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Manufactured Components: A
Comparative Analysis of Mechanical
Properties (Additive Manufacturing
Materials and Technologies) 1st Edition
Joshua Pelleg Phd
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ADDITIVE AND
TRADITIONALLY
MANUFACTURED
COMPONENTS
A Comparative Analysis of Mechanical
Properties
ADDITIVE AND
TRADITIONALLY
MANUFACTURED
COMPONENTS
A Comparative Analysis of Mechanical
Properties
JOSHUA PELLEG
Materials Engineering Department
Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva, Israel
Elsevier
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Notices
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contained in the material herein.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress
ISBN: 978-0-12-821918-8
To my wife Ada and my children, Deenah and her late husband Gidon
Barak, Ruth and Christer Kallevag, Shlomit and Asher Pelleg and to my
grandchildren: Roy, Tal, Rotem and Noa Barak; Ella and Maya Kallevag;
and Ofir and Ori Pelleg.
Preface
xi
xii Preface
I would like to express my gratitude to all publishers and authors for per-
mission to use and reproduce some of their illustrations and microstructures.
Finally, without the tireless devotion, help, understanding, and unlim-
ited patience of my wife Ada, I could never have completed this book,
despite my decades of teaching in this field; her encouragement was essential
and her helpful attitude was instrumental in inspiring to write this book.
About the author
xiii
xiv About the author
Laboratories, Murray Hill, NJ; and GTE Laboratories, Waltham, MA. His
current research interests include mechanical properties, diffusion in solids,
thin film deposition and properties (mostly by sputtering), and the charac-
terization of thin films, among them various silicides.
CHAPTER ONE
Fabrication
y filament
x tip
y
post-process
x
3D PRINTED
FINISHED OBJECT
Fig. 2.1 Outline of a FDM production cycle. (Melocchi, A., Parietti, F., Loreti, G., Maroni, A., Gazzaniga, A., Zema, L., 2015. J. Drug Delivery Sci.
Technol. 30, 360.)
Fabrication 5
filament
Y-direction
platform
Z-direction
FDM head
PCL filament
rollers
liquefier
temperature
control
x-y axes
nozzle tip
platform
z-axis
Fig. 2.2 A schematic diagram of the FDM extrusion and deposition process. The nozzle
tip could be changed into different sizes for different RW and thickness. The layers of
roads were fused together upon solidification to form a 3D structure. RW stands for
road width. (Zein, I., Hutmacher, D.W., Tan, K.C., Teoh, S.H., 2002. Biomaterials 23, 1169.
With kind permission of Elsevier.)
6 Additive and traditionally manufactured components
machine process, the layers are formed until completion of the model, and
(3) in this stage, the model and any supports are removed by washing or
stripping away. Finally, the surface of the model is cleaned by finishing.
Thus, the key elements in a typical process include the feed mechanism
of the material, liquefier, and print nozzle. Relationships of a pinch roller
feed mechanism (Turner et al., 2014; Pandey and Pradhan, 2018) according
to Bellini et al., 2004 are presented below. A pinch roller is seen in the lower
part of Fig. 2.2. The linear velocity of the filament v can be expressed by
Q
v¼ (2.1)
WH
where Q is the constant volumetric flow rate, W is the slice thickness, and H
is the slice thickness. Assuming a perfect adhesion between filament and
roller, the feed velocity can be expressed as
v ¼ wr Rr (2.2)
where wr is the angular velocity and Rr is the radius of the rollers, respec-
tively. The force, F to push the melt through the liquefier is determined
from the pressure drop (ΔP).
Fabrication 7
F ¼ ΔPA (2.3)
A being the cross-sectional area of the filament assumed to be equal to the
cross-sectional area of the liquefier. The required torque (Γ ) is given as
F
Γ ¼ Rr (2.4)
2
The power, Pmo is given by the product of the angular velocity and the
torque as
Pmot ¼ wr Γ (2.5)
In Eq. (2.5) it is assumed that two motors provide the power to the roller
mechanism. When the compression reaches a critical power, filament can
buckle which is the most common failure. Euler’s buckling analysis can
approximate the critical pressure, Pcr
π 2 Edf2
Pcr ¼ (2.6)
16Lf2
where E is the elastic modulus, df is the filament diameter, and Lf is the fil-
ament length measured from the rollers to the entrance of the liquefier.
The size of the printed material depends on the amount of melt in
the liquefier. The temperature, the viscosity, and surface energy of the
melt determine the feed rate which controls the flow through the liq-
uefier. Temperature, viscosity, and surface energy of the melt provide
the effective parameters to join and bond neighboring printed polymer
units (parts).
It is important to consider the mentioned parameters, namely, temper-
ature, viscosity, and surface energy of the melt on the bonding of the printed
polymer units.
η is the viscosity, γ_ is the shear rate, K and n are power-law fit parameters.
The change in viscosity with temperature is the product of a temperature
and a shear-rate–dependent terms at some reference temperature given as
η ¼ H ðT ÞηT0 ðγ_ Þ (2.8)
An Arrhenius relation is used for analyzing the flow behavior of a polymer
melt and the viscosity variation with temperature as
1 1
H ðT Þ ¼ exp α (2.9)
T T0
It has been assumed that the heat capacity of melt, Cp is constant, however, it
is not, and is known to change significantly at the glass transition temperature
(Tg) for amorphous polymers. The specific heat of melt varies with respect to
temperature by the following relations (Bellini, 2002):
T < 300K Cp ¼ 4:4T + 58
(2.10)
T > 300K Cp ¼ 105T + 16:68
2.1.2 Liquefier
The liquefier has a major effect on the melting behavior. Most current
liquefiers are cylindrical and contain three regions as seen in Fig. 2.4
material
flow
L1 I
D1
b L2 II
III
D2
Fig. 2.4 Liquefier divided into three zones for modeling. (Turner, B.N., Strong, R., Gold, S.A.,
2014. Rapid Prototyp. J. 20, 192. With kind permission of Elsevier.)
Fabrication 9
m_ is the mass flow rate of the polymer through the liquefier, cp is the heat
capacity of the polymer, D is the diameter, L is the length of the liquefier,
and T and Ti are the temperatures of the polymer at exit and entrance of the
liquefier, respectively.
the center of the filament is equal to the melt temperature. This is the con-
dition of solving for z0 that occurs when r ¼ r0 and T ¼ Tm (Yardimci
et al., 1997).
For the analysis, the liquefier is divided into three sections, as shown in
Fig. 2.4.
fit parameters. Thus, the total pressure drops, and ΔP inside the liquefier is
the sum of the pressure drops in different sections,
Further analysis for obtaining the finished product is associated with road
deposition, spreading, and bonding.
Q
A¼ (2.19)
vprint
θπ
νprint < (2.20)
h2
and the minimum cross-sectional area
h2
Amin ¼ (2.21)
π
Here, h is the height of the print nozzle opening above the print surface.
12 Additive and traditionally manufactured components
Here, ϕ and θ are the contact angles of the bead as illustrated in Fig. 2.5 and
assuming the layer is deposited on a surface with a circular cross section.
As mentioned earlier in the 2D simulation, in setting up the model of the
bead spreading no-slip boundary conditions between the melt and the wall
of the print nozzle and a constant nozzle wall temperature is assumed
(Bellini, 2002). Results of simulation for the interaction of the print nozzle
with the printed road are shown in Fig. 2.6. The free surface of the road is
assumed to have a constant surface tension and to be losing heat due to con-
vection from the air in the build environment and conduction to the surface
below. Here the interaction of the print nozzle with the printed road, as
shown in Fig. 2.6, as well as with the print nozzle above the printed road
was performed. The nozzle was shown to be beneficial, resulting in a more
Fabrication 13
gLV
spreading
road
gSL q gSV
q
j
force balance
Fig. 2.5 Illustration of road spreading and the force balance used in the Crockett model.
(Turner, B.N., Strong, R., Gold, S.A., 2014. Rapid Prototyp. J. 20, 192. With kind permission of
Elsevier.)
road distortion
(a)
(b)
Fig. 2.6 Interaction of the print head with an extruded road: (a) the road shape is dis-
torted when the print head is above the deposited road; (b) the print head in contact
with the road helps ensure a flat top surface. (Turner, B.N., Strong, R., Gold, S.A., 2014.
Rapid Prototyp. J. 20, 192. With kind permission of Elsevier.)
14 Additive and traditionally manufactured components
stable flow and ensuring a flat road surface, as shown in Fig. 2.6. Distortion of
the road in simulations when the print head was above the road surface is
seen in Fig. 2.6b.
where
4TL∗ 9λm H λm H βn W
αmn ¼ sin sin sin (2.25)
Em2 Fn2 λm βn 2 2 2
1 sin ð10λm H Þ
Em2 ¼ 5H (2.26)
2 2λm
1 sin ðλm βn W Þ
Fn ¼ ω
2
(2.27)
2 βn
Here, t, Cp, k, and ρ are time, heat capacity, thermal conductivity, and den-
sity, respectively, and the eigenvalues are the roots of the equations (Thomas
and Rodriguez, 2000).
h
λm cot ð5λm H Þ ¼ (2.28)
k
and
βW h
βn tan n ¼ (2.29)
2 k
Little published work exists on the basic relation between the bond forma-
tion process and strength of the bond (also between adjacent layers) of the
final part. In Fig. 2.7, the bonding process is illustrated between two beads.
Fabrication 15
2y
2a
2a
1) surface contact 2) neck formation
the laser is the energy source, it heats the metallic powder either at the
sintering temperature or above the melting point. In either case, the inert
atmosphere or partial vacuum are required to protect the material to be
heated (melted). Each powder layer deposited is melted successively. When
one layer has been scanned by the laser (or electron beam), the piston of the
building chamber (see Figs. 2.8 and 2.9) goes downward (in other words, the
Energy source
Roller
(Laser or electron beam)
Part
Lenses
XY-scanning mirror
Laser
Laser beam
Sintered part
Recoater arm Powder bed
Metal powder
supply
Powder dispenser
platform
Powder dispenser
piston
Build platform
Build piston
Fig. 2.9 Laser-based powder-bed fusion technology. (Bhavar, V., Kattire, P., Patil, V.,
Khot, S., Gujar, K., Singh, R.K.P., Kalyani Centre for Technology and Innovation (KCTI),
Bharat Forge Ltd., Pune, India. With kind permission of Dr. Bhavar.)
Fabrication 17
build platform moves down) and the piston of the powder chamber goes
upward by a predetermined layer thickness. This cycle is repeated for a
new layer formation until the complete component is formed. The PBF pro-
cess is illustrated schematically in Fig. 2.8 and for the laser source in Fig. 2.9.
The electron beam melting process is illustrated schematically in Fig. 2.10.
Assuming a spherical-like powder, one can evaluate the circularity, C of
the powder as
4πA
C¼ (2.31)
P2
where A and P are the area and perimeter of the powder particles.
An open architecture PBF system which enables in situ process measure-
ments is illustrated schematically in Fig. 2.11. The PBF system is enclosed in
a shielding gas chamber which is sealed to the base plate and containing inlet
and exhaust ports for filling the shielding gas and providing gas flow across
the powder bed during the builds.
In the open architecture PBF system, the interest is in imaging a region
that incorporates the melt pool with the unmelted powder in front and solid-
ifying the material behind. It is important that the heat conduction away
Filament
Powder spreading
Grid Cup
Anod
Powder preheating scan
Focus coil
Deflection coil Powder melting scan
Electron Beam
Powder Container Build table lowering
Vacuum Chamber
from the melt pool is realistic and permits monitoring the pores through
multiple build layers. Short exposure time is required to freeze the motion
of the melt pool as it moves across the powder-bed. X-ray imaging is used.
The system is shown in Figs. 2.11 and 2.12. It comprises a powder reservoir
(as indicated in Fig. 2.13) and the spreader block that is moved as a single unit
by a stepper motor and lead screw. The powder deposited in the build area as
the spreader block moves linearly in one direction, while the excess powder
is removed as the spreader block returns. Powder layers are produced at the
desired thickness by lowering the support assembly with a vertical stage.
The nth powder layer thickness for n > 2 is given according to Bidare
et al. (2017) as
X
n2
tpn ¼ tsp + zl ctsp ð1 c Þ1 (2.32)
i0
The layer evolution is depicted in Fig. 2.14 and the steps to obtain Eq. (2.32)
is described further. In Eq. (2.32) tpn is the nth powder thickness
corresponding to the height of the spreader above the build plate tsp. After
the first layer, for the second layer the build plate surface moves down by zl
and the powder layer thickness now corresponds to the height of the
Fig. 2.11 (a) Schematic representation of the open-architecture powder-bed fusion sys-
tem. (b) Passage of x-rays, either at 12–57° to the horizontal, or horizontally, through the
powder bed. (Bidare, P., Maier, R.R.J., Beck, R.J., Sheph, J.D., Moore, A.J., 2017. Addit. Manuf.
16, 177; Open access.)
Fig. 2.12 Photograph of the open-architecture PBF system with the shielding gas cham-
ber in position. (Bidare, P., Maier, R.R.J., Beck, R.J., Sheph, J.D., Moore, A.J., 2017. Addit.
Manuf. 16, 177; Open access.)
Powder
reservoir
Fine-pitch
screw ‘Forward’
spreading
Carriage direction
Powder
Spreaders
Surface ‘Front’
plate spreader
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.13 Detail of powder spreading system. (a) The front view showing the powder
spreader block mounted on its carriage with the fine pitch screws to adjust the height
of the spreaders above the surface plate. (b) Side view (cross section) showing the rel-
ative height of the spreaders above the surface plate. (Bidare, P., Maier, R.R.J., Beck, R.J.,
Sheph, J.D., Moore, A.J., 2017. Addit. Manuf. 16, 177; Open access.)
20 Additive and traditionally manufactured components
Zl
tm1 Build plate
tm2
2Zl
tm1
Fig. 2.14 Schematic representation of the powder layer thickness evolution for the first
three layers. tsp is the distance between the spreader and the surface plate and z1 is the z
motion of the build plate for each layer. tpn and tmn are the powder and melted layer
thicknesses, respectively, for layer n. (Bidare, P., Maier, R.R.J., Beck, R.J., Sheph, J.D., Moore,
A.J., 2017. Addit. Manuf. 16, 177; Open access.)
spreader above the build plate tsp and the difference between the zl, and the
thickness of the first melted (consolidated) layer, tm1. Similarly, for the next
(third) layer, the build plate surface has moved down an additional step zl and
powder layer thickness changes by zl tm2 where tm2 is the thickness of the
second molten layer and so on for the nth layer where n > 2. In Eq. (2.32),
c ¼ tmn/tpn is the consolidation ratio where tmn refers to the nth molten layer
thickness and tpn refers to the nth powder thickness. Shrinkage due to the
melting of the powder takes place. The change in the powder layer thickness
between consecutive layers (zl ctsp) (1 c)n2 tends to zero. Therefore,
the powder layer thickness in the steady state can be obtained by summing
the geometric series in Eq. (2.32) to infinity as shown below:
1 zl
tp ¼ tsp + zl ctsp ¼ (2.33)
1 ð1 c Þ c
X
n2
tmn ¼ c + c zl ctsp ð1 c Þi (2.34)
i¼0
Honnête journaliste,
Amusant nouvelliste,
Brochurier à pamphlets,
Changez toutes ces têtes,
Ces intrigantes têtes,
Changez toutes ces têtes,
Têtes à camouflets [74] .
FIN.
TABLE
DES PRINCIPAUX ÉCRIVAINS ET
ARTISTES
BATONNÉS [89] .