Benefits: low price, thinner design, low-temperature
processing, and excellent light absorption properties (good
performance under low and diffuse light).
ü PSCs can be flexible, lightweight, and semitransparent.
ü Perovskite thin films can also be printed

Photovoltaic Cells, Modules, Panels and Arrays
Cell Module
Panel
Array
Components of Solar Photovoltaic System
Solar cells produce direct current

(DC), therefore they are only
used for DC equipment. If
alternating current (AC) is
needed for AC equipment or
backup energy is needed, solar
photovoltaic systems require
other components in addition to
solar modules.
ü Components: Solar Module,
Solar Charge Controller, Battery
& Inverter
Similar PV Devices in Series
When similar devices are connected in series, the voltages

add and the current is the same as one device
A B
Pos (+) (-) (+) Neg (-)
V = VA + V B
Current (A)
I = IA = IB
Pos (+) Neg (-)
A, B A+B
Voltage (V)
99OFTHAPAR INSTITUTE
ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
School of Energy & UEN002: Energy and
Similar PV Devices in Parallel
When similar devices are connected in parallel, the

individual currents add, while the voltage is the same as
for one device
A
A+B
Current (A)
V = VA = V B
I = IA + IB
A, B
B
Neg (- Pos (+)
Voltage (V) )

Rooftop solar system types and pricing
a.) Monocrystalline solar panels

• Made of single source silica material
• Efficiency varies from 17-19 %
• Panels with 19% efficiency price ranges from
Rs 42 per Wp for a watt range of 200-300 W
b.) Polycrystalline solar panels
• Made of multiple source silica material
• Efficiency varies from 14-16 %
• Panels with 17% efficiency, the cost ranges
from Rs 36 per Wp for above 300 W

Area required per solar panel
Area required for a solar panel = E / (I.ɳ)
Where,
E : Electrical energy requirement for a day (kWh)
I : Total solar radiation received in a day (kWh/m2)
ɳ: Efficiency of solar panels

ü 50 KW SPV power project – Neil Island, Andaman & Nicobar
ü 200 KW Grid-interactive SPV – Karkar Kalan Village, Nawanshahr,
Punjab installed in 2003 and generates 9400 units of electricity per
year
ü Large scale deployment of solar powered water pumps in Punjab
(2002-03) – 500 pumps each capable of delivering 1,40,000 litres
water per day from depth of 6-7 meters and irrigate 5-8 acres of
land (implementation in AP, Gujarat, Haryana)
ü World’s largest solar cooker – Brahmakumari Ashram, Mount Abu,
Rajasthan, Cooks meal for 10,000 people without a single unit of
commercial fuel used

Some Success stories and GOI Initiative
ü 50 KW SPV power project – Neil Island, Andaman & Nicobar

ü 200 KW Grid-interactive SPV – Karkar Kalan Village, Nawanshahr, Punjab installed in 2003
and generates 9400 units of electricity per year
GOI Initiative: Pradhan Mantri Kisan Urja Suraksha evam Utthan

Mahabhiyaan (PM KUSUM)
ü • PM KUSUM Scheme issued by MNRE on 08.03.2019
ü The Scheme consists of three components:
• Component A: 10,000 MW of Grid Connected Solar or any other RE Plants (500 KW
to 2 MW capacity)
• Component B: 17.50 lakh standalone Solar Agriculture Pumps (up to 7.5 HP)
• Component C: Solarisation of 10 Lakh grid-connected Agriculture Pumps (up to
7.5 HP)
ü Total 25,750 MW capacity to be created by the year 2022
ü Central Financial Support of Rs. 34,422 Cr

Merits of Solar PV Systems
ü Use of clean, cheap, noiseless, safe, renewable solar energy to produce

electrical energy at the location of utilization, conservation of non-
renewable fuels
ü Suitable for remote loads away from main electrical network and at
places where other fuels are scarce and costly.
ü Cost of installation of long distribution lines, distribution substations etc is
eliminated.
ü Suitable for portable or mobile load e.g. cars , buses, space crafts
ü Reliable service, long life
ü Modest maintenance

Limitations of Solar PV Systems
ü Irregular, intermittent supply of solar energy
ü Need for storage batteries
ü High capital cost (INR/ kW) due to
• large number of PV cells,
• low output power,
• low efficiency
• high technology involved
ü Not economical for central power plants of MW rating due
to very large area of PV panels and very large storage
battery system
New Solar Panel Technologies
a. Floating solar farms or ‘floatovoltaics’:

“Floatovoltaics” are photovoltaic solar power systems
created for floating on reservoirs, dams, and other
water bodies.
b. Building-integrated photovoltaics solar
Technology: BIPV blend into building architecture in the form of roofs,
canopies, curtain walls, facades, and skylight systems.
c. Solar Skins: Solar skins are a novel PV technology to integrate

custom designs into solar panel systems. The solar skin technology
is similar to the ad wraps displayed on bus windows.
d. Solar Fabric: It is including solar power in each fiber

These solar filaments can be embedded into the t-shirts, winter coats, or any
other clothing to help people keep warmer, power the phone, and provide
energy for other needs while people on the go.

Problem 3
House with the following appliances is powered by propane based
engine with efficiency 25% need to be converted to solar PV
Solar radiation available is = 4 kWh/m2 on 25th December 2015
The heat of combustion of propane is (2000 kJ/mol)
Name of appliance Number Power consumed(W) Total working

hours
Tube Light 2 40 8
Fan 2 50 8
Refrigerator 1 80 24
Air conditioner 1 1000 6

Estimate
a) Cost of solar PV required (Rs. 5,000 / 100 W)

b) Area required (Efficiency 20%)
c) Rating of 24 V Battery required for 3 days of no
solar radiation available.
d) CO2 reduction /day

Solution
Total daily requirement is
(2*40*8)+(2*50*8)+(1*80*24)+(1*1000*6)
=9360 Wh or 9.36 kWh
Solar radiation availability (insolation)

= 4 kWh/m2/day
Assume 1 kW/m2 is available in a day for 4 h
Power rating of solar panel required

= total daily requirement / duration for 1 kW/m2
available
= 9.36 kWh / 4 h = 2.34 kW (2400 W approx.)
Costing
Cost of 100 W panel = Rs. 5000
Hence 24 x 5000 = Rs. 1,20,000
Area required by panel
Area required for a solar panel = E / (I.ɳ)
Where,
E : Electrical energy requirement for a day (kWh)
I : Total solar radiation received in a day (kWh/m2)
ɳ: Efficiency of solar panels
= (9.36 /4*0.2) m2 = 11.7 m2

3 day energy requirement = 3 x 9.36 kWh = 28 kWh
Capacity of battery = (28 kWh)/ 24 V = 1.2 kAh
CO2 reduction /day
C3H8 + 5 O2 à 3 CO2 + 4 H2O
The heat of combustion of propane is (2000 kJ/mol)
Electrical energy from 1 mol of propane (efficiency of engine = 25%)
= 0.25 * 2000 kJ = 500 kJ
Total daily requirement is 9.36 kWh
Converting to Joules = 9.36 x 1000 x 3600
= 3.4 x 107 j = 3.4 x 104 kj
Propane required = 3.4 x 104 kj/500kj= 68 mol
CO2 emitted from the process = 3 x 68 mol = 204 mol
Mass of CO2 = 204 X 44 g = 8976 g = 9 kg/day

Wind Energy

WIND POWER
• Wind energy been used by humans for centuries to pump water and grind
grain through wind mills.
• Today’s wind powered electricity generators or aero generators are just

advanced wind mills. Large no. of wind mills installed in a cluster is known
as wind farms.
• Big Wind Turbines or Wind Farms, like old Wind mills are mounted on a
tower to capture the Wind energy with there propeller like blades
• The turning through Wind power spins a generator to produce electricity.

Wind Turbines which are suitable for residential or village scale wind power
range from 500 watts to 50 kilowatts

Wind Energy
• In India, more than 2000 MW of wind powered electricity is being generated commercially
• In India winds are relatively low (5-20 Km/hr) & varies with season.
• 20 million MW of wind power could be commercially tapped worldwide (not including
contribution from wind mill clusters at sea)
• India ranks fourth in the world in Wind power generation after Germany, USA, and Spain.
• India: Over 39.25 GW of Installed Capacity has generated around 60.149 Billion Units during
2020-21.
ü 48.54 % of the total renewable energy capacity

ü 10% in total energy installation In India
ü About 2 Million Jobs Created
• India’s wind energy sector is led by indigenous wind power industry and has shown consistent
progress. The expansion of the wind industry has resulted in a strong ecosystem, project operation
capabilities and manufacturing base of about 10,000 MW per annum.

Wind turbines extract energy by slowing down the wind.
For a wind turbine to be 100% efficient it would need to
stop 100% of the wind - but then the rotor would have to
be a solid disk and it would not turn and no kinetic energy
would be converted.
On the other extreme, if you had a wind turbine with just

one rotor blade, most of the wind passing through the
area swept by the turbine blade would miss the blade
completely and so the kinetic energy would be kept by
the wind.

Real World Wind Turbine Power Efficiencies
•The theoretical maximum power

efficiency of any design of wind turbine is 0.59 (i.e. no
more than 59% of the energy carried by the wind can
be extracted by a wind turbine).
•By the time you take into account other inefficacies in

a complete wind turbine system - e.g. the generator,
bearings, power transmission and so on - only 10-30%
of the power of the wind is ever actually converted
into usable electricity.

The amount of electrical power produced by a wind turbine doesn't only depend on
the speed of the wind, and how smoothly it flows. It also depends on the way the
turbine is built:
•The number of blades
•The length of the blades
•The shape of the blades
•The weight of the blades
•The pitch (angle) of the blades to the wind
•The height of the tower
•The gears used
•The type of generator used
•The computer system that controls the operation of the turbine and its power output
(where this is used)

Wind Farm Siting
A: Onshore:
Onshore wind turbines are placed in
hilly and mountainous places and
are at least three kilometers away
from the nearest shore.
B: Near-shore
Near-shore wind turbines are installed
within three kilometers from the
nearest shore or on water within
ten kilometers from land.
C: Offshore
Offshore wind turbines’ development
zones are at least ten kilometers away from land.

Wind Power Systems Components
The wind power system comprises

one or more wind turbine units
operating electrically in parallel.
Each turbine is made of the
following basic components:
• Tower structure
• Rotor with two or three blades
attached to the hub
• Shaft with mechanical gear
• Electrical generator
• Yaw mechanism, such as the tail
vane
• Sensors and control

Control Methods
Control of turbine: generator speed, blade angle adjustment (Pitch Control),
and rotation of the entire wind turbine (Yaw Control)
• Yaw refers to the rotation of the entire wind

turbine in the horizontal axis.
• Yaw control ensures that the turbine is
constantly facing into the wind to maximize the
effective rotor area and, as a result, power.
• Because wind direction can vary quickly, the
turbine may misalign with the oncoming wind
and cause power output losses.

Pitch Control
• The purpose of pitch control is to maintain the

optimum blade angle to achieve certain rotor speeds
or power output.
• Methods of Pitch Control: stall and furl
• By stalling a wind turbine, the angle of attack
increases, which causes the flat side of the blade to
face further into the wind.
• Furling decreases the angle of attack, causing the
edge of the blade to face the oncoming wind.
• Pitch angle adjustment is the most effective way to
limit output power by changing aerodynamic force on
the blade at high wind speeds.

Wind Turbine Types
Horizontal-Axis – HAWT
• Single to many blades - 2, 3 most
efficient
• Upwind downwind facing , downwind
facing
• Solidity / Aspect Ratio – speed and
torque
• Shrouded / Ducted – Diffuser
AugmentedWind Turbine (DAWT)
Vertical-Axis – VAWT
• Darrieus / Egg-Beater (lift force
driven)
• Savonius (drag force driven)

World’s Largest Offshore Wind Turbine

Improvement in Efficiency of Wind Turbines: 1990-2016
THAPAR INSTITUTE
School of Energy & UEN002: Energy and 126
Fundamental Equation of Wind Power
–Wind Power depends on:
• amount of air (volume)
• speed of air (velocity)
• mass of air (density)
flowing through the area of interest (flux)
•P=½*ρ*A*v3
• Power ~ cube of velocity
• Power ~ air density
• Power ~ rotor swept area A= πr 2
Wind power (W) = ½ (mass flow rate (kg/s)) * (wind
velocity(m/s)) 2
Efficiency in Extracting Wind Power
Betz Limit & Power Coefficient:
• Power Coefficient, Cp, is the ratio of power extracted by the

turbine to the total contained in the wind resource Cp = P T /P W
• Turbine power output
P T = ½ * ρ * A * v 3 * Cp
• The Betz Limit is the maximal possible Cp = 16/27
• 59% efficiency is the BEST a conventional wind turbine can do

in
extracting power from the wind

Advantages
• Clean and non-polluting fuel source
• Offsets Carbon footprint
• No Water Required
• Socio economic growth enabler - Employment and GDP Growth
Mainly in Rural Area
• Key Mitigation tool to reverse Climate Change
Disadvantages
• It requires expensive storage during peak production times to off set

non-windy periods.
• Wind farms occupy substantial areas & the sight of such farms may
not be aesthetically appealing.

Wind Energy
Success stories
• 540 MW wind power plant – Muppandal, Kanyakumari – Largest
concentration of wind turbines in a given location
• Created in remote, backward region of the state of Tamilnadu
• Providing power to large population living without means of
electricity reaching the area
• 350 MW commercial wind power plant – Jogimatti, Chitradurga,
Karnataka – Recorded world’s highest annual capacity factor
• 350 MW semi-commercial plant – Vankusawade, Maharastra –
Transformation of barren and unproductive district into an
industrial belt without consumption a single unit of power from
central/state grid.

Potential for Wind Energy: India
• The Potential for wind power generation for grid interaction has
been estimated at about 1,02,788 MW taking sites having wind
power density greater than 200 W/sq. m at 80 m hub-height with 2%
land availability in potential areas for setting up wind farms @ 9
MW/sq. km.
Technology: Indian Scenario
• Two types of wind turbines: stall regulated and pitch regulated
• Stall regulated wind turbines: fixed rotor blades
• Pitch regulated wind turbines: adjustable rotor blades that
change the angle of attach depending upon wind speed.
• Wind turbines are also available with lattice, steel tubular and
• concrete tubular towers.

Problem 4
A 10 kW wind turbine with a rotor diameter of 14 m is
installed in a place with a wind velocity 6.5 m/sec. The
electricity generated is sold at the cost of Rs. 10 per
unit (kWh). The density of air 1.2 kg/m3.
Based on the given information calculate the

following:
(i) Volume flow rate of wind (in m3/sec)
(ii) Efficiency of the wind turbine
(iii) Income (in Rs.) generated in a year

(i) Mass flow rate calculation
Volume of air passing through the turbine per

second =
(rotor area) x (wind velocity) m3/sec
= π x 72 m2 x 6.5 m/sec
= 1000 m3/sec
Mass flow rate = Vol.flow rate x density kg/sec

= 1000 m3/sec x 1.2 kg/m3
= 1200 kg/sec

(ii) Efficiency Calculation
Wind power = ½ (mass flow rate) * (wind

velocity) 2
= ½ (1200) kg/sec * (6.5)2 m2/sec2
= 25350 W = 25 kW
Efficiency = Wind power output from turbine /

Wind power
= 10 kW/25 kW = 0.4

(iii) Annual Energy Production
Annual energy = power output x 365 x 24

= 10 kW x 365 x 24 h
= 87600 kWh
Annual revenue from the wind turbine

= 87600 kWh x 10 (Rs./kWh)
= Rs. 8,76,000

Small
Hydro
Power

Small Hydro Power
Small hydro Power is the development of hydroelectric power on a scale
suitable for local community and industry, or to contribute to distributed
generation in a regional electricity grid mostly less than 25 MW.
The global installed SHP capacity for plants up to 10 MW is estimated at 78 GW

according to the World Small Hydropower Development Report (WSHPDR)
2019, an increase of approximately 10 per cent compared to data from the
WSHPDR 2013.
SHP represents only approximately 1.5 per cent of the world’s total electricity
installed capacity, 4.5 per cent of the total renewable energy capacity and 7.5
per cent (< 10 MW) of the total hydropower capacity.

The Concept of Hydropower
Potential Energy
(Mass of water located at a higher elevation)
Kinetic Energy
(Water flows as a result of the mass being at a higher elevation)
Mechanical Energy
(Flowing mass of water turns a turbine runner)
Electric Power
(Turbine runner turns a directly coupled generator)
138
Classification of Small Hydro Power
World wide
- USA < 5 MW
- UK < 5 MW
- India < 25 MW § Indian Classification
- Sweden < 15 MW
- Colombia < 20 MW - Pico hydro < 10 kW
- Australia < 20 MW - Micro hydro 10 - 100 kW
- China < 25 MW - Mini hydro 0.1 - 3 MW
- Philippines < 50 MW
- Small hydro 3 - 25 MW
- New Zealand < 50 MW
- Canada < 20 MW
- Erstwhile USSR < 30 MW

Types of SHP
• Run of the river schemes

• Storage type
Ø Schemes on the canal drops
Ø Dam toe power house

Run-of-the-river schemes
Normally utilize the head and discharge of hilly streams, which uses
water within the range of the natural river flow and generally has no
reservoir or pondage to regulate the river flow
Components may include

• Diversion weir
• Intake structure
• Desilting chamber
• Water conductor system
• Fore bay with surplus escape
• Penstock
• Power house
• Tailrace channel
• Switchyard & transmission arrangement

142
Features of Run-of-the-river
• does not stop river flow

• use only a diversion weir
• water is not carried over seasons
• low cost
• locally built
• simple
• long term reliability
• no flooding of in the up-streams of river
• no environmental damage

Schemes on the canal falls
• These are located on existing or proposed

irrigation channels utilising the canal discharges
and head created by falls, to generate power
• Two or three falls could be combined and
aggregate heads utilised in a single power
house

145
Dam-toe power house
• This utilises the head of an existing irrigation

dam/barrage located in the Dam
• These schemes have a relatively big reservoir
that stores water in the rainy season and
release it in the dry season

147
Advantages of small hydro
• Limited investment
• Short gestation period
• Environment friendly
• Simple civil work
• Minimum operation and maintenance cost
• Operational flexibility
• Decentralised power option

Features of Storage dam type (Conventional Hydro)
• More complex & expensive

• water can be carried over seasons
• not so environment friendly
• capacity to reduce due to silting
• flooding of river up-stream happens
• long gestation period

Power = f (Head, Discharge)
P = f (H, Q)
Q
Assessment of Power Potential
Power potential is the product of available head and

quantity of water at any point of time and is determined
by using the following formula:
P = 9.81 ηQH
Where, P = Power output in kW

Q = Discharge in m3/s
H = Head (Net head) in m
η = Overall efficiency (0.5 to 0.7)
151
Numerical
Calculate flow needed to run a 50 kW factory with a
water fall of 20 m height
Pnet = 9.81 η Q H
Q = 50 / (10*0.5*20)
= 0.509 m3/s
Calculate Power when the flow is 150 lt/s and head

is 90 ft.
Pnet = 9.81 * 0.5 * 0.15 * 30
= 22.07 kW

Thank You


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THAPAR INSTITUTE School of Energy & UEN002: Energy and

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