Mediating Specialized Knowledge and

L2 Abilities: New Research in

Spanish/English Bilingual Models and
Beyond 1st ed. 2021 Edition Linda
Escobar (Editor)
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Mediating Specialized
Knowledge and L2 Abilities
New Research in Spanish/English
Bilingual Models and Beyond

Edited by
Linda Escobar
Ana Ibáñez Moreno
Mediating Specialized Knowledge and L2
Abilities
 Linda Escobar
Ana Ibáñez Moreno
Editors

Mediating
Specialized
Knowledge and L2
Abilities
New Research in Spanish/English
Bilingual Models and Beyond
Editors
Linda Escobar Ana Ibáñez Moreno
Faculty of Humanities Faculty of Humanities
National University of Distance Education National University of Distance Education
Madrid, Spain Madrid, Spain

ISBN 978-3-030-87475-9    ISBN 978-3-030-87476-6 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-87476-6

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 Acknowledgements

This book has received the support of the following research groups:
“OLGA-2018-3” of educational innovation financed by the UNED,
coordinated by Dr. Linda Escobar, “REMARE-EMI” financed by the
University of Castilla-La Mancha (UCLM) and Ciencias + Letras =
CLAP (Sciences and linguistics: practical applications) with reference
FCT-20-15816, funded by the Spanish Foundation for Science and
Technology. It also has the participation of two research groups: DILEAR
(Didactics of languages and art), directed by Esther Nieto Moreno de
Diezmas, and CACLE (Communication, learning and competences in a
foreign language), directed by Gema Alcaraz Mármol. The editors also
thank the collaboration of the International ESP Teacher’s Association
(IESPTA). More specific acknowledgements may be found inside the
chapters included in this book.

v
 Contents

Part I L2 Education in English/Spanish Bilingual Contexts   1

1 Tertiary Bilingual Education: The Iberian Spanish Case

Versus Other Multilingual Contexts  3
Linda Escobar

2 Translanguaging and Language Mediation in EMI

Contexts: Emotional Stances and Translation Issues 17
Esther Nieto Moreno de Diezmas and Alicia Fernández Barrera

3 Translator Competence in Second Foreign Language

Teaching: Acquisition of Intercultural Competence 35
Laura González Fernández

4 The Making of Future School Mediators: Using Digital

Narratives for Mediation Purposes 63
María Victoria Guadamillas Gómez

5 CLILing EMI for Effective Mediation in the L2 in Pre-

service Teacher Education: A Case Study at a Spanish
University 81
Magdalena Custodio-Espinar and Alfonso López-Hernández
vii
viii Contents

Part II ESP Instruction Practices in International Context 109

6 Positive Psychology and L2 Motivation in ESP111

Imelda Katherine Brady

7 Using English-Learning Apps Inside Tourism and

Business Classes: Analysis and Critical Review133
Yolanda Joy Calvo Benzies

8 ESP for Tourism: Does It Meet Employers’ Needs and

Prepare Students for the Workplace?153
Gloria Chamorro, María Vázquez-Amador, and María del
Carmen Garrido-Hornos

9 Teaching Spanish Medical Students How to Write a Case

History191
Ariel Sebastián Mercado

10 Teaching ESP Through Data-Driven Learning: An

Exploratory Study in Health Sciences Degrees209
Jorge Soto-Almela and Gema Alcaraz-Mármol

11 Division of Labour and the Development of Professional

Literacies: Problematising ESP Learners’ Preparedness for
Workplace Writing229
Tayba S. Al Hilali and Jim McKinley

Part III EAP Instruction Practices and Academic Writing 249

12 Insights from an ERASMUS Teaching Programme on

Academic Writing: The French Case251
Ourania Katsara
 Contents ix

13 A Case Study on Needs Analysis in English for Academic

Environmental Purposes275
Octavia Raluca Zglobiu

14 Navigating Corpora for Self-Directed LSP Writing: A

Comparative Study of Digital Method and Resource
Integration in L1 Versus L2 Language Courses289
Loredana Bercuci, Ana-Maria Pop, Mădălina Chitez, and
Andreea Dincă

15 Corpus-Based Discourse Analysis: Titles in Civil

Engineering Research Articles311
Ana Roldan-Riejos

16 Tales from the Philippines: Fostering Intercultural

Language Learning Through a Literary Journey Around
the Philippine Archipelago333
Ana Sevilla-Pavón and María Alcantud-Díaz

Index361
 List of Contributors

María Alcantud-Díaz TALIS, Universitat de València, Valencia, Spain

Gema Alcaraz-Mármol Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Ciudad
Real, Spain
Tayba S. Al Hilali University of Technology and Applied Sciences,
Muscat, Oman
Linda Escobar Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia
(UNED), Madrid, Spain
Alicia Fernández Barrera University of Castilla-La Mancha, Ciudad
Real, Spain
Yolanda Joy Calvo Benzies University of the Balearic Islands (UBI),
Palma de Mallorca, Spain
Loredana Bercuci West University of Timisoara, Timișoara, Romania
Imelda Katherine Brady Universidad Nacional de Educación a
Distancia (UNED), Madrid, Spain
Gloria Chamorro University of Kent, Canterbury, UK
Mădălina Chitez West University of Timisoara, Timișoara, Romania

xi
xii List of Contributors

Magdalena Custodio-Espinar Comillas Pontifical University,

Madrid, Spain
Esther Nieto Moreno de Diezmas University of Castilla-La Mancha,
Ciudad Real, Spain
Andreea Dincă West University of Timisoara, Timișoara, Romania
Laura González Fernández University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
María del Carmen Garrido-Hornos University of Valladolid,
Valladolid, Spain
María Victoria Guadamillas Gómez University of Castilla-La Mancha
(UCLM), Toledo, Spain
Ourania Katsara University of Patras, Patras, Greece
Alfonso López-Hernández Comillas Pontifical University, Madrid, Spain
Jim McKinley UCL Institute of Education, London, UK
Jorge Soto-Almela Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain
Ariel Sebastián Mercado McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
Ana-Maria Pop West University of Timisoara, Timișoara, Romania
Ana Roldan-Riejos Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
Ana Sevilla-Pavón IULMA-TALIS, Universitat de València,
Valencia, Spain
María Vázquez-Amador Cádiz University, Cadiz, Spain
Octavia Raluca Zglobiu Babeș-Bolyai University, Cluj-­Napoca, Romania
 List of Figures

Fig. 5.1 Content taught in English: the language/content continuum.

(Adapted from “EAP, EMI or CLIL?” by J. Airei, in The
Routledge handbook of English for academic purposes, 2016,
p. 73. Routledge) 83
Fig. 5.2 Varieties from non-CLIL to CLIL in L2/FL-mediated higher
education in Europe. (Adapted from “Report on the
LANQUA Subproject on Content and Language Integrated
Learning: Redefining CLIL—Towards Multilingual
Competence” by Greere & Räsänen, 2008, p. 6) 84
Fig. 8.1 Frequency of the ratings in the question about the use of
English in the companies 183
Fig. 8.2 Frequency of the people students interact with in each type
of company 184
Fig. 8.3 Frequency of the ratings in the question about the impor-
tance to speak English to be hired in the company 184
Fig. 8.4 Frequency of the ratings in the question about the overall
English competence of student 185
Fig. 14.1 Fluctuations between Batches 1 and 3 297
Fig. 14.2 Differences in frequency between CELR-1 and CELR-2 300
Fig. 14.3 Differences in frequency between CELR-1 and CELR-2 301
Fig. 14.4 Fluctuations between batches in CLLR 304
Fig. 14.5 Survey differences between L1 and L2 306
Fig. 15.1 Representation of title elements in (7) 324

xiii
xiv List of Figures

Fig. 16.1 Central Luzon languages of the Philippines, based on

Ethnologue342
Fig. 16.2 Northern Luzon languages of the Philippines, based on
Ethnologue343
 List of Tables

Table 2.1 Lecturers’ profile (EMI and English Friendly) 23

Table 5.1 Mediation activities in the CEFR Companion Volume 87
Table 5.2 Overview of the English-taught courses in the education
degrees at Comillas 90
Table 5.3 Overview of the strategies and resources for intra-linguistic
(English) mediation in the TEFL courses93
Table 5.4 Overview of the CLIL strategies for intra-linguistic (English)
mediation in the CLIL course 94
Table 5.5 Innovation project schedule 95
Table 5.6 Mediation in EMI assessment checklist 95
Table 5.7 Comparison of English-leveled groups and their academic
performance per course and degree 96
Table 5.8 Student positive and negative responses to exit slips
(online questionnaire) in TEFL 2 station teaching 96
Table 5.9 Student positive and negative responses to exit slips
(online questionnaire) in CLIL team teaching and parallel
teaching97
Table 5.10 Differences in the learning experience and the perceived
“effectiveness of two instructors” after the CLIL module
(paired samples) 98
Table 5.11 Focus groups’ student responses on “CLILed EMI” courses 99
Table 7.1 Recent studies on mobile learning within different ESP
disciplines135

xv
xvi List of Tables

Table 7.2 List of apps analysed, number ascribed to each of them

and reference to the subjects they are useful for 139
Table 7.3 Presence and types of adverts in the apps analysed 141
Table 7.4 Presence of music in the apps analysed 142
Table 7.5 Personalisation functions in the apps analysed 142
Table 7.6 Individual progress in the apps analysed 143
Table 7.7 Degree of intuitiveness of the apps analysed 143
Table 7.8 Analysis of the apps according to their price 144
Table 7.9 Transparency within the title 144
Table 7.10 Emphasis of receptive and/or productive skills 145
Table 7.11 Language skills emphasised in the different apps 146
Table 7.12 Classification of apps according to the criterion theoretical
versus practical 146
Table 7.13 Types of theoretical and practical sections encountered in
the apps 146
Table 7.14 Number of speakers included in each app analysed 147
Table 7.15 Inclusion of feedback in the apps analysed 149
Table 7.16 Inclusion of help sections in the apps reviewed 149
Table 8.1 Rating means and SDs of the frequency in which English
is used in each type of company 178
Table 8.2 Rating means and SDs of the frequency in which each
skill is used by students in each type of company 178
Table 8.3 Rating means and SDs of the importance to speak English
to be hired in each type of company 178
Table 8.4 Rating means and SDs of the frequency in which each
function is performed in English by students in each type
of company 179
Table 8.5 Rating means and SDs of the overall English competence
of students in each type of company 181
Table 8.6 Rating means and SDs of students’ preparation to perform
each function in English in each type of company 181
Table 9.1 Contents of English for Medicine at UAX (2010–2019) 199
Table 10.1 Participants 217
Table 10.2 Difficulty of use of AntConc (I) 217
Table 10.3 Difficulty of use of AntConc (II) 218
Table 10.4 Usefulness of AntConc tools (I) 218
Table 10.5 Usefulness of AntConc tools (II) 219
Table 10.6 Classroom methodology (I) 220
 List of Tables xvii

Table 10.7 Classroom methodology (II) 220

Table 10.8 Usefulness of the project activities (I) 220
Table 10.9 Usefulness of the project activities (II) 220
Table 10.10 Advantages and applications of DDL in ESP (I) 221
Table 10.11 Advantages and applications of DDL in ESP (II) 221
Table 10.12 Overall assessment of DDL 221
Table 12.1 Gender 269
Table 12.2 Level of English 269
Table 12.3 Overall evaluation 270
Table 12.4 Aspects of the presentation 270
Table 12.5 Detail in the presentation 270
Table 12.6 Favourite part 271
Table 12.7 Least favourite part 271
Table 13.1 First semester survey (representative items) 284
Table 13.2 Profile of the EAEP group 285
Table 13.3 CEFR levels of the group 285
Table 13.4 Scaling the abilities of the group in EAEP 285
Table 13.5 Specialists’ questionnaires 286
Table 13.6 Second semester survey (representative items) 286
Table 14.1 Most frequent N-Grams in TourEXP 293
Table 15.1 Title typology in the corpus 315
Table 15.2a Most frequent function words ordered by rank (frequency
value)317
Table 15.2b Most frequent content words ordered by rank (frequency
value)317
Table 15.3a Number and % of technical and research-related nouns
and verbs 318
Table 15.3b Number and % of technical and research-related adjectives 318
Table 15.4 Semantic arrangement and word number of two-part titles 323
Table 16.1 Sustainable Development Goals present in the tales from
Bulacan State University within the “TALIS Tales from
the Philippines” project 344
Table 16.2 SDGs targeted by the Little Free Library (first batch) tales
within the TALIS: Tales of the Philippines Project 348
Table 16.3 Region/island of origin and language of the original
version of the tales written by the Little Free Library
Philippines (Batch 1) within the TALIS: Tales of the
Philippines project 353
 Part I
L2 Education in English/Spanish
Bilingual Contexts
 1
Tertiary Bilingual Education: The Iberian
Spanish Case Versus Other Multilingual
Contexts
Linda Escobar

Introduction
The use of English as an international language in tertiary education
seems to be a crucial factor in decision-making for prospective interna-
tional students, be they short-term credit or longer-term degree-seeking,
incoming or outgoing. Therefore, universities need to adopt English as a
Lingua Franca via English-medium instruction (EMI). On the other
hand, the knowledge of other foreign languages has been emphasized as
an indispensable requirement in various professional and academic fields
and in the world of international communication in general. This situa-
tion was collected by the European Commission in its 1995 White Paper
on Education and Training entitled Teaching and learning: towards the
learning society. In these studies, among the main lines of action on edu-
cation and training, the objective that all citizens of the European Union
(EU) are competent in three European languages in addition to their

L. Escobar (*)
Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia (UNED), Madrid, Spain
e-mail: maescobar@flog.uned.es

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 3

L. Escobar, A. Ibáñez Moreno (eds.), Mediating Specialized Knowledge and L2 Abilities,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-87476-6_1
4 L. Escobar

mother tongue. The reasons given by the commission to justify this pro-
posal are that all citizens benefit from both work and personal opportuni-
ties offered by the EU and by facilitating coexistence with other cultures
within the Union. Likewise, it is pointed out that learning languages at
an early age favours the general learning of schoolchildren.
Today, Iberian Spanish (Castilian) has become a ubiquitous linguistic
resource that is vastly predominant in everyday life, in mass media and on
the street in Spain, including the officially bilingual communities.
Therefore, there is a growing interest in analysing how Content and
Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) programmes in Spain fit within
the current bilingual education models, taking into account that they
have often been perceived as competitors with the teaching of minority
languages, and local governments might use the promotion of English as
an alibi to diminish the role of local languages.

 he Importance of Learning L2 English in Most

T
Academic Fields
The importance of learning foreign languages is key in today’s society for
an acceptable knowledge of international relations in different sectors
(educational, labour, professional, cultural or tourism), to have access to
the media and for the development of new technologies. In addition, citi-
zens expect to find the globalization of higher education according to the
establishment of multilingual policies (Cots et al., 2014).
In addition to being one of the mother tongues with the greatest num-
ber of speakers, various political-historical reasons have led many coun-
tries such as Spain to adopt English as their mother tongue or as a second
language (Alcaraz Varó, 2000). The rapid technological development of
English-speaking countries, especially the United States, has played an
important role in its status as a means of international communication or
lingua franca. But not only in English-speaking countries but throughout
the world, the technological and commercial fields have undergone a very
rapid evolution and English has become the indispensable language for
communication in the scientific and business sectors (Escobar, 2011;
 1 Tertiary Bilingual Education: The Iberian Spanish Case… 5

Kenny et al., 2020). In addition, the press, television, cinema and litera-
ture in the English language are available to almost every country in the
world, and most of the world’s scientific-technological studies are written
in English. Flowerdew and Peacock (2001, p. 10) argue that “the interna-
tional language of research and academic publication is English”.
According to Alcaraz Varó (2000, p. 15), “in most of the different special-
ties, the publications of magazines in English are the ones with the great-
est prestige and international diffusion.” We must not forget that English
is often the only tool available to access the world of knowledge and
research (Hyland and Wong 2019).
Actually, English is the most common international language in the
administrative spheres of different states of the world and that has man-
aged to gain a foothold in the administrative instances, so reluctant to
change and novelty is the ratification that the English language has
become an international language and not as a fad that will pass when
China takes over from world economic leadership. English is here to
stay, as civil society and states around the world have invested enor-
mously in helping their citizens learn English, making it inevitable that
this dynamic will increase. The Community Institutions have 24 offi-
cial languages (German, Bulgarian, Czech, Croatian, Danish, Slovak,
Slovenian, Spanish, Estonian, Finnish, French, Greek, Hungarian,
English, Irish, Italian, Latvian, Lithuanian, Maltese, Dutch, Polish,
Portuguese, Romanian and Swedish). Only three of them have the cat-
egory of working language in the EU bodies: French, German and pre-
dominantly English. The trend in Spain seems to be the same as in the
rest of Europe. According to information from the Spanish Association
of Promoters of Courses Abroad (ASEPROCE), English is the language
most demanded by language students, in 141 teaching project concrete
by 90%. Today, there are multiple causes and a wide variety of reasons
why English has become an international language (EIL). In fact, their
knowledge is almost an indispensable condition for professional suc-
cess, since it is considered a lingua franca spoken by a wide variety of
speakers around the world (Llurda, 2004, 2017), which requires a
teaching agenda that incorporates pedagogical approaches to account
for EIL (Matsuda, 2003, 2012).
6 L. Escobar

 enefits of Training University Students

B
to Think Positively

Nowadays many universities attempt to develop a positive mindset in

their community. Thinking positively implies a powerful motivational
process that enhances learning, guides academic and career trajectories,
and is essential to academic success. Following Hyland (2014), today’s
education is in need of a revitalization of its affective function, since
learners, more than ever, require developing their emotional, social, moral
and personal skills.
Among the benefits that a positive mind can offer when learning a
second language, the development of mental abilities at all ages has been
attested, like memory improvement, multi-task enhancement and
decision-­making. Furthermore, it seems that thinking positively reduces
the level of stress in students’ academic life. For many years, students have
been suffering from anxiety, stress, depression or low self-esteem coming
from their studies during the university period. It is said that many physi-
cal illnesses have their origins in one’s mind too. Teachers often forget the
importance of being mentally healthy not only for students’ mental well-­
being but also for their future careers, since having a positive thinking
will prevent them from future bad consequences and, presumably, favour
their way to positive futures.
In addition, one more fact for mental wellness which is worth paying
attention to is the power that positivism gives to students, since a mind
full of negative thoughts can work against them. But the truth is that,
when having to quickly fix a problem, positive minds will always find
more and faster ways to reach their solution. Therefore, we can say that a
positive personality is linked with a determined and a resilient one in the
classroom which may also turn into a translanguaging space, in which
both instructors and students could express themselves through dynamic
bilingualism. They should negotiate classroom policies depending on
their needs and demands. When students are able to negotiate and
manipulate their own language production, class discussions and task-­
based language learning may be two alternative strategies to foster mind-
fulness as well.
 1 Tertiary Bilingual Education: The Iberian Spanish Case… 7

In brief, students’ preferences are vital in order to captivate their atten-

tion and improve motivation, as well as avoiding enforced participation
if students are not comfortable, either due to social, personal or linguistic
factors. Instructors need to be constantly informed and study their stu-
dents’ interests and learn how to effectively apply them into the class-
room, considering individual limitations to create a positive learning
space for them.

Learning Needs and Academic Discourse

According to Hyland (2009), it is essential that academic discourse be

acquired, as it becomes a relevant resource that allows students to learn
and communicate the contents of the curriculum effectively. Some
authors have tried to provide a linguistic characterization of textual genres
typically used in the different academic disciplines. Working on discourse
in Spanish, da Cunha and Montané’s (2020) corpus study considered
some textual genres as the most often written among students and other
professional actors and attempted to offer an analysis of the most fre-
quently occurring textual genres posing the greatest writing difficulties.
Their conclusions highlighted five genres—allegation, cover letter, letter
of complaint, claim and application—and found that the greatest writing
difficulties were related to textual structure, selection of contents, lexical
choices, text cohesion and the degree of formality. By extension, we may
assume that these writing difficulties can also be found in the academic
discourse of L2 English at the tertiary level.
Actually, there are several studies on teaching practices that offer rein-
forcement since academic language is a requirement for success with
challenging literacy tasks, such as reading textbooks or writing research
papers and literature review (Snow & Uccelli, 2009). All these tasks can
cover learning needs of foreign language learners, and, therefore, more
attention is being paid to linguistic reinforcement. Carlino (2012),
reflecting on the didactics of academic discourse, raised the notion of
academic literacy at the tertiary level, in reference to the activities of pro-
duction and analysis of texts of university students. In particular, search-
ing, acquiring, elaborating and communicating knowledge is not the
8 L. Escobar

same in all areas as in English for specific purpose (ESP), where academic
speech requires to know how to communicate knowledge in the foreign
language.
A large number of other researchers have claimed that problems in
learning the university subjects are due precisely to a lack of competence
in the use of advanced literacy (Schleppegrell & Colombi, 2002). The
fact that acquisition of academic records in the foreign language often
poses difficulties for students has also been observed (Snow & Uccelli,
2009). Furthermore, academic communication seems to emerge neither
with the frequency nor with the quality that it should (Dalton-Puffer,
2007; Hellermann, 2009). This has led to highlight the relevance of
English as Academic Purposes (EAP) as a fully fledged discipline (Hyland
2018 and Hyland and Wong 2019).

The Spanish/English Bilingual Case

L 1 in Bilingual Education and CLIL: Code-Switching
and Translanguaging

The use of translanguaging has commonly been recognized in bilingual

classrooms. The main language functions that the use of L1 covers are
switching between topics, changing from one language to another, affec-
tive and repetitive functions, and expressing emotions. In many cases,
students use L1 to find and revisit information and to understand con-
tent in texts. As regards the Spanish context, Pavón Vazquez and Ramos
Ordoñez’s (2019) study focuses on whether and how L1 use may facili-
tate L2 acquisition and how the L1 and L2 can work together to develop
student’s bilingualism and biliteracy. The authors seek to analyse the dif-
ferent communication strategies in classroom interaction when students
employ their L1.
According to Pavón Vazquez and Ramos Ordoñez (2019), the rele-
vance of code-switching is indisputable for some students since it is a
relevant pedagogic tool in the bilingual context where the primary focus
of instruction is the acquisition of the content subject matter. Students
 1 Tertiary Bilingual Education: The Iberian Spanish Case… 9

seem to use a variety of communication strategies in the L1 that allow

them to connect with the lesson content. At least in this particular con-
text, the use of L1 is beneficial for learning content since all communica-
tion strategies used by students help to facilitate their learning process.
Students’ L1 should then be allowed to construct meaning, but cau-
tiously, so as not to reduce the exposure to L2. Therefore, the utilization
of L1 should be reduced if students receive language support specific for
the academic dimension of the language content. This can be imple-
mented in CLIL by redirecting the goals of the foreign language subject
towards this particular support (Martinez et al., 2018).
It is also relevant to train teachers on when and how to use L1 strate-
gies. The deciding factor that compels teachers to introduce L1 in their
classes appears to be the students’ proficiency in L2. Alternatively, teach-
ers may reconsider the efficiency of ESP programmes that are mainly
oriented towards enhancing the students’ content-based knowledge.
These programmes have an obvious impact on the development of aca-
demic content. In this book some contexts are analysed where some spe-
cific methodologies are in place.

Using Scaffolding Strategies

As is well known, written production requires greater difficulty than

understanding a written text in English as a foreign language. The diffi-
culty increases in the case of specialized texts since it is necessary to know
how to communicate using a certain register and follow a specific struc-
ture for each type of text.
ESP teachers in Spain usually offer a scaffolding strategy to students as
an excellent way to provide comprehensible input. The main tenet is that
students learn the key parts of different types of written texts for specific
purposes to cope with most common difficulties. Not only will they learn
the essential writing skills for these text genres, but they will also make
progress in their acquisition of English for specific purposes, as shown in
Escobar and da Cunha (2018). Indeed, one way to make students be
engaged in their own learning process is to let them work with semi-­
automatic writing systems which may offer a comprehensive description
10 L. Escobar

of some text genres as discussed in Bloch (2013) and Franklin-­

Landi (2017).
Escobar and Ibáñez (2018), for example, showed how digital and/or
mobile technologies may be applied in an integrated teaching course of
the English language in formal remote university contexts at the National
University of Teaching a Distance (UNED, Spain). In this work, four
innovation projects in the English classroom are discussed for profes-
sional purposes, using mainly mobile technology. The main objective was
to examine the results obtained from the implementation of various ICT
tools which promote mobile language learning, collaboration, peer review
and the gamification of teaching. In this line, further research about the
language use in class together with the real use of scaffolding methodolo-
gies in multilingual contexts may shed more light on how to implement
the best method to provide students with content-based teaching.

The Commodification of English and Multilingualism

The ideology of the commodification of English in the global era, which

refers to the value assigned to English as a marketable skill to compete in
the neoliberal job market, is part of the existing tensions between what is
taught in the language classroom and the linguistic skills that students
will need in the real world outside the classroom, as discussed in Cameron
(2012) and Kramsch (2014).
In this context, it is crucial to consider how multilingual education is
addressed in the Iberian Spanish region through the medium of Spanish/
English within CLIL programmes. In particular, Relaño Pastor’s (2014)
study deals with how the symbolic value assigned to CLIL programmes
in the Madrid region, as discussed in Llinares and Dafouz (2010), is
linked to the sociolinguistic reality of Madrid as a bilingual community
against the backdrop of European second-language education policies to
promote plurilingualism. The main finding from this chapter is the free
use of both languages in the classroom, although there is a preference for
students to use L1 Spanish to reinforce their identity as Spanish speakers
who are learning English in CLIL classes.
 1 Tertiary Bilingual Education: The Iberian Spanish Case… 11

Another interesting finding is that students are not really aware of the
importance of using English to become bilingual. On the other hand,
they seemed to be really interested in working on content-based pro-
grammes to work on their English performance. Their language choices
are thus balanced and the ways they are framed in formal learning envi-
ronments reveal rather how English-medium instruction is carried out in
CLIL classrooms. The main conclusion from this chapter is that English
CLIL programmes in Madrid perpetuate the ideology of English as
commodity.
The study in Relaño Pastor and Fernandez Barrera (2018) focuses on
the region of Castilla la Mancha and reflects on the idea of neoliberalism
as ideology and practice being embedded in the narratives of CLIL teach-
ers participating in different bilingual education programmes in the
region. According to the findings reported there, teachers’ narratives of
prestige and elitism share comparable motivations in the pursuit of
English learning in the different CLIL-type bilingual programmes. They
argue that there is a common goal to achieve a marketable command of
English, a commodity that schools can offer to students seen as future
qualified workers of a competitive professional market. Therefore, lan-
guage planning policy is crucially related to CLIL programmes to meet
L2 English needs throughout all the range of subjects offered in this sec-
ond language especially at tertiary level (Escobar 2020).
However, language-in-education policies are controversial for some
authors as discussed in Vila et al. (2017). This study claims that Iberian
Spanish (Castilian) has become an omnipresent linguistic resource that is
vastly predominant in every day’s life, even in other Spanish regions with
another official language. This is the case of the autonomous regions of
Spain, specifically Catalonia, the Valencian Community, the Balearic
Islands, Galicia, the Basque Country and Navarra, where Spanish coex-
ists with Catalan, Galician and Basque, respectively. Multilingual educa-
tion in these communities is, thus, vital for the successful integration of
both Spanish and the autochthonous languages, as well as for the acquisi-
tion of English as the most relevant foreign language, which could poten-
tially put Spain on the international map.
As a consequence, Castilian-medium or ‘balanced’ bilingual pro-
grammes rarely achieve the goal of high-level bilingualism and biliteracy,
12 L. Escobar

unless the local language is the predominant means of instruction in

those educational models. It concludes that a generalized bilingualism
remains to be achieved in all territories, with the promotion of out-of-­
school use of minoritized languages and with an increase in the profi-
ciency in foreign languages. This is the reason why there is a growing
interest in discussing whether CLIL programmes in English fit within the
current bilingual education models, taking into account that they are
often perceived as competitors with the minority languages (Hemmi and
Banegas 2021).
However, as authors such as Aparicio García (2009) and Ozfidan and
Burlbaw (2016) point out, second- or third-language acquisition should
not be perceived as harmful, but as an opportunity towards multilingual-
ism. Several languages can coexist within a speaker’s repertoire and it is
only beneficial on the long run, for it opens up broader social and labour
opportunities. The way to approach this coexistence is through balanced
instruction, that is, dedicating an equal number of hours and content
subjects to the target languages (Aparicio García, 2009). All in all, mate-
rials, syllabus organization, teachers and educational staff implication
and, especially, cultural promotion are highly impactful factors, which
need more future attention to be able to offer inspiring courses to stu-
dents who want to target challenging professional jobs in the global market.

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 CHAPTER III.

VARIOUS MATERIALS USED IN COACH-

BUILDING.
The materials employed in coach-building number a great many:
various kinds of wood—ash, beech, elm, oak, mahogany, cedar,
deal, pine, &c.; hides, skins, hair, wool, silk, glue, whalebone, ivory,
&c.; iron, steel, copper, brass, lead, tin, glass, &c.
The timber principally used in the construction of carriages is the
ash. This is not an elastic, but rather a tough and fibrous wood,
capable of altering its form by the application of pressure, and
therefore when not in large masses requires iron plates to secure it.
By boiling it becomes very pliable, and may be formed into almost
any shape, provided that it is not too thick. For this purpose it is
better to use steam than boiling water, as the latter is likely to
dissolve and carry off the gluten which unites the fibres, thus
rendering the timber useless. Some ash timber is white at heart, and
some red; the white is usually the strongest and best. Some trees
which have been grown on hillsides much exposed to constant winds
present a remarkably wrinkled appearance through their whole
length, and it is scarcely possible to plane their timber smooth; this is
the toughest of all ash timber. Parts of ash-trees are sometimes
found of a yellowish-brown colour, accompanied by a fetid acid
smell. This is sometimes attributed to the effect of lightning, but more
probably it is a putrid fermentation of the sap, owing to imperfect
drying. All other circumstances being equal, the timber is best which
is cut down when the circulation of the sap is slowest, as the pores
are then open. In the process of drying or seasoning the bulk
diminishes considerably. One of the qualities which render ash
peculiarly fit for carriage construction is the absence of elasticity, and
consequent indisposition to alter its form by warping or twisting. It is
not well adapted for boards or planks in which much width is
required, as in drying it cracks a great deal. The diameter of ash-
trees used by carriage-builders varies from 1 foot to 3 feet 6 inches.
It should be borne in mind in cutting ash, that the interior and the
outer casing under the bark are rather softer and less durable than
the parts between them.
Beech is sometimes used by carriage-builders and by
wheelwrights, on account of its cheapness; but it is very liable to
warp and rot, and consequently unworthy of the attention of the
conscientious manufacturer.
Elm is largely used for planking where strength is required. The
grain is wavy, hard to work, brittle, and apt to split without care. It is
not a good surface to paint on, as the grain shows through several
coats of colour. It is also used for the naves or stocks of wheels.
Oak is used for the spokes of wheels. The best kinds are made
from the timbers of saplings, which are not sawn but cleft, in order
that the grain may be not cut across and render the spoke unfit to
resist the strains it will be subject to. Spokes are also made from the
limbs of large trees.
Mahogany is largely used for panels, as when painted it shows a
very even surface. There are two kinds, the “Spanish” and the
“Honduras.” The former is unfit for the purposes of the carriage-
builder. It is heavy and very difficult to work, requiring special tools
for this purpose, as the edges of ordinary tools are rapidly destroyed
by it. The Honduras is very much lighter and cheaper than Spanish,
and the grain and colour more even. It takes the sweeps and curves
required for body-work very easily. It can be procured up to 4 feet in
width, straight-grained, and free from knots and blemishes.
A coarse-grained species of cedar is brought from the same
district as Honduras mahogany, and is sometimes used for panels
which have to be covered with leather, &c. Its extreme porosity
renders it unfit for the application of paint.
 Deal is largely used for the flooring of carriages, and for covered
panels, and for any rough work that is not exposed to great wear and
tear.
The wide American pine is chiefly used in very thin boards to form
the covered panels and roofing of carriages.
Lancewood is a straight-grained, elastic wood, but very brittle
when its limit of elasticity is reached. It comes from the West Indies
in taper poles about 20 feet long and 6 or 8 inches diameter at the
largest end. It was formerly much used for shafts, but since curved
forms have been fashionable it has fallen into disuse. It can be bent
by boiling, but is a very unsafe material to trust to such an important
office as the shafts.
American birch is a very valuable wood for flat boarding, as it can
be procured up to 3 feet in width. It is of a perfectly homogeneous
substance, free from rents, and with scarcely a perceptible pore. It
works easily with the plane and yields a very smooth surface, and
the grain does not show through the most delicate coat of paint. Its
chief disadvantage is its brittleness, which will not permit of its being
used for any but plane surfaces, and some care is required in nailing
and screwing it.
Hides are used chiefly for coverings, but also in some parts strips
are used for the purposes of suspension. The hides are those of
horses and neat cattle. For covering they are converted into leather
by the action of oak and other bark. They are afterwards smoothed
and levelled by the currier, and sometimes split into two equal
thicknesses by machinery. They are then rendered pliable by the
action of oil and tallow, and finished to a clear black or brown colour
as may be required. This is called dressed leather. For some
purposes the hides are merely levelled, put on wet to the object they
are intended to cover, and left to shrink and dry. Others are covered
with a coat of elastic japan, which gives them a highly glazed
surface, impermeable to water; in this state they are called patent
leather. In a more perfectly elastic mode of japanning, which will
permit folding without cracking the surface, they are called
enamelled leather. They are generally black, but any colour desired
may be given to them. All this japanned leather has the japan
annealed, somewhat in the same mode as glass. The hides are laid
between blankets, and are subjected to the heat of an oven raised to
the proper temperature during several hours.
The skins used are those of the sheep and goat. The former are
converted into leather by the action of oak bark. In one form of
dressing them they are known as basil leather, which is of a light
brown colour and very soft. Sometimes they are blacked, and
occasionally japanned like the hides. In all these forms sheep skins
are only used for inferior purposes, as mere coverings, where no
strength is required.
Goat skins are used in the preparation of the leather known as
“Spanish” and “Morocco.” They are not tanned in oak bark like other
leather, but very slightly in the bark of the sumach-tree. They pass
through many processes previous to that of dyeing, for which
purpose they are sewn up with the grain outwards and blown out like
a bladder. This is to prevent the dye from getting access to the flesh
side. This beautiful leather was originally manufactured by the
Moors, who afterwards introduced the process into Spain, by which
means it came to be known under two names. The English have
greatly improved on the manufacture, so much so that few others
can vie with it. These skins are used for the inside linings of
carriages.
Hair is used as an article of stuffing. To give it the peculiar curl
which renders it elastic, it is forcibly twisted up in small locks, and in
that state baked in an oven to fix it. Horse-hair is the best, being the
strongest and longest; but various other kinds are used. Sometimes
it is adulterated with fibres of whalebone. Doe-hair is also much used
as an article for stuffing, but as it is very short it cannot be curled,
and there is not much elasticity in it.
Wool in its natural state is not used for carriage purposes. In the
form of “flocks,” which are the short combings and fibres produced in
the process of manufacturing it, it is very largely used for stuffing. In
its manufactured state wool is used in great quantities, as cloth, lace,
fringe, carpeting, &c.
 The iron used is that known as wrought iron. To judge of its quality
break a piece over the anvil; if it breaks off brittle it is of no use for
the purposes it is required for. If it is good wrought iron the fracture
will present a bluish, fibrous, silky texture, without any crystalline
portions. Inferior iron will either appear bright and glistening (when it
partakes of the properties of cast iron) or dull and greyish in tone at
the fracture.
It may also be tested by bringing it to a red heat and bending it,
when any flaws, &c., will at once become apparent.
Cast iron is also used in the shape of axle-boxes.
Great quantities of wrought iron are used in the construction of
modern carriages. One of the best qualities is that known as the
“King and Queen,” so called from its brand. This iron is
manufactured from pieces of old iron, called scrap iron, which are
placed in furnaces and welded under a heavy tilt-hammer, after
which it is passed between rollers and converted into bars.
Steel also enters largely into carriage construction in the shape of
springs, &c. Axles are made of Bessemer steel, and are found to
wear very well. Steel consists of iron in which is combined a large
proportion of carbon; the more carbon the higher the elasticity of the
steel. If steel is over-heated, it gives up a portion of its carbon and
approaches once again its original form of iron.
 CHAPTER IV.

POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED BEFORE

COMMENCING THE CONSTRUCTION OF A
CARRIAGE.—COMPONENT PARTS OF THE
BODY.—SMITH’S WORK.—GLUE.
As previously remarked the vehicle is divided into two parts—the
carriage and the body. After the drawing or draught is carefully
worked out to full-size on the black-board in the shop, with all the
curves and sweeps developed, and shown in elevation and plan,
patterns or templates are made from the draught, and from these the
construction of the body proceeds.
In commencing the construction of a vehicle there are several
things to be borne in mind; such as the purpose to which the vehicle
is to be applied, the size of horses to draw it, and other
considerations arising from these two. It is popularly believed that
the shorter the carriage the lighter it will run; in ascending an incline
this may be true, but on ordinary level ground a long carriage and
short one must be alike in friction, provided the total amount of
weight and other circumstances be equally balanced.
Another consideration is the height of the wheels. On level ground,
draught is easiest when the centre of the wheel is a little lower than
the point of draught, viz. the point where the traces are affixed to the
collar; but this in practice would be found rather inconvenient, as
very high wheels would be required, and consequently the height of
the whole vehicle would have to be increased, causing great trouble
and annoyance in getting in and out of the vehicle, and the driver’s
seat would have to be raised to a corresponding height. Under equal
circumstances a high wheel is more efficient than a low one, and
requires less power to draw it; though it may be mentioned that a low
wheel on a good and level road will do its work far better than a very
much higher wheel on a rougher road. The sizes of the wheels of
two-wheeled vehicles vary from 3 feet to 4 feet 6 inches.
It would be a very good thing if four-wheeled vehicles were to have
the wheels of equal size, in order that the friction and power might be
equal. But with the present mode of construction this is an
impossibility, as we have only one mode of making the lock or turn.
Therefore the height of the fore wheels must be regulated by the
height at which the body hangs, so that the wheels may pass
beneath it without striking, when the springs play. In practice this
height varies from 2 feet to 3 feet 8 inches, according to the kind of
carriage the wheels are intended for. The hind wheels vary from 3
feet to 4 feet 8 inches.
The next point is the dishing of the wheel, which is necessary for
strength to take the strain off the nuts, to throw off the mud and
prevent it clogging either the wheel or the body, and to give greater
room for the body between the wheels without increasing the track
on the ground. Whatever be the amount of dishing or coning, which
varies from 1½ to 2½ inches, one rule should always be observed,
viz. so to form the wheel that when running the lower spokes should
maintain a true vertical position both in the fore and hind wheels.
This is mainly accomplished by the dip of the axle, but if the fore and
hind wheels have the same dish, they will take the same track along
the ground. The dish of a wheel will be understood by referring to
Fig. 10, in which it will be seen that the extremities of the spokes are
not in the same plane, thus forming a dish or hollow in the surface of
the wheel.
Some ingenious persons have deduced from the foregoing that a
wheel runs best on an axle having a conical arm (the arm is the
extremity of the axle which fits into an axle-box in the nave or stock
of the wheel), in which case the axle would not dip, but the wheel
would be put on to a perfectly horizontal axle. The motion of a wheel
thus placed would be anything but artistic, though there would not be
so much friction on an arm of this sort as on an arm of the dipped
axle. Dipping the axle is shown at Fig. 10. It merely consists in
bending it so far out of the horizontal as to give the lower spokes a
vertical position. But in practice this theory of the conical arm will not
answer, inasmuch as curving the arm will reduce the front bearing
surface so much that the oil would be squeezed out, and it would run
dry, and the total amount of friction would be greatly increased. Long
practice has shown that a cylindrical or slightly conical arm is the
best that can be used.

Fig. 10.
We have now to settle the form, combination, and proportion of the
springs. Springs which are laid on the axle at right angles have to
carry the whole of the weight of the carriage, save only the wheels
and axles. Where other springs are used in addition it is not
necessary that the axle-springs should have much play. It will be
sufficient to give them just so much play as will intercept the
concussion caused by moving over a road. The strength of the
springs must of course be adjusted to the weight they have to carry,
for it is evident that if they be made sufficiently elastic to carry the
weight of six persons, they will be found hard if only three enter the
carriage. This is a disadvantage all carriages must labour under, for
it is ridiculous to suppose that if a carriage is constructed to hold six
that number will always want to use it at the same time. There would
seem to be room for some improvement in the way of introducing
springs adjustable to any weight, though, to give spring-makers their
due, they do turn out really a first-class article in this respect; this is
more noticeable because it is so recent. Light carriages are never so
easy to ride as heavy ones, even when the springs are well adjusted,
because on meeting with an obstacle there is not a sufficient
resistance to the bound or jerk upwards of the spring, which makes
riding in a light carriage over a rough road rather unpleasant.
The position of the front wheels next demands attention. As these
have to turn under the body it requires some skill to fix them, and the
play of the springs, the height of the axletree, and the height of the
arch (the portion of the body under which they turn) have all to be
considered. This will be more particularly described when dealing
with wheel-plates.
The rule for the height of the splinter-bar, to which the traces or
shafts are fixed, is that it should fall on a line drawn from the horse’s
shoulder to the centre of the hind wheel. This, however, is not always
convenient in practice, as the fore wheels regulate the height of the
framing of the under carriage, to which the splinter-bar is fixed. The
distance of the splinter-bar from the central pin, on which the wheel-
plate and fore carriage turn, is regulated by the size of the wheels
and the projection of the driving seat footboard.
All the above particulars are considered when setting out the full-
sized draught, and all points capable of delineation are put on the
board in some convenient part. In Fig. 9 the outline is simply given,
as to show everything would only confuse the reader. Such other
details as are required are filled in after the draught has reached the
stage shown in the figure.
It is most necessary for the safe conduct of a coach and carriage
builder’s business that there should be a goodly stack of well-
seasoned timber of the various kinds required, otherwise great
trouble and vexation will arise in the course of business from a good
piece of timber being perhaps spoilt in working, and there not being
another piece in the factory to replace it.
Where there is sufficient accommodation it is usual for makers to
season their own timber in specially constructed sheds, which are
kept from bad weather, but at the same time thoroughly well
ventilated. In these the timber is stacked, with small fillets between
each plank or board, to insure a free current of air circulating all
round. One year should be allowed for seasoning for every inch of
thickness in the timber, and none should be used in which this rule
has not been observed.
Thin portions of timber, such as panel stuff and the like, should be
treated in the same way, and in addition the ends should be secured
to prevent splitting. The panel stuff undergoes another process of
seasoning after it is planed up; in fact, all the thin timber required for
roofs, sides, &c., does. And about the first thing done in commencing
to build a carriage is for the body-maker to get his thin stuff ready, as
far as planing it up goes, and then to put it aside in some moderately
dry place, with slips of wood between each board to allow a
circulation of air round them. The other stuff that is likely to be
required should also be selected and put aside. If all these things be
strictly attended to, there is not likely to be much trouble about bad
joints; and it will be to the employer’s interest to look after such
workmen who have not enough scientific knowledge to see the
reason of things themselves, and put them in the right direction. But
an intelligent workman will soon appreciate the advantage of getting
his stuff ready at the commencement, instead of waiting till he wants
to use it.
The parts composing the body may be thus enumerated:—
The frame or case.
The doors.
The glasses, which are fixed in thin frames of wainscot, covered
with cloth or velvet. It is a very good thing to have india-rubber for
these to fall on, and little india-rubber buffers would prevent them
from rattling.
The blinds, which are sometimes panel, but more generally
Venetian, so adjusted with springs that the bars may stand open at
any required angle.
The curtains, of silk, which slide up and down on spring rollers.
The lining and cushions, of cloth, silk, or morocco, as the case
may be, ornamented with lace, &c. The cushions are sometimes
made elastic with small spiral springs.
The steps, which are made to fold up and fit into recesses in the
doors, or in the bottom, when they are not in use.
The lamps, which are fixed to the fore part of the body by means
of iron stays.
The boot, on which is carried the coachman’s seat.
In carriages suspended from C springs we have in addition:—
The check-brace rings, to which are attached leather braces from
the spring heads, to prevent the body from swinging too much
backwards and forwards.
The collar-brace rings, to which are attached leather braces from
the perch, to prevent the body swinging too much upwards or
sideways.
The curve or rounding given to the side of the body from end to
end is called the side-cant, and the rounding from the top to the
bottom the turn-under. Some makers arrive at this curve by framing
the skeleton of the body together with square timber, and then round
these off to the required curve after they are put together. It must be
evident to any one that this proceeding will greatly strain the joints,
and under any circumstances will never give thorough satisfaction or
good results, and the waste of time and material must be very
considerable.
The proper way is to set the curve out beforehand on a board
called the “cant” board, and the method of doing this is as follows:—
Take a clean pine board, plane it up to a smooth surface. Shoot
one edge perfectly true with a trying-plane. This straight edge may
be taken to represent the side of the carriage if it were a straight line.
Apply this edge to the full-sized draught, and mark along it the
various parts of the body (see Fig. 8, in which the numbered points
are those required to form the side-cant). By means of these points
the required sweep can be set up or drawn, as shown by the dotted
line C in the figure. Now, if you choose, you can cut away the portion
between A and B, and a template will be formed to which the
constructional timbers can be cut; and it possesses the advantage of
being easily applied to the carriage as it proceeds, to see that the
curve is true and uniform. As this template forms the pattern to which
the timber, &c., is cut, great care is requisite in forming it, so that it
shall be perfectly true.
In order to get the turn-under, the same process is gone through
on another board. This gives what is called the “standing” pillar
pattern, the standing pillar being the upright timber to which the door
is hinged.
There is no rule in particular for determining the amount of side-
cant or turn-under to be given to a vehicle, 2½ or 3 inches on each
side making the outside width of the body; 5 or 6 inches less at the
bottom than at the elbow line is a usual allowance, but this is entirely
dependent on the will or taste of the workman.
The cant-board described above is one having a “concave”
surface; but it quite as often has a convex surface, and it is just as
well to have one of each, and use the convex for cutting the timbers
to, and the concave for trying them when in place, though, if this be
done, it is imperative that the curves on the two boards should be
one and the same. The same remarks apply to the standing pillar
pattern.
The body is a species of box, fitted with doors and windows, and
lined and wadded for the purpose of comfort. As the greatest amount
of strain is put upon the bottom part, and the forces acting on the
other parts are transmitted to the bottom, it is necessary that it
should be very strongly put together. The two side bottom timbers
are bonded, or tied together, by two cross timbers called bottom
bars, which are firmly framed into them. To give depth to the floor,
without destroying the symmetry of the side, deep pieces of elm
plank are fixed to the inside of the side bottom pieces, and to these
the flooring-boards are nailed, being additionally secured by iron
strap plates, nailed or screwed beneath them. In the central portion
of the bottom sides are framed the door-posts, called standing
pillars. At the angles of the bottom framework are scarfed the corner
pillars. The cross framing pieces, which connect the pillars, are
called rails. Two of these rails stretch across the body inside, on
which the seats are formed; these are called seat rails. The doors
are framed double, to contain a hollow space for the glasses and
blinds, and they are fastened by means of a wedge lock, forced into
a groove by a lever handle. There is a window in each door and one
in front of an ordinary carriage, say a brougham. The doors are
hinged with secret or flush hinges.
Before cutting the timber to the various sizes required, patterns or
templates of all the parts are made in thin wood from the full-sized
draught; also of the various curves likely to be given to the different
parts of the body.
Before a workman could be trusted with the making of a body, he
must of course have considerably advanced in the knowledge of his
craft beyond the mere use of his tools, because the success of a
carriage depends very largely upon the individual skill of the
workman, more so than perhaps in any other trade.
The stuff is marked out from the thin patterns before mentioned by
means of chalk, and in doing so care should be taken to lay the
patterns on the timber so that the grain may run as nearly as
possible in a line with it, and thus obtaining the greatest possible
strength in the wood, which lies in the direction of the grain. Thus if
the pattern be straight, lay it down on a piece of straight-grained
timber; if the pattern sweep round, then get a piece of timber the
grain of which will follow, or nearly follow, the line of pattern.
The strongest timber that can be obtained is necessary for the
construction of the hind and front bottom sides; for the weight is
directly transmitted to these, more particularly the hind bottom sides,
where the pump-handles are fixed.
The body-maker, having marked and cut out the various pieces of
timber he will require, planes a flat side to each of them, from which
all the other sides, whether plain or curved, are formed and finished.
They are then framed and scarfed together, after which the various
grooves are formed for the panels and rebates, for the floor-boards
to fit on to. Then, if there is to be any carved or beaded work, it is
performed by the carver. Previous to being fitted in, some of the
panels have strong canvas glued firmly on their backs, and when
fitted in blocks are glued round the internal angles to give greater
security to the joints, and to fix the panels firmly in their places.
Before the upper panels are put in, the roof is nailed on, and all the
joints stuck over with glued blocks inside. The upper panels are then
put on, united at the corners, and blocked inside.
If the foreman who superintends all this be a thoroughly skilful
artisan, and the men under him possess equal intelligence and skill,
the work might be distributed amongst almost as many men as there
are parts in the framework of the body. These parts will be worked
up, the mortises and tenons, the rabbets and tongues, being all cut
to specified gauges; and when they are all ready it will be found that
they go together like a Chinese puzzle.
The woodwork being completed, the currier now takes the body in
hand, and a hide of undressed leather, specially prepared for it, is
strained over the roof, the back, and the top quarters of the body
whilst in a soft pulpy state, and carefully sleeked or flattened down till
it is perfectly flat. This sleeking down is a rather tedious process, and
takes a long time and a great amount of care to bring it to a
successful issue; when it is flattened down satisfactorily, it is nailed
round the edges and left to dry, which will take several days.
Such panels as require bending may be brought to the required
sweep by wetting one side and subjecting the other to heat, as of a
small furnace.
The doors are now made and hinged, and the hollow spaces
intended to hold the glasses and blinds are covered in with thin
boards, to prevent any foreign matter from getting down into the
space, and being a source of trouble to dislodge.
In constructing the body the aid of the smith is called in. His
services are required to strengthen the parts subjected to great
strain, more particularly the timbers forming the construction of the
lower portion. All along each side of the body should be plated with
iron; this should be of the best brand and toughest quality. It is
several inches wide, and varies from ¼ to ¾ of an inch in thickness.
This is called the “edge plate,” and is really the backbone of the
body, for everything depends on its stability. It should run from one
extremity to the other, commencing at the hind bottom bar, on to
which it should be cranked, and ending at the front part of the front
boot, bottom side. This plate should take a perfectly flat bearing at
every point. Great care must be taken in fitting it, for although the
plate may be of the requisite strength the absence of this perfect
fitting will render it comparatively weak, the result of which will be
found, when the carriage is completed and mounted on the wheels,
by the springing of the sides, which will cause the pillars of the body
to press on the doors, and it will be a matter of great difficulty to
open them.
In the application of smith’s work to coach-building, it is often
necessary to fit the iron to intricate parts while it is red hot, and if due
precaution be not taken the wood becomes charred and useless,
and in cases where there are glued joints it may cause the loosening
or breaking of these joints and other material defects. It is an easy
matter to have the means at hand to get over the difficulty. All that is
necessary is to have handy some heat neutraliser. One of the
commonest things that can be used is chalk, and no smith’s shop
should ever be without it. If chalk is rubbed over the surface to which
the hot iron is to be applied it will not char or burn. Plaster of Paris is
a still more powerful heat neutraliser, and it is freer from grit. A small
quantity of the plaster mixed with water, and worked up to the proper
consistency, will be ready for use in about two hours. Many smiths
will say that they never have any accidents in applying heated iron,
but on inquiry the reason is apparent, for it will generally be found
that such men use chalk, in order to see that the iron plate takes its
proper bearings, thus inadvertently using a proper heat neutraliser. If
it were more generally known that the difficulty could be met by such
simple means, there would be less material spoilt in the smith’s
shop.
It has been very common of late years for body-makers to use
glue instead of screws and nails for panel work, &c.; but it requires a
great deal of experience for a man to use glue with successful
results. It is useless for the tyro to try it; he will only spoil the work.
So, unless the artisan be well experienced in the treatment and
application of glue, he had better leave it alone. To render the
operation successful two considerations must be taken into account.
First: To do good gluing requires that the timber should be well
seasoned and the work well fitted. Second: In preparing for gluing
use a scratch plane or rasp to form a rough surface of the pieces to
be joined together, for the same purpose that a plasterer scores over
his first coat of plaster-work, in order to give a key or hold. The shop
in which the gluing is done should be at a pretty good temperature,
and so should the material, so that the glue may flow freely. Having
the glue properly prepared, spread it upon the parts, so as to fill up
the pores and grain of the wood, and put the pieces together; then
keep the joints tight by means of iron cramps where it is possible,
and if this cannot be done the joints must be pushed tightly up, and
held till the glue is a little set and there is no fear of its giving way. All
superfluous glue will be forced out by this pressure and can be
cleaned off.
A great cause of bad gluing is using inferior glue and laying it on
too thick. Before using a new quality of glue, the body-maker should
always test it by taking, say a piece of poplar and a piece of ash, and
glue them together, and if when dry the joints give way under
leverage caused by the insertion of the chisel, the glue is not fit for
the purposes of carriage-building and should be rejected. With good
glue, like good cement, the material should rather give way than the
substance promoting adhesion. This is a very severe test, but in
putting it into practice you will be repaid by the stability of your work.

Waterproof Glue.

It is often found that joints glued together will allow water to

dissolve the glue, and thereby destroy its adhesive power. It may
have been well painted and every care taken to make it impervious
to water, but owing to its exposed position water has managed to get
in. Often where screws are put in the glue around them will be
dissolved, caused by the screws sweating; and it is very often found,
where the screws are inserted in a panel, that the glue loses its
strength and allows the joint to open, and there is little or no
appearance of glue on the wood, which shows that it has been
absorbed by the moisture.
To render ordinary glue insoluble, the water with which it is mixed
should have a little bichromate of potash dissolved in it. Chromic
acid has the property of rendering glue or gelatine insoluble. And, as
the operation of heating the glue pot is conducted in the light, no
special exposure of the pieces joined is necessary.
Glue prepared in this manner is preferable in gluing the panels on
bodies, which are liable to the action of water or damp. The strength
of the glue is not affected by the addition of the potash.
In plugging screw holes glue the edge of the plug; put no glue into
the hole. By this means the surplus glue is left on the surface, and if
the plug does not hit the screw it will seldom show.
Where brads are used the heads should be well set in; then pass
a sponge well saturated with hot water over them, filling the holes
with water. This brings the wood more to its natural position, and it
closes by degrees over the brad heads. The brad must have a
chance to expand, when exposed to the heat of the sun, without
hitting the putty stopping; if it does it will force the putty out so as to
show, by disturbing the surface, after the work is finished.
 CHAPTER V.

PARTS COMPOSING THE UNDER-CARRIAGE.

—FRAMING THEM TOGETHER.—WROUGHT-
IRON PERCHES.—BRAKES.
We have now to consider the construction of the lower framework, or
carriage.
The following is a list of the chief parts of a coach, as generally
known:—
Wheels.
Axles.
Springs.
Beds, or cross framing timbers, which are technically termed the
fore axle bed, the hind axle bed, fore spring bed or transom,
hind spring bed, and horn bar.
Perch, or central longitudinal timber connecting the axletrees.
Wings, which are spreading sides, hooped to the perch and
framed to the hind beds.
Nunters, or small framing pieces, which help to bind the hind
beds together.
Hooping-piece. A piece of timber scarped and hooped to the
fore end of the perch to secure it to the
Wheel plate, which is the circular iron beneath which the fore
carriage turns.
 The fore carriage consists of the fore axle beds, into which are
framed the
Futchells (French, fourchil, a fork), which are the longitudinal
timbers supporting the
Splinter-bar and the
Pole, to which the horses are attached.
The hinder ends of the futchells support the
Sway-bar—a circular piece of timber working beneath the
wheel-plate.
A circular piece of timber of smaller size, supported on the fore
part of the futchells for a similar purpose, is called the
Felloe-piece (often made of iron).
On the splinter-bar are fixed the
Roller bolts, for fastening the traces.
On the pole is fixed the
Pole hook, to secure the harness.
The perch and beds are strengthened with iron plates, where
necessary, and the other ironwork consists of
Splinter-bar stays, to resist the action of the draught. Formerly
these were affixed to the ends of the axles and called
“wheel-irons.”
Tread-steps, for the coachman to mount by.
Footman’s step.
Spring-stays.
On the beds are placed
Blocks, to support the

C springs; to which are attached

Jacks, or small windlasses, and
 Leathern suspension braces.
These parts fitted together would form what is generally known as
a coach, or a vehicle, the body of which is large, and suspended by
leathern braces from the ends of C springs. They enter into the
formation of all vehicles more or less, but for the other kinds some
part or parts are omitted, as in a brougham hung on elliptic springs,
the C springs, perch, leather braces, &c., would be omitted, and, of
course, elliptic springs and a pump-handle would be added. All the
woodwork is lightened as much as possible by the introduction of
beading, carving, chamfering, &c.
In starting the carriage part the workman first takes the perch and
planes a flat side to it, and then works it taper from front to back. The
top and bottom curves are then worked up, or at least some portion
of them, and then the front and hind spring beds are framed on. A
pair of spreading wings are then fitted to the sides of the perch;
these are simply circular iron stays, swelled and moulded to take off
their plainness. A pair is fitted at each end of the perch. The hind
axletree bed is then scarfed upon the top of the perch and wings,
and is connected with the hind spring bed by two small framing
pieces called nunters. At the front end of the perch a cross bed
called a horn-bar is scarfed on the perch, at the same distance from
the fore spring bed as the hind axle bed is from the hind spring bed,
viz. the length of the bearing of the spring, or about 15 inches. The
horn-bar is connected with the fore spring bed by the two spring
blocks, which are either framed into them or scarfed down on them,
and also by the hooping-piece, which is scarfed on the top of the
perch. The perch is then planed up to the curve it is to have when
finished, and it is then taken to the smith, who fits and rivets on the
side plates, which have ears at the ends for the purpose of bolting
them to the beds. The carver then does his work by beading the
perch and beds, having due regard to the finish of the parts, rounds
and curves all the ends. On the under side of the perch is riveted an
iron plate, and on this plate is an iron hook for hanging the drag shoe
and chain (if such be used). The hind framing is now put together, all
connections being by means of mortises and tenons secured by