Consumer and Commercial Law 4th

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Consumer and
Commercial Law
Tried and tested
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Consumer
and
commercial
law
4th edition

Judith Tillson, Barrister

Senior Lecturer in Contract and Commercial Law
Pearson Education Limited
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Contents

Acknowledgements vii
Introduction viii
Guided tour xii
Table of cases and statutes xiv

Chapter 1: The need for consumer protection 1

Chapter 2: Contract terms 17
Chapter 3: Sale and supply of goods 1: Implied terms 41
Chapter 4: Sale and supply of goods 2: Transfer of property
and risk 71
Chapter 5: Sale and supply of goods 3: Performance
and remedies 87
Chapter 6: Distance selling and electronic commerce 111
Chapter 7: Product liability 127
Chapter 8: Product safety 143
Chapter 9: Consumer credit 157
Chapter 10: Agency law 181
Chapter 11: Liability for unfair trading practices 205

And finally, before the exam … 227

Glossary of terms 245
Index 251

v
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Acknowledgements

Our thanks go to all reviewers who contributed to the development of this text, including
students who participated in research and focus groups which helped to shape the series
format.

vii
Introduction

Many students study consumer and commercial law as discrete modules. Some students
may study one rather than the other. However, this book treats them as complementary
topics by examining areas common to both. Consumer and commercial law covers a wide
range of subjects so module content will vary between institutions, but several topics will be
common features, including sale of goods, agency law, credit, product liability, product safety
and unfair trading practices. Because of the increasing influence of online contracts and
distance selling, you are likely to be expected to appreciate the legal challenges presented
by this mode of contracting. No doubt individual lecturers will emphasise particular topics in
this diverse area. You should always refer to your lecturer or tutor and your course materials
with any questions on what you will be expected to cover.
Another factor to bear in mind in preparing for the exam is that, inevitably, several topics will
overlap and cannot be revised as discrete units. It is important to appreciate that studying
consumer and commercial law will require that you have a sound basis in contract law,
especially misrepresentation, unfair contract terms and remedies for breach.
The subject lends itself to problem questions which provide an opportunity for the examiner
to assess your understanding of how different aspects of consumer and commercial law
interlink. Don’t be surprised to find that a problem on a topic such as product liability may
also encompass aspects of sale of goods, negligence and privity. Likewise, questions calling
for an analysis of unfair contract terms will expect you to be able to demonstrate detailed
knowledge of aspects of sale of goods, misrepresentation and the supply of services. You
will be expected to show clear understanding of the degree of statutory protection offered to
those dealing on a commercial as well as consumer basis. When dealing with such multi-
faceted problem questions, it is easy to digress into areas that are not relevant; it is also
difficult to gauge which areas require a greater level of detailed analysis. Some questions
may help you in this respect by allocating marks to different sections. The most difficult
problems are those that include a range of issues within one detailed scenario. Always devise
an outline plan to ensure that you deal with all relevant issues in a systematic and structured
manner. It is a good idea to identify an issue, explain it and then apply it to the facts given.
With essay questions you should ensure that you understand what the question requires
before outlining your plan. Essay questions tend to expose those who have a superficial

viii
 INTRODUCTION
understanding of a topic, as they call for detailed explanation of legal principles with
application of case law and statute as well as critical comment. You will be expected to be
able to highlight areas for criticism and potential reforms. You may be required to address a
specific reform and carry out an evaluation, using recent authority, as to whether or not it is
effective. A likely example would be the recent reform of the area of unfair trading practices.
Keep to the issue by referring to the question and submitting suitable comment (based on
your evaluation) where appropriate. Whether you are analysing a problem or writing an
essay, make sure that you submit a conclusion.
This book is designed as a revision guide, not as a substitute for a textbook or your course
notes. In order to promote quick understanding and effective revision, it gives you a
clear overview of key topics in consumer and commercial law. It also provides a guide to
suitable resources to develop a critical approach to examinations and assignments. The
book focuses on common areas of misunderstanding and confusion, such as concepts
of consumer status, the different heads of liability in product liability and the difference
between sale by description and misrepresentation. In order to help you develop a confident
attitude towards examinations, guidance is given in each chapter with regard to revision
and exam tips, pointing out difficult areas and suggesting good approaches to a range of
sample questions.
Finally, it is important that you are aware of progress on the implementation of the European
Directive on Consumer Rights. The Directive merges four existing EU Consumer Directives,
namely: Sale of Consumer Goods and Guarantees (99/44/EC), Unfair Contract Terms (93/13/
EEC), Distance Selling (97/7/EC) and Doorstep Selling (85/577/EEC). By means of a process
of codification, the law in these areas will eventually be updated to reflect technological
changes in commerce and to try to overcome common problems with distance selling. With
these aims in mind the Consumer Rights Bill was introduced into Parliament in June 2013
and resulted in the introduction of the Consumer Contracts (Information, Cancellation and
Additional Charges) Regulations, the Consumer Protection (Amendment) Regulations 2014
and the Consumer Rights Act 2015 which aim to clarify and consolidate legislation covering
distance and doorstep selling, rights of redress for victims of unfair trading practices, the
sale and supply of goods (including digital content), unfair contract terms and powers of
enforcement. Naturally there will be some inevitable overlap between the new reforms and
existing legislation. The table below is designed to clarify the effects the Consumer Rights
Act 2015 will have on existing legislation.

Effect of the CRA 2015 on existing legislation

The provisions in the existing legislation listed in Table 0.1, which cover B2C (business-
to-consumer) contracts only, will be repealed. The provisions that relate to other types
of contract (for example, contracts between businesses) will remain in the existing
legislation.

ix
Introduction
table 0.1 Effect of CRA 2015
Existing Legislation
Supply of Goods (Implied Terms) Act 1973
Sale of Goods Act 1979
Supply of Goods and Services Act 1982
Unfair Contract Terms Act 1977
Unfair Terms in Consumer Contracts
Regulations 1999
Sale and Supply of Goods to Consumers
Regulations 2002
x
Changes
The Consumer Rights Act 2015 will replace
any provisions made in this Act for B2C
contracts. It will be amended so that it
covers B2B contracts and C2C contracts only
For B2C contracts this will mainly be
replaced by the Consumer Rights Act 2015
but some provisions of SGA will still apply,
for example: rules that are applicable to
all contracts of sale of goods (as defined
by that Act – essentially these are sales of
goods for money), regarding matters such
as when property in goods passes. The SGA
will still apply to B2B contracts and to C2C
contracts
The Consumer Rights Act 2015 will replace
any provisions this Act makes for B2C
contracts. The SGSA will be amended so
that it covers B2B contracts and C2C only
The Consumer Rights Act 2015 will
replace the provisions made by this Act in
respect of B2C contracts. The UCTA will be
amended so that it covers B2B and C2C
contracts only
These will be replaced by the Consumer
Rights Act 2015
These will be replaced by the Consumer
Rights Act 2015
 revision note

n Use this book to cement your knowledge of key issues in consumer and
commercial law.
n Be aware that there will be overlap between areas of consumer and commercial law –
these topics cannot be studied as discrete entities.
n Remember that this guide is intended as an aid to understanding and revision. You
should use your course materials, textbooks and other resources to extend your
knowledge.
n Concentrate your revision on preparing to answer exam questions – particularly how
you will construct your answers in an exam.
Before you begin, you can use the study plan available on the companion website
to assess how well you know the material in this book and identify the areas
where you may want to focus your revision.

xi
Guided tour
How to use features in the book and on the companion website

Understand quickly
Topic maps – Visual guides highlight key subject areas and facilitate easy
navigation through the chapter. Download them from the companion website to
pin on your wall or add to your revision notes.

Key definitions – Make sure you understand essential legal terms.

Key cases and key statutes – Identify and review the important elements of
essential cases and statutes you will need to know for your exams.

Read to impress – These carefully selected sources will extend your knowledge,
deepen your understanding, and earn better marks in coursework and exams.

Glossary – Forgotten the meaning of a word? This quick reference covers key
definitions and other useful terms.

Test your knowledge – How well do you know each topic? Test yourself with
quizzes tailored specifically to each chapter.

Podcasts – Listen as your own personal Law Express tutor guides you through a
step-by-step explanation of how to approach a typical but challenging question.

Revise effectively
Revision checklists – Identify essential points you should know for your exams.
The chapters will help you revise each point to ensure you are fully prepared. Print
the checklists from the companion website to track your progress.

Revision notes – These boxes highlight related points and areas where your course
might adopt a particular approach that you should check with your course tutor.

xii
 guided tour
Study plan – Assess how well you know a subject prior to your revision and
determine which areas need the most attention. Take the full assessment or focus
on targeted study units.

Flashcards – Test and improve recall of important legal terms, key cases and
statutes. Available in both electronic and printable formats.

Take exams with confidence

Sample questions with answer guidelines – Practice makes perfect! Consider
how you would answer the question at the start of each chapter then refer
to answer guidance at the end of the chapter. Try out additional sample
questions online.

Assessment advice – Use this feature to identify how a subject may be examined
and how to apply your knowledge effectively.

Make your answer stand out – Impress your examiners with these sources of
further thinking and debate.

Exam tips – Feeling the pressure? These boxes indicate how you can improve your
exam performance when it really counts.

Don’t be tempted to – Spot common pitfalls and avoid losing marks.

You be the marker – Evaluate sample exam answers and understand how and why
an examiner awards marks.

xiii
Table of cases
and statutes
Cases
A v. National Blood Authority (No. 1) [2001] 3 All ER
289 128, 137, 138, 236
Abouzaid v. Mothercare (UK) Ltd [2000] EWCA Civ 348
128, 137, 235
Aluminium Industrie Vaassen BV v. Romalpa Aluminium
[1976] 1 WLR 676 72, 79, 233
Arbitration between FW Moore & Co Ltd and Landauer
& Co, Re [1921] 2 KB 519 56, 102, 231
Arbitration between R & H Hall & Co and WH Pim
Jnr & Co Ltd, Re [1927] 30 Ll L Rep 159 88,
105, 234
Arcos Ltd v. E. A. Ronaasen & Son [1933] AC 470 42,
54, 56, 231
Armstrong v. Jackson [1917] 2 KB 822 182, 196, 238
Ashington Piggeries Ltd v. Christopher Hill Ltd [1971] 1
All ER 847 42, 65, 232
Attorney General of Belize v. Belize Telecom Ltd [2009]
UKPC 10; [2009] 1 WLR 1988 18, 25, 229, 237
Bannerman v. White (1861) 10 CBNS 844 18, 21, 229
Barry v. Heathcote Ball & Co (Commercial Auctions) Ltd
[2000] 1 WLR 1962 88, 103, 234
Beale v. Taylor [1967] 1 WLR 1193 42, 53, 231
Boston Deep Sea Fishing and Ice Co v. Farnham [1957]
1 WLR 1051 191
Brewer v. Mann [2012] EWCA Civ 246 42, 53, 231
Brinkibon Ltd v. Stahag und Stahlwarenhandels GmbH
[1983] 2 AC 34 112, 123, 124, 235
Caparo Industries v. Dickman [1990] 1 All ER 568
128,133, 134, 235
Carey v. HSBC Bank plc [2009] EWHC 3417 QB 158,
172, 236
xiv
Charles Rickards Ltd v. Oppenheim [1950] 1 All ER 420
88, 91, 234
Clark Boyce v. Mouat [1994] 1 AC 428 196, 238
Clegg v. Andersson (t/a Nordic Marine) [2003] 2 Lloyd’s
Rep 32 (CA) 88, 95, 234
Dashwood (formerly Kaye) v. Fleurets Ltd [2007] EWHC
1610 QB 200
Davis v. Sumner [1984] 1 WLR 1301 7, 212, 229
Dimond v. Lovell [2000] 2 All ER 897 158, 162, 180, 236
Director General of Fair Trading v. First National Bank
plc [2000] All ER 759 18, 34, 35, 230
Donoghue v. Stevenson [1932] AC 562 128, 132,
133, 235
Drummond v. Van Ingen (1887) 12 App Cas 284 66
Drummond-Rees v. Dorset CC (Trading Standards
Department) (1998) 162 JP 651 149
Eastern Distributors Ltd v. Goldring [1957] 2 All ER 525
72, 80, 233
Egan v. Motor Services (Bath) Ltd [2007] EWCA Civ
1002 62
Entores Ltd v. Miles Far East Corp [1955] 2 QB 327
112, 123, 235
Feldaroll Foundry plc v. Hermes Leasing (London) Ltd
[2004] EWCA Civ 747 59, 232
First Energy (UK) Ltd v. Hungarian International Bank
Ltd [1993] 2 Lloyd’s Rep 194 189, 238
Freeman & Lockyer v. Buckhurst Park Properties
(Mangal) Ltd [1964] 2 QB 480 182, 187, 237
Godfrey v. Bertram, Armstrong & Co (1830) 1 Kn 381
182, 195, 238
Grant v. Australian Knitting Mills Ltd [1936] AC 85 (PC)
64, 232
Griffiths v. Peter Conway Ltd [1939] 1 All ER 685 65

Hadley v. Baxendale (1854) 9 Exch 341 88, 99, 103,
104, 105, 132, 234
Hare v. Schurek [1993] CCLR 47 166
Harlington & Leinster Enterprises Ltd v. Christopher
Hull Fine Art Ltd [1991] 1 QB 564 57, 231
Harrison v. Black Horse Ltd [2012] Lloyd’s Rep
IR 521 173
Hely-Hutchinson v. Brayhead Ltd [1968] 1 QB 549
182, 186, 237
Henry Kendall & Sons v. William Lillico & Sons Ltd
[1969] 2 AC 31 42, 61, 65, 232, 241
Hong Kong Fir Shipping Co Ltd v. Kawasaki Kisen
Kaisha Ltd [1962] 2 QB 26 (CA) 18, 23, 100, 229
Ide v. ATB Sales Ltd [2007] EWHC 1667 (QB) 128,
139, 236
Imageview Management Ltd v. Jack [2009] EWCA Civ
63 182, 197, 238
Interfoto Picture Library v. Stiletto Visual Programs
[1988] 1 All ER 348 (CA) 27, 38, 229
J & H Ritchie Ltd v. Lloyd Ltd [2007] 1 WLR 670 88,
96, 234
J Spurling Ltd v. Bradshaw [1956] 1 WLR 461 18, 28, 230
Jewson Ltd v. Kelly [2003] EWCA Civ 1030 42, 64, 232
Karlshamns Oljefabriker A/B v. Eastport Navigation
Corp (The Elafi) [1982] 1 All ER 208 77
Kieran Mullin Ltd v. Customs and Excise
Commissioners [2003] STC 274 185, 203
Kofi Sunkersette Obu v. A. Strauss & Co Ltd [1951] AC
243 182, 199, 239
Kulkarni v. Manor Credit (Davenham) Ltd [2010] EWCA
Civ 69 72, 84, 233
Lewis v. Averay (No. 1) [1971] 3 All ER 907 72, 81, 233
Liverpool City Council v. Irwin [1977] AC 239 24
Lloyd Schuhfabrik Meyer & Co GmbH v. Klijsen Handel BV
C-342/97 [1999] All ER (EC) 587 2, 9, 211, 229
Lloyds Bank Ltd v. Chartered Bank of India, Australia
and China [1929] 1 KB 40 188, 203, 237
Lombard North Central plc v. Butterworth [1987] 1 All
ER 267 178, 237
Luxor (Eastbourne) Ltd v. Cooper [1941] AC 108 199, 239
Maple Flock Co Ltd v. Universal Furniture Products
(Wembley) Ltd [1934] 1 KB 148 88, 93, 234
Table of cases and statutes
May & Butcher Ltd v. R [1934] 2 KB 17 48, 230
Mayor and Burgesses of the London Borough of
Southwark v. IBM UK Ltd see Southwark LBC v. IBM
UK Ltd
Mediterranean Salvage & Towage Ltd v. Seamar
Trading & Commerce Inc (The Reborn) [2009] EWCA
Civ 531 25
Microbeads AG v. Vinhurst Road Markings [1975] 1
WLR 218 42, 52, 231
Moore & Co Ltd and Landauer & Co see Arbitration
between FW Moore & Co Ltd and Landauer & Co
Newtons of Wembley Ltd v. Williams [1964] 3 All ER
532 82
Niblett Ltd v. Confectioners’ Materials Co Ltd [1921] 3
KB 387 42, 52, 231
Nichol v. Godts (1854) 10 Exch 191 42, 57, 231
Office of Fair Trading v. Abbey National plc [2009]
UKSC 6 18, 35, 230
Office of Fair Trading v. Lloyds TSB Bank plc [2006] 2
All ER 821 171
Office of Fair Trading v. Purely Creative Ltd [2011]
EWHC 106 (Ch) 206, 218, 239
Overy v. Paypal (Europe) Ltd [2012] EWHC 2659 59
Panorama Developments (Guildford) Ltd v. Fidelis
Furnishing Fabrics Ltd [1971] 2 QB 711 189,
203, 238
Peachdart, Re [1983] 3 All ER 204 72, 79, 85, 233
Photo Production Ltd v. Securicor Transport Ltd [1980]
AC 827 18, 28, 230
Plevin v. Paragon Personal Finance Ltd [2014] UKSC 61
158, 173, 237
Portman Escort Agency v. Revenue and Customs
Commissioners [2006] STI 2580 UKVAT (Excise) 185
R & B Customs Brokers Co Ltd v. United Dominions
Trust Ltd [1988] 1 All ER 847 2, 5, 155, 229
R & H Hall & Co and WH Pim Jnr & Co Ltd’s Arbitration
see Arbitration between R & H Hall & Co and WH
Pim Jnr & Co Ltd
R v. Birmingham City Council, ex parte Ferrero [1993]
All ER 530 144, 147, 236
R v. Secretary of State for Health, ex parte US
Tobacco International Inc [1992] QB 353 144,
147, 155, 236
xv
table of cases and statutes
Reardon Smith Line Ltd v. Hansen-Tangen (The Diana Wilson v. First County Trust Ltd (No. 2) [2003] UKHL 40
Prosperity) [1976] 1 WLR 989 42, 55, 231, 240 158, 168, 180, 236
Richardson v. LRC Products Ltd [2000] PIQR P164 Wormell v. RHM Agriculture (East) Ltd [1987] 1 WLR
(QBD) 128, 136, 138, 235 1091 235
Robert A. Munro & Co Ltd v. Meyer [1930] 2 KB 312 Worsley v. Tambrands Ltd [2000] PIQR P95 (QBD) 128,
88, 94, 234 137, 235
Rogers v. Parish (Scarborough) Ltd [1987] QB 933
42, 62, 232 Yam Seng Pte Ltd v. International Trade Corporation Ltd
Rowland v. Divall [1923] 2 KB 500 42, 51, 230 [2013] EWHC 111 (QB) 38, 230
Yonge v. Toynbee [1910] 1 KB 215 182, 193, 238
Said v. Butt [1920] 3 KB 497 182, 193, 238
Saipol SA v. Inerco Trade SA [2014] EWHC 2211
104, 234
St Albans City and District Council v. International
Statutes
Computers Ltd [1996] 4 All ER 481 (CA) 42, 46, 230
Scally v. Southern Health and Social Services Board Companies Act 1985
[1992] 1 AC 294 18, 24, 25, 229 s. 395 79
Shanklin Pier Ltd v. Detel Products Ltd [1951] 2 KB 854 Consumer Credit Act 1974 158, 159, 160, 161, 162,
131, 235 164, 165, 166, 222, 233, 249
Shogun Finance Ltd v. Hudson [2003] UKHL 62; [2004] s. 8(1) 162
1 AC 919 72, 83, 233 s. 10 164
Southwark LBC v. Charlesworth (1983) 147 JP s. 11 164
470 149 s. 12 164
Southwark LBC v. IBM UK Ltd [2011] EWHC 549 (TCC) s. 12(b) 165
47, 72, 74, 233 s. 14(1) 171
Spearmint Rhino Ventures (UK) Ltd v. Revenue and s. 15 163
Customs Commissioners [2007] EWHC 613 (Ch) s. 15(1) 163
182, 184, 203, 237 s. 15(1)(a) 163
Springer v. Great Western Railway Co [1921] 1 KB 257 s. 15(1)(b) 163
191, 238 s. 15(1)(c) 163
Spurling v. Bradshaw see J Spurling Ltd v. Bradshaw s. 16A 164
Stevenson v. Rogers [1999] 2 WLR 1064 2, 6, 58, 211, s. 16B 164
212, 229 ss. 45–51 167
s. 48 166, 179
Tesco Supermarkets Ltd v. Nattrass [1972] AC 153 s. 49 166
206, 220, 239 s. 56 167, 170
Thain v. Anniesland Trade Centre (1997) SLT (Sh Ct) s. 57 167
102 42, 63, 232 s. 60 167, 179
Truk (UK) Ltd v. Tomakidis GmbH [2000] 1 Lloyd’s Rep s. 61 167, 179
543 88, 96, 234 s. 62 167, 179
s. 63 167, 179
Wait, Re [1927] 1 Ch 606 72, 233 s. 65(1) 168
Watford Electronics Ltd v. Sanderson CFL Ltd [2001] s. 66A 169
EWCA Civ 317 18, 32, 230 s. 67 169, 179
Watteau v. Fenwick [1893] 1 QB 346 182, 190 193, 238 s. 68 169, 180
Waugh v. H. B. Clifford and Sons Ltd [1982] 2 WLR 679 s. 75 170, 171
186, 237 s. 86 180

xvi
 table of cases and statues
s. 87 176, 177 s. 5(1–3) 246
s. 90 176, 177 s. 6(4) 139
s. 90(1) 176 Part II 144, 150, 152, 153, 155, 239, 248
s. 90(1)(a) 176 s. 10 150
s. 90(1)(b) 176 s. 11 144, 146, 155, 235
s. 90(1)(c) 176 s. 11(5) 146
s. 91 176 s. 11(7) 148
s. 93 177 s. 12 149
s. 94(1) 175 s. 13 149
s. 95 175 s. 13(1)(a) 149
ss. 99–100 177 s. 13(1)(b) 149
s. 99(1) 175 s. 14 150
s. 99(2) 175 s. 16 150
s. 100(1) 175, 178 s. 19 144, 148, 155, 248
s. 100(3) 178 ss. 19(1)(a)–(e) 148
s. 100(4) 175 Part III 206, 208, 209
s. 127 168, 180 s. 20 209
s. 127(1) 169 s. 24 209, 220
s. 127(1)(a) 168 Part V
s. 127(1)(i) 168 s. 39 144, 152, 153, 209, 239
s. 127(2) 169 s. 41(1) 146, 154
ss. 127(3)–(5) 168 Consumer Rights Act 2015 ix, x, 4, 18, 19, 30, 33, 36,
s. 129 177 37, 38, 39, 43, 47, 50, 59, 67, 88, 102, 229
ss. 137–140 172 s. 2(2) 8, 14
ss. 140A–C 172 s. 2(3) 7, 14
s. 140A 172, 173 s. 2(4) 7
s. 140B 172, 174, 177 s. 9 42, 68, 107
s. 189(1) 162 s. 9(2) 60
Consumer Credit Act 2006 158, 159, 161, 162, 168, s. 10 42, 68, 107
169, 172 s. 11 42, 68
s. 127 179, 180 s. 11(5) 68
Consumer Protection Act 1987 127, 129, 134, 141, s. 13 42, 68, 107
143, 146, 228, 231, 232 s. 15 42, 68, 107
Parts I–V 145 s. 16 107
Part I 128, 130, 134, 141, 154 s. 17 42, 68, 107
s. 1(2) 134, 249 s. 17(2) 107
s. 2 235 s. 17(3) 107
s. 2(1) 134, 135, 138 s. 17(5) 107
s. 2(2) 134, 135 s. 17(6) 107
s. 2(3) 135 s. 17(7) 107
s. 3 136, 141, 235 s. 19(9) 107
s. 3(1) 135, 139, 235, 236 s. 20 107
s. 3(2) 135, 136 s. 21 92
s. 4 139, 235 s. 22 92, 107
ss. 4(1)(a)–(f ) 139 s. 23 107
s. 4(1)(e) 236 s. 24 107
s. 5 139, 246 s. 25 91

xvii
table of cases and statutes
s. 26 92 Late Payment of Commercial Debts (Interest) Act 1998
s. 29 76 97, 161
s. 34 107 Law of Contracts (Applicable Law) Act 1990 124
s. 35 107 Law Reform (Frustrated Contracts) Act 1943 74
s. 36 107 Misrepresentation Act 1967
s. 37 107 s. 2(1) 39, 223, 239, 241
s. 41 108 Protection from Harassment Act 1997 216
s. 43 107 Sale and Supply of Goods Act 1994 56, 91, 94, 224
s. 44 107 Sale of Goods Act 1979 x, 19, 22, 23, 24, 41, 55, 73,
s. 46 107 74, 77, 89, 94, 130, 222, 223, 228, 230
s. 49 108 s. 2(1) 42, 44
s. 49(1) 67 s. 4 47
s. 50 108 s. 4(1) 47
s. 51 48, 67 s. 5 45
s. 52 67, 108 s. 8 47, 48, 49, 97
s. 55 108 s. 10(1) 97
s. 56 108 ss. 12–15 23, 24, 43, 49, 66, 67, 130
s. 62 36 s. 12 24, 30, 50, 68, 102
s. 62(4) 39 s. 12(1) 24, 42, 50, 51, 52, 53, 233
s. 63 37 s. 12(2) 24, 42, 50, 52, 53, 233
s. 70 37 s. 12(2)(a) 52
Part 2 36 s. 12(2)(b) 52
Sch. 2 36, 37 s. 12(4) 53
Sch. 3 37 s. 12(5) 53
Consumer Safety Act 1978 146 ss. 13–15 24, 102
Consumer Safety (Amendment) Act 1986 146 s. 13 22, 23, 30, 31, 50, 53, 56, 58, 104, 228, 229,
Contracts (Applicable Law) Act 1990 113 231, 232, 239, 240
Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999 132, 141 s. 13(1) 22, 42, 50, 53
s. 1 132 s. 13(1)(1A) 22
s. 1(1) 132 s. 13(2) 42, 57
s. 1(1)(a) 132 s. 13(3) 42, 57, 58
s. 1(1)(b) 132 s. 14 23, 30, 31, 46, 58, 59, 60, 66, 105, 229, 231,
s. 1(2) 132 232, 240
s. 1(3) 132 s. 14(2) 5, 40, 50, 58, 60, 63, 64, 95, 140, 232
Electronic Communications Act 2000 120 s. 14(2A) 39, 42, 60, 68, 232, 234, 235
s. 7 120, 121 s. 14(2B) 39, 42, 60, 68, 232
s. 8 120, 121 ss. 14(2B)(a)–(e) 60, 62
Enterprise Act 2002 219, 221 s. 14(2B)(a) 61, 64, 232
Part 8 37, 124, 221, 226, 236 s. 14(2B)(d) 234, 235
s. 210 221, 246 s. 14(2B)(e) 235
s. 210(1) 221, 246 s. 14(2C)(a) 60
s. 210(2) 221, 246 s. 14(2C)(b) 60
s. 214 221, 236 s. 14(2C)(c) 60, 66
Factors Act 1889 s. 14(2D) 60
s. 2(1) 81 s. 14(2E) 60
Hire Purchase Act 1964 s. 14(3) 5, 40, 42, 50, 63, 64, 68, 140, 232
Part III 82 s. 14(3)(a) 39, 240

xviii
 table of cases and statues
s. 15 23, 30, 42, 50, 66, 68 s. 35(6)(b) 234
s. 15(1) 66 s. 35(7) 97
s. 15(2) 50, 66 s. 35A 109
s. 15(2)(c) 66 s. 37 91, 100
s. 15A 24, 54, 56, 102, 109, 231, 234 s. 38 100, 233
s. 16 77 s. 46 101
s. 17 233 s. 48 101
s. 17(1) 76 ss. 48A–48F 106
s. 18 76, 77, 233 s. 48A(2)(a) 106
s. 20 74, 75, 233 s. 48A(2)(b)(i) 106
s. 20A 78, 233 s. 48A(2)(b)(ii) 106
s. 20B 78, 233 s. 48B 106
s. 20(4) 76 s. 48C 106
s. 21 80 s. 48D 106
s. 21(1) 81 s. 48E(2) 106
s. 21(2) 81 s. 48E(4) 106
s. 23 81, 82 s. 49 99
s. 24 82 s. 49(1) 99
s. 25 82 s. 49(2) 99
s. 25(1) 82 s. 50(2) 99
s. 27 83, 84, 90 s. 50(3) 99
s. 27(2) 83 s. 51 102, 103, 104, 109, 110
s. 27(3) 83 s. 53 103, 104, 234
s. 28 90 s. 53(1) 104, 105
s. 29 109 s. 53(2) 104, 105, 234
s. 29(3) 88, 91, 109 s. 53(3) 104, 105, 234
s. 30 91 s. 53(4) 104, 105, 234
s. 30(1) 88, 91, 109 s. 54 104, 105, 234
s. 30(2) 88, 91, 109 s. 59 95
s. 30(2A) 54 s. 61 76, 233
s. 30(2A)(a) 88, 91, 109 s. 61(1) 42, 45, 46, 120
s. 30(2A)(b) 88, 91, 109 Sale of Goods (Amendment) Act 1994 78
s. 31 92, 109 Sale of Goods (Amendment) Act 1995 77
s. 31(1) 92 Supply of Goods and Services Act 1982 x, 66, 67, 154, 222
s. 31(2) 93, 234 Part I 131
s. 34 94 ss. 2–5 131
s. 35 24, 88, 94, 95, 97 s. 13 67, 195, 230
s. 35A 92, 97, 109 s. 14 67
s. 35(1)(a) 94, 95, 234 s. 15 48, 198
s. 35(1)(b) 94, 95, 234 s. 15(1) 48, 198
s. 35(2) 94 s. 15(2) 48, 198
s. 35(2)(a) 240 s. 16 230
s. 35(3) 94, 109 Supply of Goods (Implied Terms) Act 1973 x, 222
s. 35(4) 94, 95, 110, 234 s. 8 30
s. 35(5) 94 s. 9 31
s. 35(6) 95 s. 10 31
s. 35(6)(a) 234 s. 11 31

xix
table of cases and statutes
Trade Descriptions Act 1968 7, 10, 206, 207, 208, 209, reg. 15 201
210, 212, 214, 224 reg. 17 201
s. 1 208 reg. 17(3) 201, 202
s. 1(1) 209 reg. 17(3)(a) 202
s. 1(1)(a) 209 reg. 17(3)(b) 202
s. 1(1)(b) 209, 220 reg. 17(4) 202
s. 14 208, 220 reg. 17(6) 201
s. 14(1) 209 reg. 18 202
s. 14(1)(a) 209 Consumer Contracts (Information, Cancellation and
s. 14(1)(b) 209 Additional Charges) Regulations SI 2013/3134
s. 14(1)(b)(i) 209 ix, 97, 112, 113, 114, 119, 125, 126
s. 24 209 reg. 5 115
s. 24(1) 220 reg. 6 115
s. 25 220 reg. 7 116
Unfair Contract Terms Act 1977 x, 4, 6, 9, 18, 19, 24, 26, reg. 13 117
29, 30, 37, 38, 39, 59, 67, 97, 124, 222, 230, 232 reg. 14(2) 117, 118
s. 1(3) 29, 245 reg. 14(3) 118
s. 2 31 reg. 14(4) 117
s. 2(1) 30 reg. 30(2)(a) 118
s. 2(2) 30, 69 reg. 30(2)(b) 118
s. 3 30 reg. 30(3) 118
s. 6 30, 31, 67, 69, 232 reg. 31 118
s. 6(2) 59 reg. 31(2) 118
s. 6(3) 5, 39 reg. 31(3) 118
s. 7 6, 31 reg. 37(2) 120
s. 11 31, 32, 39, 67, 69 reg. 40(2) 120
s. 12 5, 29, 67, 229 reg. 41(1) 120
s. 12(1) 4, 6, 14, 155 reg. 42 118
Sch. 2 31, 32, 39, 67, 69 Sch. 2 116
Unsolicited Goods and Services Act 1971 Sch. 2(w) 120
s. 2 114 Consumer Credit Act 1974 (Electronic
Communications) Order SI 2004/3236 121

Statutory Instruments Consumer Credit (Advertisements) Regulations SI

2004/1484 166
Consumer Credit (Agreements) (Amendment)
Business Protection from Misleading Marketing Regulations SI 2004/1482 168
Regulations SI 2008/1276 206, 224 Consumer Protection (Amendment) Regulations SI
Part 1 224 2014/870 ix, 206, 222
Part 2 225 reg. 27C(2) 223
Part 3 225 reg. 27D(1) 223
Part 4 225 reg. 27D(2) 223
reg. 27D(3) 223
Cancellation of Contracts made in a Consumer’s Home reg. 27F/G 223
or Place of Work etc. Regulations SI 2008/1816 114 reg. 27H 223
Commercial Agents (Council Directive) Regulations SI reg. 27I 223
1993/3053 182, 201 reg. 27J 223
reg. 2(1) 197 reg. 27J(5) 224

xx
 table of cases and statues
reg. 27J(5)(a)(i–v) 224 Consumer Transactions (Restrictions on Statements)
reg. 27J(5)(b) 224 Order SI 1976/1813 222
reg. 27K 223 Control of Misleading Advertisements Regulations SI
Consumer Protection (Cancellation of Contracts 1988/915 209, 224
Concluded away from Business Premises)
Regulations SI 1987/2117 221 Electronic Commerce (EC Directive) Regulations SI
Consumer Protection (Distance Selling) Regulations SI 2002/2013 120, 121, 125, 126, 215, 222, 248
2000/2334 114, 115, 119, 172, 222 reg. 2 248
reg. 7 117 reg. 2(1) 121, 248
Consumer Protection from Unfair Trading reg. 13 121
Regulations SI 2008/1277 4, 8,10, 14, 205, 206, Electronic Signatures Regulations SI 2002/318
207, 208, 209, 210, 213, 216, 221, 222, 223, 120
224, 225, 228, 229, 247 Enterprise Act (Part 8 Community Infringements
Part 1 11 Specified UK Laws) Order SI 2003/1374 221
reg. 2 211, 212 Enterprise Act (Part 8 Domestic Infringements) Order SI
reg. 2(1) 11, 212, 213, 214, 216, 247 2003/1593 221
regs. 2(2) –(6) 210
reg. 2(2) 11, 210 Financial Services (Distance Marketing) Regulations SI
reg. 2(4) 210, 211 2004/2095 158, 170
reg. 2(5) 11, 210
reg. 2(5)(a) 11, 211 General Product Safety Regulations SI 1994/2328
reg. 2(5)(b) 211 150
reg. 3(3) 212, 213 General Product Safety Regulations SI 2005/1803 143,
reg. 5 212, 214, 215, 218, 239 144, 145, 146, 150, 152, 155, 231
reg. 5(2) 215 reg. 2 151, 152, 155, 246, 247
reg. 5(3) 215 reg. 3 152
reg. 6 212, 216, 219, 239 reg. 5 144, 150, 151, 152, 235
reg. 6(1) 215 reg. 7 151
reg. 7 212, 217 reg. 8 151
reg. 7(1) 216 reg. 8(1) 152
reg. 7(2) 217 reg. 11 153
reg. 7(3) 216 reg. 12 153
reg. 7(3)(a) 216 reg. 13 153
reg. 7(3)(b) 216 reg. 14 154
regs. 8–12 219 reg. 15 154
reg. 8 219 reg. 18 154
reg. 8(1)(a) 219 reg. 21 154
reg. 9 219 reg. 29 144, 152, 153, 239
reg. 10 219 reg. 29(1) 153
reg. 11 216, 219 reg. 29(2) 153
reg. 12 219 reg. 29(2)(a) 153
reg. 17 219, 220 reg. 29(2)(b) 153
reg. 18 219, 220 reg. 29(4)(a) 153
Part 4 221, 226 reg. 29(4)(b) 153
Part 4A, reg. 27 222 reg. 42 154
Sch. 1 114, 206, 212, 217, 219, 220
Sch. 1, para. 31 218, 239 Oral Snuff (Safety) Regulations 1989 147

xxi
table of cases and statutes
Sale and Supply of Goods to Consumers Regulations SI Council Regulation (EC) 593/2008 (Rome I) 124
2002/3045 x, 75, 94, 131, 222
reg. 2 4, 14 Directives
Unfair Terms in Consumer Contracts Regulations SI Council Directive 85/374/EEC (Product Liability)
1994/3159 33 134, 247
Unfair Terms in Consumer Contracts Regulations SI Art. 4 135, 151
1999/2083 x, 6, 9, 26, 29, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 124, Council Directive 85/577/EEC (Doorstep Selling)
155, 213, 222 ix, 221
reg. 3(1) 4, 6, 14 Council Directive 87/102/EEC (Consumer Credit)
Sch. 2 36, 37 222
Council Directive 93/13/EEC (Unfair Contract Terms)
ix, 36, 222

European Legislation
Council Directive 97/7/EC (Distance Selling) ix, 114,
222
Council Directive 99/44/EC (Sale of Consumer Goods
Conventions and Guarantees) ix, 222
Council Directive 99/93/EC (Electronic Signatures)
Convention on Jurisdiction and the Enforcement of 120
Judgments in Civil and Commercial Matters Council Directive 2000/31/EC (Electronic Commerce)
(Brussels Convention) 1968 124 112, 121, 222
Art. 26 125 Council Directive 2001/95/EC (General Product Safety)
Convention on the Law Applicable to Contractual 150
Obligations (Rome Convention) 1980 124 Council Directive 2005/29/EC (Unfair Commercial
Practices) 8, 11, 14, 205, 210, 216, 221, 225
Recital 18 11
Regulations Recital 19 11
Council Regulation (EC) 44/2001 (Brussels Regulation) Art. 2(a) 11
113, 122 Council Directive 2011/83/EU (Consumer Rights)
Art. 15 123, 126 ix, 33

xxii
¨
¨
¨
The need for
consumer
protection

Revision checklist
Essential points you should know:
1
Why consumers need protecting in commercial transactions
The historical absence of a uniform statutory definition of consumer
How case law has extended definitions of consumer status
¨ The definition of consumer within the Consumer Rights Act 2015
¨ How European law definitions compare with those in English law
¨ The extent to which commercial transactions can be regulated
1 The need for consumer protection

Topic map

Definitions of consumer European definitions

at statute and common law of consumer

Consumer Acting within the course Average Vulnerable

transactions of a trade or business consumer consumer

R & B Customs Stevenson v. Lloyd Schuhfabrik Meyer & Co

Brokers Co Ltd v. Rogers (1999) GmbH v. Klijsen Handel BV
United Dominions C-342/97 (1999)
Trust (1988)

Regulation and enforcement of

consumer protection

CMA
CPP: CCEG

A printable version of this topic map is available from www.pearsoned.co.uk/lawexpress

2
 Sample question

Introduction
Because consumers have the potential to be exploited by
­unscrupulous traders they receive greater protection from the law.
So, under the aegis of the European Union, the UK has increased regulation by
introducing legislation, codes of practice and powers of enforcement by public
authorities. By regulating transactions between business and consumers, most recent
reform has indeed afforded the consumer greater protection, but these reforms also
need to include small and medium-sized enterprises, so that they can compete on equal
terms. Bear in mind that a customer’s status in a commercial transaction will determine
the level of protection given to them.

Assessment Advice
Essay questions
The question may take the form of a quotation upon which you are invited to comment.
It is important to show, therefore, an understanding of the rationale behind consumer
protection and why a party might prefer to achieve consumer status in a transaction.
When describing various statutory definitions of consumer status, always highlight the
potential loopholes in a definition by comparing and contrasting it with any other apt
definition. Always use case law to illustrate how the courts utilise the definitions to
reflect context, and take the opportunity to comment upon any discrepancies that may
exist between the cases.
Problem questions
Consumer status issues in problem questions usually have to be interpreted alongside
exclusions of liability for defective products or services, and will involve a detailed
analysis of any effects that unfair terms legislation has on consumers and businesses,
examples of which can be found in Chapter 3.

Sample question
Could you answer this question? Below is a typical essay question that could arise on this
topic. Guidelines on answering the question are included at the end of this chapter, whilst
a sample problem question and guidance on tackling it can be found on the companion
website.

3
1 The need for consumer protection

Essay Question
‘The consumer, unlike some classes with claims on public bounty, is everyone all the
time.’ (The Moloney Committee on Consumer Protection, 1961)
In light of statute and case law on consumer protection in commercial transactions,
discuss the above statement.

Definition of a consumer
Until the introduction of the Consumer Rights Act 2015 (CRA) there was no generic definition
on how a consumer should be referred to in consumer law. Most common reference to the
status of a consumer was in respect of a term that described a behavioural relationship
between suppliers and receivers of goods and services. Statutory attempts to give a
definition of consumer status were often decided by such implicit phrases as ‘acting in
the course of a business’ or ‘dealing as a consumer’. While the Unfair Contract Terms
Act 1977, s. 12(1) (UCTA) recognised a consumer only indirectly as a consequence of the
trading behaviour that emerged from a transaction, the Unfair Terms in Consumer Contracts
Regulations 1999, reg. 3(1) (UTCCR) and the Sale and Supply of Goods to Consumer
Regulations 2002, reg. 2 (SSGCR) defined a consumer as a natural person whose trading
behaviour had a direct bearing on the commercial transaction. It might well be that because
consumer protection is given by criminal sanctions against traders as well as civil remedies
for consumers, a standardised definition for practical use had not then been found.

Exam Tip

When outlining the definitions given above, try to show your understanding of their
meaning by citing everyday examples of consumer transactions. Then distinguish the
definitions given by the former regulations from that given by the Unfair Contract Terms
Act 1979 by emphasising that the consumer should be considered a natural, rather than
an artificial person, i.e. a company. It may be worth commenting on what the situation
might be were a natural person to buy domestic goods which were for use within their
trade or profession. This will show your awareness of the possible conflicts within the
former statutory definitions. A statutory definition was likely to change according to
whether or not it conferred criminal liability (Consumer Protection from Unfair Trading
Regulations 2008) or rights to consumers (Sale of Goods Act 1979) or restricted the
common law rights of traders (Unfair Contract Terms Act 1977).

4
 Definition of a consumer

KEY DEFINITION: Consumer transaction

This is a transaction whereby a consumer deals with another party who is carrying out
their trade or business.

Of course, it is not always clear when a party is dealing as a consumer rather than in a
business capacity.

Make your answer stand out

The courts have discovered loopholes in the statutory definitions: notably when a
commercial enterprise buys goods intended for part-business, or part-domestic, use.
Now examine the connection between the terms ‘consumer transaction’ and ‘acting
in the course of a business’. In particular, compare and contrast the following two key
cases which examine the notion of dealing in the course of a business to determine
the existence of a consumer transaction. The decisions may indicate how, in borderline
cases, dealing as a consumer applies to receiving, rather than supplying, goods. See
Dobson (2004); MacDonald (1999); de Lacy (1999).

The following cases illustrate that identifying a party as a consumer in a transaction may be
problematic.

‘Consumer transaction’ or ‘acting in the course

of a business’
Key Case

R & B Customs Brokers Co Ltd v. United Dominions Trust Ltd [1988] 1 All ER 847
Concerning: consumer transaction
Facts
A married couple, who ran a private freight company, bought a second-hand car for their
personal and business use. It soon became apparent that the car was unsatisfactory and
not fit for its purpose, and so they sought a refund under s. 14(2) and (3) of the Sale of
Goods Act 1979. In response to this, however, the defendants claimed to exclude liability
under s. 6(3) of the Unfair Contract Terms Act 1977, stating that the contract was not a
consumer transaction at all as defined by s. 12 of UCTA 1977.
Legal principle
The purchase of the car was merely incidental to the couple’s freight business and in the
absence of a regular course of dealing for just such a purchase, the court held that they
bought the car as consumers.

5
1 The need for consumer protection

Key Case

Stevenson v. Rogers [1999] 2 WLR 1064

Concerning: acting in the course of a business
Facts
The defendant, a self-employed fisherman for over 20 years, sold his boat to the
claimant. But the boat was not satisfactory. The court had to decide whether the sale was
carried out in the course of a business, in respect of the seller being a ‘man of the sea’,
but not a boat salesman as such.
Legal principle
It was decided that the obligation to supply goods of satisfactory quality would be
imposed on every trade seller, irrespective of whether or not they habitually supplied
goods of that type, i.e. including a boat for whatever purpose a prospective buyer had in
mind for its use, over and above the seller’s. The sale was held to be in the course of a
business because it was the defendant’s business property that was being sold.

The definitions of a consumer according to UCTA 1977

and UTCCR 1999
There was some difference between the definition of a consumer given by the Unfair
Contract Terms Act 1977 and that provided by the Unfair Terms in Consumer Contracts
Regulations 1999, as listed in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1 Definitions of a consumer

Unfair Contract Terms Act 1977, s. 12(1) The Unfair Terms in Consumer
Contracts Regulations 1999, reg.
3(1)
A party to a contract ‘deals as consumer’ in relation ‘Consumer’ means any natural
to another party if – person who, in contracts covered
by these Regulations, is acting for
(a) he neither makes the contract in the course of a
purposes which are outside his
business nor holds himself out as doing so; and
trade, business or profession
(b) the other party does make the contract in the
course of a business; and
(c) in the case of a contract governed by the law of
sale of goods or hire purchase, or by s. 7 of this
Act, the goods passing under or in pursuance of
the contract are of a type ordinarily supplied for
private use or consumption.
6
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Leroux, Xavier, 392
Leschetizky, Theodor, 409
Libraries, chained, in England, 190
Lieurance, Thurlow, 487
Lind, Jenny, 335, 338, 449, 451
Liszt, Franz, 313, 322;
influence of, on Wagner, 361;
his life and work, 403–8;
sends scores to Thomas in America, 468
Locke, Matthew, 203, 205
Loeffler, Charles Martin, 482–3
Lohengrin, Wagner’s, 366, 368, 375.
Loomis, Harvey Worthington, 485
Louis XIV of France, 222 ff., 232, 312
Louise, Charpentier’s, 393–4
Lucia di Lammermoor, Donizetti’s, 337
Lucrezia Borgia, Donizetti’s, 337
Ludwig II, King of Bavaria, 370
Lullabies, 109–10
Lully, Jean Baptiste, 223–7, 233
Lute, the, use of, by the ancient Egyptians, 22;
by the Arabs, 59, 60;
introduction of, into Europe, 96;
use and development of, in 15th and 16th centuries, 150–1
Luther, Martin, 163, 165–7
Lyon, Rev. James, early American hymn book by, 460
Lyre, the, use of, by the ancient Egyptians, 22;
by the Assyrians, 25;
by the Greeks, 42
M
MacDowell, Edward, 491–4, 507;
Critical and Historical Essays by, cited, 45, 52–3
McTammany, John, and automatic pianos, 316
Macfarren, Sir George A., 438
Macfarren, Walter Cecil, 438
Mackenzie, Sir Arthur C., 438
Madame Butterfly, Puccini’s, 50, 383–4
Madrigals, 149 ff.;
golden age of, in England, 194
Maeterlinck, Maurice, 394
Magic Flute, The, Mozart’s, 288, 289, 291, 329
Mahler, Gustav, 427–8
Malibran, Mme., 465
Malipiero, G. Francesco, 539–40
Man, prehistoric, beginnings of music and musical instruments
among, 3–7
Mannheim School of composers, 273–4
Manon, Massenet’s, 392
Manon Lescaut, Puccini’s, 383
Manuel, Roland, 523
Manzoni, 381
Maria Theresa, 267, 299
Marie Antoinette, 213–14, 269, 271–2
Marlin, Jane, Reminiscences of Morris Steinert, by, 315–16
Marriage of Figaro, Rossini’s, 337
Martinengo-Cesaresco, Countess, The Study of Folk Songs, by, 140
Martini, Padre, 218–19
Masaniello, Auber’s, 334
Mascagni, Pietro, 382
Mason, Daniel Gregory, 403, 471
Mason, Lowell, 470
Mason, Dr. William, 470–1
Masques, in England, 173
Massenet, Jules, 391–2
Mastersingers, 104–6
Matthews, W. S. B., 471
Mattheson, Johann, 242–3
Mauduit, Jacques, 177, 178
Mayer, Charles, 344
Mazarin, Cardinal, 178, 222
Mechanical pianos, 316–19
Medici, Marie de’, 176, 178, 222
Medicine man, the, among the American Indians, 15–16
Mefistofele, Boito’s, 381
Méhul, Etienne Nicholas, 332
Meistersinger, The, Wagner’s, 369, 370–1, 372, 375
Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, Felix, 347–51, 353
Mendelssohn Glee Club of New York, 494
Messager, André, 392
Messiah, The, Handel’s, 262
Metastasio, 213, 265
Metre, introduction of, into music, 83–4
Metropolitan Museum of Art, clavichords and harpsichords in, 310
Metropolitan Opera House, New York, 469
Meyerbeer, Giacomo, 334–5;
 influence of, on Wagner, 360–1, 364–5
Miaskovsky, Nicolai, 531
Mignon, Thomas’s, 386
Mikado, The, Sullivan’s, 341
Mildenberg, Albert, 497–8
Milhaud, Darius, 525
Milligan, Harold Vincent, quoted on American folk music, 141
Milton, John, father of the poet, 202
Milton, John, 173, 202
Minnesingers, 102–3
Minstrel, the, 88 ff.
“Miracle-plays,” 172
Modes, development of, in church music, 71–3
Mohammed, 56
Mohammedans, capture of Constantinople by, 165
Monochord, invented by Pythagoras, 41
Montemezzi, 385–6
Monteverde, Claudio, his innovations in music, and his operatic and
other works, 178–86
Montpensier, Mlle. de, 223–4
Moonlight Sonata, Beethoven’s, 300, 304
“Moralities,” 172, 173
Morley, Thomas, 194, 196, 198, 199
Morris, Harold, 506
Morris dance, the, 123–4
Moscheles, Ignaz, 320–1
Moses, 26, 27
Moszkowski, Moritz, 449
Motet, the, 147–9
Mourning songs, 126
Moussorgsky, Modeste, 444
Mouton, Jean, 155
Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus, Haydn his teacher and friend, 284–5;
account of his life, 285–90;
Don Giovanni, 288, 290, 291;
The Magic Flute, 288, 289, 291, 329;
his work, 290–2;
influence of, on Wagner, 360
Muses, the nine, of the Greeks, 32
Music, the process of change in, 515–19
Musical instruments, see Instruments, musical
Musical terms, derived from the Italian language, 206–7
“Mysteries,” 172
N
Napoleon I, 293, 298, 442
National Federation of Music Clubs, 479
National hymns, 115–17
Nature, sounds of, imitated by primitive man, 6;
personified in gods of the ancient Egyptians, 21
Naumann, Emil, 281, 285
Negro, the, and his music, 17–19
“Negro minstrels,” origin of, 473
Negroes, American, folk music of, 117, 118, 143–4;
their spirituals, 144, 500–1;
Stephen Foster and their music, 472, 473;
Henry F. Gilbert’s music founded on negro themes, 484
Neidlinger, William, 490
Neri, Saint Filippo, founder of oratorio, 171
Nero, Emperor, 45
Nero, Boito’s, 381, 382
Nevin, Arthur, 487
Nevin, Ethelbert, 488
New England Conservatory of Music, Boston, 476, 477
New England group of composers, the, 475 ff.
New York Philharmonic Society, founding of, 467
New York Symphony Society, 468
Netherlands, the, modern music in, 541
Neumes notation, 72
Nibelungen Ring, The, Wagner’s, 364, 366 ff.
Nikisch, Arthur, 412
Nilsson, Christine, 451
Nordica, Lillian, 469
Norma, Bellini’s, 337
Norris, Homer, 484
Norsemen, the, 91–2
Norway, composers of, 449–51
Notation of music, the Greeks the first to use, 40;
the Japanese, 51;
the Hindus, 65–6;
use of neumes, 72;
beginnings of the staff and harmony, 77 ff.;
the three, four and five line staffs and development of clefs, 79–80;
naming of notes of the scale, 81–2;
introduction of time values, 83–4;
tablature, 151
O
Oberammergau, Passion Play of, 173
Oberon, Weber’s, 329
Oboe, use of, by the Hindus, 66
Odin, 92
Offenbach, Jacques, 335–6
Okeghem, Jan, 153–4
Old Folks at Home, The, 474
Oldberg, Arne, 490
Olympic games, 37
Opera, the descendant of the masque, 173;
beginnings of, in Italy, 173 ff.;
the coming of Italian opera to France, 178;
operas of Monteverde, 181 ff.;
first public opera house in Venice, 185;
Italian opera composers of 17th and 18th centuries, 212–13;
opera in France, 15th to 18th centuries, 222–31;
Handel, 255 ff.;
Gluck, the father of modern opera, 263 ff.;
Haydn, 275 ff.;
Mozart, 285 ff.;
opera makers of France, Germany and Italy, 1741 to Wagner, 326
ff.;
Weber, 327–9;
the French school, 330 ff.;
Cherubini, 331–2;
Meyerbeer, 334–5;
Offenbach, 335–6;
Rossini, Bellini, Donizetti, 337–8;
opera singers of the late 18th and 19th centuries, 338;
English opera-ballad, 338–41;
light opera, 341–2;
Wagner, 359–76;
Verdi and Meyerbeer to our day, 377 ff.;
modern Italian opera, 377–86;
French opera, 386–95;
German opera composers since Wagner, 395–6;
 early opera in America, 465–6;
opera companies in America, 514
Opéra comique, 330
Oratorio, Saint Filippo Neri the founder of, 171
Oratorio Society of New York, 468
Orchestra, size of ancient Egyptian, 22;
of the Roman theatre, 45;
of the Hindus, 64–5;
the Russian balalaika orchestra, 130;
the Hungarian gypsy orchestra, 134;
Monteverde’s, 181–2, 185;
meaning of the word, 234;
Haydn’s additions and improvements in the, 283;
rise of, in 19th century, 323;
the innovations of Berlioz, 401–2;
orchestras in America, 466–8;
symphony orchestras in America, 513–14
Organ school, the 17th century, 157–8
Organs, early, 85, 235–7
Orientals, music of the, 46 ff.
Ornstein, Leo, 508
Orpheus, 34–5
Orpheus and Euridice, Gluck’s, 268
Overtones, 528–9
Oxford, first chair of music at, 190
P
Pachelbel, Johann, 240
Pacius, Frederick, 453
Paderewski, Ignace Jan, 322, 449
Paganini, Nicolo, 324
Paine, John Knowles, 475–6
Palestrina, 167–70, 171
Palmgren, Selim, 453
Pan and his pipes, 32–3;
the organ a descendant of Pan’s pipes, 235
Paris, as meeting place for composers, 330 ff.
Paris Conservatory of Music, 430–2
Parker, Horatio, 478–9
Parry, Sir Charles Hubert Hastings, 438
Parsifal, Wagner’s, 372–3, 374
Passion Play of Oberammergau, 173
Patience, Sullivan’s, 341
Patriotic songs, 115–17
Patrons of music in America, 512–13
Patti, Adelina, 338
Payne, John Howard, 465
Peace Jubilees, in Boston, 486
Pelleas and Milisande, Debussy’s, 394, 416, 520
Pentatonic scale, 10, 18, 47, 113
People’s Choral Union, New York, 470
Pepys, Samuel, 198, 204
Percy Reliques, the, 106, 127
Pergolesi, Giovanni Battista, 212–13, 230
Persian music, 57
Peter the Great, 441
Pfitzner, Hans, 424, 535
Philadelphia, music in Franklin’s, 463, 464
Pianists, 319 ff.;
 of the late 19th and the 20th centuries, 325
Pianoforte, the, 307 ff.;
its ancestry and development through the clavichord and the
harpsichord, 307–11;
the first pianofortes, and their makers, 311–15;
automatic players, 316–17;
value of mechanical players, 318–19;
performers on the, 319 ff.
Piccinni, 269, 270
Pierné, Gabriel, 392, 393
Pilgrims and Puritans in America, 458–60
Pinafore, Sullivan’s, 341
Pirates of Penzance, Sullivan’s, 341
Pius IX, Pope, 406
Pizzetti, Ildebrando, 540
Plagal scales, 72, 73
Plain chant, or plain song, 73
Playford, John, 197
Pleyel, Ignaz Josef, piano maker, 314
Pleyel, Marie, 323
Poe, Edgar Allan, 474
Poet and Peasant, von Suppé’s, 336
Poland, composers of, 448–9
Poland, modern music in, 531–2
Poldowski (Lady Dean Paul), 439–40, 531
Poles, folk music of, 113–14, 131;
instruments of, 131
Polish dances, 121
Polyform music, 516 ff.
Polyphony, introduction into church music, 70–1
Polytonality, 516, 517, 529
Ponchielli, Amilcare, 386
Pope, Alexander, 262
Porpora, Niccolo, 213–14
Portuguese folk music, 135
Powell, John, 499–500
Pratt, Silas G., 489
Pratt, Waldo Selden, History of Music by, quoted, 102–3
Prehistoric man, beginnings of music and musical instruments
among, 3–7
Près, Josquin des, 148, 154–5
Prescott, Wm. H., Conquest of Peru by, cited, 53
Printing, invention of, 163–4
“Program music,” 242, 397
Prokofiev, Serge, 531
Prophet, The, Meyerbeer’s, 335
Protestant Church, founding of the, 165
Provence, the troubadours poet-composers of, 97
Prunières, Henry, quoted on Monteverde, 185–6
Psaltery, the, 28, 29, 308
Public concerts, the first, 272–3
Puccini, Giacomo, 383–5
Purcell, Henry, 200, 204, 205–7
Puritans and Pilgrims in America, 458–60
Pythagoras, influence of, in music, 40–2;
his theory of harmonics or overtones, 526, 528
Pythian games, 37
Q
Quarter-tones, use of, 538–9
R
Rachmaninov, Sergei, 409–10, 446
Radio, the, 319
Ragtime music, 143–4
Rameau, Jean Philippe, 227–31
Rattle, use of, by American Indians, 11, 12
Ravel, Maurice, 417, 522–4
Rebeck, the, 189
Recitative style, the, 183
Reformation, the, 165
Reger, Max, 428–9
Reinken, Johann Adam, 239
Remenyi, 420
Renaissance, the, 163
Respighi, Ottorino, 540
Reyer, Ernest, 389
Rheingold, Das, Wagner’s, 367, 371
Rhythm, 517–18
Rice, Thomas, 473
Richard the Lion-Hearted, 99
Ries, Ferdinand, 299, 320
Rigoletto, Verdi’s, 379
Rimsky-Korsakov, Nikolai, 444, 445
Ritter, Alexander, 411, 413
Robert le Diable, Meyerbeer’s, 335
Robin Hood, De Koven’s, 336, 488
Romance languages, the, 96–7
Romans, music of the, 43–5
Romantic movement in music, the, 294–5, 320–2, 343 ff.
Romberg, Andreas, 324
Rome, the great musical center in the 18th century, 219
Rome, American Academy in, 507–8
Ronsard, Pierre de, 160–1, 456
Rore, Cyprian de, 156
Roses, War of the, in England, 187
Rosetta stone, the, 23
Rossini, Giacchino, 337
Rounds, 101–2, 123
Rousseau, Jean Jacques, 269;
quoted on folk music of Brittany, 136
Rubinstein, Anton, 322, 408, 443, 446
Rubinstein, Nikolai, 409, 443, 446
Russia, folk music in, 114, 129–30;
stringed instruments in, 130;
composers of, 441 ff.;
Michael Glinka, 442;
Rubinstein and Tchaikovsky, 443;
“the Five” group of composers, 444–6;
other composers, 446
S
Sackbut, the, 189
Sailors’ songs, 117
St. Bartholomew’s eve, massacre of, in France, 177
Saint-Saëns, Charles Camille, 386, 390–1
Salieri, Antonio, 332
Salome, Strauss’s, 412, 413, 415
Salon music, 322
Salzedo, Carlos, 511
Samson and Delilah, Saint-Saëns’s, 390
Sand, George, 357
Satie, Erik, 524, 525
Savages, the music of, 8 ff.
Sax horn, the, 401
Saxophone, the, 401
Scales: the pentatonic, 10, 18, 47, 113;
the ancient Egyptian, 23;
of the Greeks, 37–40;
of the Romans, 44;
of the Chinese, 47–8;
of the Arabs, 58–9;
of the Hindus, 65–6;
of St. Ambrose, 71, 72, 73;
plagal, of Pope Gregory, 72, 73;
of Hucbald and Guido d’Arezzo, 80–1;
naming of notes of our scale, 81–2
Scarlatti, Alessandro, 212
Scarlatti, Domenico, 220–1
Scheidt, Samuel, 241
Schein, Johann Heinrich, 241
Schelling, Ernest, 455, 499
Scherchen, Hermann, 536
Schillings, Max, 395
Schindler, Kurt, 512
Schirmer, Gustav, 513
Schmidt, Arthur P., 513
Schoenberg, Arnold, 532–3
Schola Cantorum, of Paris, 434, 435
Schools of music: of the 15th and 16th centuries, 146 ff.;
rise of, 151–2;
the Franco-Flemish school, 152–5;
the Venetian school, 155–7;
the 17th century organ school, 157–8
Schrecker, Franz, 535
Schubert, Franz Peter, 344–7
Schumann, Clara, 321, 420–1, 422
Schumann, Robert, 351–4, 420–1
Schütz, Heinrich, 240–1
Scotch and Welsh folk music, 137–9
Scott, Cyril, 544
Scotti, Antonio, 383, 384
Scriabin, Alexander Nicolai, 446, 526–7
Scribe, Eugène, 335
Seasons, The, Haydn’s, 281
Seidl, Anton, 428, 469
Shakespeare, 173;
and music, 199–200;
and the harpsichord, 310
Shofar, use of, by the Hebrews, 27
“Shout,” the, negro dance, 144
Siamese, music of the, 52
Sibelius, Jan, 452–3
Siegfried, Wagner’s, 367, 368, 410
Signatures, time, origin of signs for, 84
Sinding, Christian, 450
Singleton, Esther, The Orchestra and Its Instruments, by, 215
Sistrum, the, use of, by the ancient Egyptians, 22
Sjögren, Emil, 452
Skalds, Scandinavian, 91–4
Skilton, Charles Sanford, 487
Smart, Henry, 340
Smetana, Frederick, 446–7
Smith, David Stanley, 479–80
Smyth, Dame Ethel, 439
Société Nationale of Paris, 433–4
Solomon, King, singers and musicians of, 28
Sonata form, the, 243
Sonata, the first, 206, 241, 242
Song writers, of the late 19th century, 423 ff.
Song writers, American women, 481
Song writers, recent, of America, 509–10
Songs, patriotic, 115–17
Sonneck, Oscar G., Early Concert-life in America by, quoted, 459–
60
Sousa, John Philip, 487
Spain, composers of, 453–5
Spalding, Albert, 505
Spalding, Walter R., 475, 478
Spanish dance-songs, 122;
folk music, 135
Spinet, the, 210, 311
Spirituals, songs of the American negro, 144
Spirituals, negro, versus jazz, 500–1
Spohr, Louis, 329
Spohr, Ludwig, 324–5
Spontini, Gasparo, 332–3
Stabat Mater, Rossini’s, 337
Staff, the beginnings of, 77, 79, 80
Stainer, Sir John, 341, 438
Stanford, Sir Charles Villiers, 439
Steinways, the, piano makers, 315
Stevenson, Robert Louis, 389
Stock, Frederick, 468
Stoessel, Albert, 468, 506
Stojowski, Sigismund, 449
Stonehenge, 90
Stoughton Musical Society, 462
Stradella, 212
Strauss, Johann, 335, 336
Strauss, Richard, life and work of, 410–15, 424, 534
Stravinsky, Igor, 318, 446, 527–8, 530–1, 538–9
Streicher, Nanette, 313
Stringed instruments, the origin of, 307–8
Suites, dance tunes grow up into, 210–2
Sullivan, Sir Arthur, 336, 341–2
Suppé, Franz von, 336
Svendsen, Johan Severan, 450
Sweden, composers of, 452
Sweelinck, Jan, 157–8, 197, 240
Switzerland, modern music in, 541–2
Symphony, first composers of, in Germany, 273–4
Symphony orchestras in America, 513–14
Syrinx, or Pan’s pipes, 33
Szymanowski, Karol, 531
T
Tablature, 151
Tales of Hoffmann, The, Offenbach’s, 336
Tallis, Thomas, 192, 197
Tambourine, use of, by the ancient Egyptians, 22;
by the Assyrians, 25;
by the Hindus, 66
Tannhäuser, Wagner’s, 365–6, 370, 401
Tansman, Alexander, 532
Tartini, 218
Tasso, Torquato, 174, 180, 184
Tausig, Carl, 409, 448
Taylor, Deems, 506
Taylor, Samuel Coleridge, 439
Tchaikovsky, P. I., 409, 443, 446
Terpander, supposed perfection of tetrachord by, 39–40
Tetrachords, 38, 39, 44
Thomas, Arthur Goring, 438–9
Thomas, Charles Ambroise, 386
Thomas, Theodore, 467–8, 471
Thuille, Ludwig, 395
Tibia, or bagpipe, the Roman, 45
Timbrel, use of, by the Hebrews, 26
Time values, introduction of, into music, 83–4
Tone poets, 397 ff.
Tone relationship, Pythagoras’ theory of, 41
Torelli, 218
Tosca, Puccini’s, 384
Toscanini, Arturo, 382
Tourte, François, perfection of violin bow by, 323
Tremolo, invention of, 184
Trent, Council of, action of, on church music, 167
Trinity Church, New York, 464
Tristan and Isolde, Wagner’s, 369, 370, 372
Troubadours, the, 97, 99–101
Trouvères, the, 97, 101–2
Troyer, Carlos, 485
Trumpets, use of, in war by the ancient Egyptians, 22;
use of, by the Hebrews, 27;
by the Greeks, 43;
by the Hindus, 66
Twentieth century music, 515 ff.
Tyndale, William, 190
Tyrol, the, making of lutes and viols in, 215
U
Unfinished Symphony, Schubert’s, 346
United States, the, folk music in, 140–5;
modern music of, 456 ff;
lack of definite traits in music of, that could be called national,
457;
Pilgrims and Puritans, 458–60;
William Billings, 460–2;
the Stoughton Musical Society, 462;
the Boston Handel and Haydn Society, 462;
music in Franklin’s Philadelphia, 463;
Francis Hopkinson, 463–4;
early opera, 465–6;
orchestras, 466–7;
the New York Philharmonic Society, 467;
Theodore Thomas, 467–8;
the Damrosch family, 468–70;
the Mason family, 470–1;
Gottschalk, 471–2;
Stephen Collins Foster, 472–4;
the New England group of composers, 475 ff.;
Dudley Buck, 476;
George Chadwick, 476–7;
Horatio Parker, 478–9;
women composers and song writers, 480–1;
Loeffler, 482–3;
Victor Herbert, 486;
Sousa, 487;
Ethelbert Nevin, 488;
Reginald de Koven, 488–9;
MacDowell, 491–4;
Henry Holden Huss, 495;
Albert Mildenberg, 497–8;
John Alden Carpenter, 498;
Eric Delamater, 498–9;
John Powell, 499–500;
negro Spirituals versus Jazz, 500–1;
Louis Gruenberg, 502–3;
Irving Berlin, 503;
George Gershwin, 503;
Charles Tomlinson Griffes, 504–5;
the American Music Guild, 506–7;
the American Academy in Rome, 507–8;
Leo Ornstein, 508;
song writers, 509–10;