Design of Thermal Energy Systems

Pradip Majumdar
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Design of Thermal Energy Systems
Design of Thermal Energy Systems

Pradip Majumdar
This edition first published 2021
© 2021 John Wiley & Sons Ltd

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Majumdar, Pradip, 1954- author.
Title: Design of thermal energy systems / Pradip Majumdar.
Description: First edition. | Hoboken, NJ, USA : Wiley, 2021. | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020040595 (print) | LCCN 2020040596 (ebook) | ISBN
9781118956939 (cloth) | ISBN 9781118956946 (adobe pdf) | ISBN
9781118956915 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Heat engineering. | Renewable energy sources.
Classification: LCC TJ808 .M345 2021 (print) | LCC TJ808 (ebook) | DDC
621.402–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020040595
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020040596

Cover Design: Wiley

Cover Images: Illustration courtesy of Pradip Majumdar;
Background © Xanya69/Getty Images

Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by Straive, Chennai, India

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
In loving memory of my late parents Snehalata and Rati Ranjan Majumdar
and
To my wife: Srabani, and Children: Diya and Ishan
 vii

Contents

Preface xix
About the Author xxi
About the Companion Website xxiii

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Thermal Engineering Design 1
1.2 Elements of Design Analysis of Thermal Systems 2
1.2.1 Some Special Aspects of Thermal Design 3
1.2.2 Design Types 3
1.3 Examples of Thermal Energy Design Problems 4
1.3.1 Solar-Heated Swimming Pool 4
1.3.2 A Chilled Water System for Air-Conditioning System 7
1.3.2.1 Objective Function 8
1.3.3 Secondary Water System for Heat Rejection 8
1.3.4 Solar Rankine Cycle Power Generation System 10
1.3.5 Residential Air-Conditioning System 14
1.3.6 Heat Recovery from Diesel Engine Exhaust 18
1.3.7 Cooling System for a Li-ion Battery Stack in a Vehicle 19
Bibliography 24

2 Thermodynamics Analysis 26
2.1 Some Basic Concepts of Thermodynamics 26
2.1.1 Thermodynamic System and Control Volume 26
2.1.2 Thermodynamic Properties, States, and Phases 26
2.1.2.1 Pure Substance 27
2.1.2.2 Simple Compressible Substance 27
2.1.2.3 Phase-Equilibrium Diagram of a Pure Substance 27
2.1.3 Thermodynamic Processes and Cycles 29
2.1.3.1 Reversible and Irreversible Processes 29
2.1.3.2 Thermodynamic Cycle 29
2.1.4 Energy and Energy Transfer 30
2.1.5 Heat and Work 30
2.1.5.1 Heat Energy (Q) 30
2.1.5.2 Work (W) 31
viii Contents

2.2 Conservation of Mass 31

2.2.1 System 31
2.2.2 Control Volume 31
2.3 The First Law of Thermodynamics 32
2.3.1 The First Law of Thermodynamics for a System 32
2.3.2 The First Law of Thermodynamics for a Control Volume 33
2.3.3 Special Cases 33
2.3.3.1 Steady-State Steady-Flow (SSSF) Process 33
2.3.3.2 Uniform-State Uniform-Flow (USUF) Process 34
2.4 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 34
2.4.1 Kelvin–Planck Statement 34
2.4.2 Clausius Statement 35
2.4.3 Inequality of Clausius 36
2.4.3.1 Steady-State Steady-Flow (SSSF) Process 38
2.4.3.2 Uniform-State Uniform-Flow (USUF) 38
2.4.3.3 Reversible Steady-Flow Work 39
2.5 Carnot Cycle 39
2.6 Machine Efficiencies 40
2.6.1 Turbine 40
2.6.2 Compressor and Pumps 41
2.6.2.1 Compressor 41
2.6.2.2 Pump 41
2.7 Specific Heat 41
2.8 Ideal Gas Equation of State 42
2.9 Change in Enthalpy, Internal Energy, Entropy, and Gibbs Function for Ideal
Gases 42
2.9.1 Change in Enthalpy and Internal Energy 42
2.9.1.1 Case I: Constant Specific Heat 43
2.9.1.2 Case II: Temperature-Dependent Specific Heat values 43
2.9.1.3 Case III 43
2.9.2 Entropy Change in a Process 43
2.9.3 Special Cases 44
2.9.3.1 Case I: For Constant Specific Heat Values 44
2.9.3.2 Case II: For Temperature-Dependent Specific Heat
Values 44
2.9.3.3 Case III 44
2.10 Reversible Polytropic Process 44
2.11 Reversible Adiabatic or Isentropic Process 45
2.12 Mixture of Gases 45
2.12.1 Mixture Parameters 46
2.12.1.1 Mass Fraction 46
2.12.1.2 Mole Fraction 46
2.12.2 Ideal Gas Mixture Properties 47
2.12.3 Change of Properties in a Thermodynamic Process 48
2.12.4 Moist Air: Mixture of Air and Water Vapor 49
 Contents ix

2.12.4.1 Dew-Point Temperature (T dp ) 50

2.12.4.2 Relative Humidity (RH or 𝜙) 50
2.12.4.3 Humidity Ratio (ω) 50
2.12.4.4 Dry-Bulb and Wet-Bulb Temperatures 51
2.12.4.5 Moist-air Enthalpy 51
2.12.4.6 Psychrometric Chart 52
2.12.5 Application of Conservation Equations to Air-Conditioning
Process 52
2.12.5.1 Conservation of Mass 52
2.12.5.2 Conservation of Energy 52
2.12.6 Heating of Moist Air 53
2.12.6.1 Conservation Mass 53
2.12.6.2 Conservation of Energy 54
2.12.6.3 Cooling and Dehumidification Process 56
2.12.6.4 Humidification Process 58
2.12.6.5 Conservation of Mass 58
2.12.6.6 Conservation of Energy 59
2.12.6.7 Mixing Process 60
2.13 Combustion Process 63
2.13.1 Combustion Reaction 63
2.13.2 Balanced Reaction Equation 64
2.13.3 Hydrocarbon Fuel Types 64
2.13.4 Combustion Reaction Model 65
2.13.5 Major Combustion Parameters 65
2.13.5.1 Theoretical Air (Stoichiometric) and Excess Air 66
2.13.5.2 Air-Fuel Ratio (AF) 66
2.13.5.3 Equivalence Ratio (Φ) 66
2.13.5.4 Evaluation of Enthalpy and Entropy in a Reacting System 68
2.13.6 First Law for Reacting Systems 69
2.13.7 Temperature of Product of Combustion 70
2.14 Power-Generating Cycles 73
2.14.1 Vapor Power Cycles 73
2.14.1.1 Rankine Vapor Power Cycle 73
2.14.1.2 First Law of Thermodynamic Analysis of a Standard Rankine
Vapor Power Cycle 75
2.14.1.3 Thermodynamic analysis of a standard Rankine cycle: 75
2.14.1.4 Effect of Superheating and Reheating 82
2.14.1.5 Thermodynamic Analysis of Regenerative Feed Water Power
Cycle 88
2.14.2 Gas Power System 102
2.14.2.1 Reciprocating Internal Combustion Systems 103
2.14.2.2 Simplified Model for the Analysis of Internal Combustion
Engine: Air Standard Cycles 103
2.14.2.3 Otto Cycle for Spark Ignition Engine 104
2.14.2.4 First Law of Thermodynamic Analysis 104
x Contents

2.14.2.5 The Diesel Cycle for Compression–Ignition Engine 108

2.14.2.6 Brayton Cycle: A Standard Cycle for Gas Turbine Engine 113
2.14.2.7 Gas Turbine with Regenerative Heat Exchanger for Heat
Recovery 113
2.14.2.8 First Law of Thermodynamic Analysis of a Gas Turbine Cycle
with Regenerative Heat Recovery 114
2.14.2.9 Gas Turbine with Multistage Compressions and
Expansions 119
2.15 Cooling and Refrigeration System 124
2.15.1 Vapor Compression Refrigeration System 124
2.15.1.1 Thermodynamic Analysis of Vapor Compression
Refrigeration Cycle 128
2.15.1.2 The Absorption Refrigeration System 133
2.16 The Second Law or Exergy Analysis 134
2.16.1 Irreversibility 136
2.16.2 Availability or Exergy 136
2.16.3 Second Law Efficiency 138
2.17 Case Study Problems 141
2.17.1 Case Study Problem: Analysis and Design of Solar-Driven Irrigation
Pump 141
Bibliography 146
Problems 146

3 Review of Basic Laws and Concepts of Heat Transfer 151

3.1 Heat-Transfer Modes and Rate Equations 151
3.2 Conduction Heat Transfer 151
3.2.1 Conduction Heat-Transfer Resistance 152
3.2.1.1 Boundary Conditions 152
3.2.2 Thermal Resistances and Heat Transfer in Composite Layers 152
3.3 Convection Heat Transfer 153
3.3.1 Convection Modes 154
3.3.2 Convection Heat-Transfer Coefficient 154
3.3.2.1 Local Convection 155
3.3.2.2 Average or Mean Heat-Transfer Coefficient 155
3.3.3 Controlling Forces in Convection 155
3.3.3.1 Surface Forces 156
3.3.3.2 Body Forces 156
3.3.4 Major Factors and Parameters in Convection Heat Transfer 156
3.3.4.1 Thermophysical and Transport properties 156
3.3.4.2 Flow Geometry 159
3.3.4.3 Convection Heat-Transfer Correlations 162
3.3.4.4 Forced Convection Heat Transfer and Correlations 163
3.3.5 Forced Convection Internal Flow and Heat Transfer 164
3.3.5.1 Laminar Flows 164
3.3.5.2 Internal Turbulent-Flow Heat-Transfer Correlations 177
3.3.5.3 Liquid Metals 177
 Contents xi

3.3.6 External Flows 179

3.3.6.1 Laminar Flow Over a Flat Plate 179
3.3.6.2 Turbulent Flow Over a Flat Plate 179
3.3.6.3 External Cross Flow Over a Cylinder 180
3.3.6.4 Flow Over a Sphere 181
3.3.6.5 Flow Over Tube Banks 181
3.3.6.6 Jet Cooling 185
3.3.7 Free or Natural Convection 186
3.3.7.1 Effects of Turbulence 188
3.3.7.2 Empirical Free Convection Correlations 189
3.3.7.3 Free Convection Over a Vertical Plate 189
3.3.7.4 Free Convection Over a Horizontal Surface (Figure 3.20) 190
3.3.8 Condensation Heat Transfer 193
3.3.8.1 Laminar Film Condensation Over a Vertical Plate 193
3.3.8.2 Turbulent Condensation 195
3.3.8.3 Condensation Over Horizontal Cylindrical Tube 196
3.3.9 Boiling Heat Transfer 198
3.3.9.1 Pool Boiling 198
3.3.9.2 Film Pool Boiling 200
3.3.10 Internal Forced Convection Two-phase Flow Boiling 201
3.3.11 Effect of Temperature 202
3.3.11.1 Approach – I 202
3.3.11.2 Approach – II 202
3.4 Thermal Radiation Heat Transfer 202
3.4.1.1 The Gray Body 204
3.4.1.2 Radiation Heat Exchange 204
3.5 Heat-Transfer Resistances 207
3.5.1.1 Overall Heat-Transfer Coefficient in a Heat-Exchanger
Circular Tube 208
3.5.1.2 Overall Heat-Transfer Coefficient in a Spherical Storage
wall 209
3.6 Contact Resistances and Thermal Interface Materials 210
Bibliography 213

4 Design and Selection of Fins and Heat Sinks 215

4.1 Design Requirements for Fins and Heat Sinks 215
4.2 Configurations and Types of Fins 217
4.3 Fin Performance Modeling and Solutions 219
4.3.1 A General Fin Heat Equation 219
4.3.1.1 Straight Longitudinal Fin of Uniform Cross-section 221
4.3.1.2 Straight Fin of Variable Cross-section 223
4.3.1.3 Spine Fin of Circular Cone Shape 224
4.3.1.4 Straight Parabolic Fin with Circular Base 235
4.3.1.5 Straight Concave Parabolic Fin with Rectangular Base 236
4.3.1.6 Straight Fin of Trapezoidal Cross-section 237
4.3.1.7 Annular or Circular Fin 238
xii Contents

4.4 Parameters for Fin Performance Characterization 240

4.4.1 Fin Effectiveness 240
4.4.2 Fin Efficiency 243
4.4.3 Fin Thermal Resistance 249
4.5 Multiple Fin Arrays and Overall Surface 251
4.5.1 Finned-Surface Convection Thermal Resistance 252
4.5.2 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient for a Finned Surface 252
4.5.2.1 Plane Wall 252
4.5.2.2 Cylindrical Surface 253
Bibliography 255
Websites 256
Problems 256

5 Analysis and Design of Heat Exchangers 259

5.1 Heat-exchanger Types and Classifications 259
5.1.1 Double-Pipe Heat Exchanger 259
5.1.2 Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers 259
5.1.3 Cross Flow Heat Exchangers 261
5.1.4 Compact Heat Exchangers 262
5.2 Heat-exchanger Codes and Standards 262
5.2.1 TEMA Standard 263
5.2.2 API Standard 600 (2015) 263
5.2.3 ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (BVPC) (2017) 263
5.2.4 Heat Exchanger Institute (HEI) Standard 266
5.2.5 API-662 Standard for Plate-heat Exchangers 266
5.2.6 HEI 3092 Standard for Gasketed Plate-heat Exchangers 266
5.2.7 ASME B31.1 for Power Piping 266
5.3 Heat-exchanger Design Options 266
5.3.1 Categories of Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchanger 266
5.3.1.1 Fixed Tube Sheet 267
5.3.1.2 Return Bend or U-Tube 267
5.3.1.3 Floating Tube Sheet 268
5.3.2 Recommended Design Assumptions 268
5.3.2.1 Tube Geometrical Parameters 268
5.3.2.2 Shell Geometrical Parameters 269
5.3.2.3 Counter Flow Vs. Parallel Flow 269
5.3.2.4 Choice of a Fluid in Shell Side Vs. Tube Side 269
5.4 Heat-exchanger Design Analysis Methods 269
5.4.1 Log Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD) 269
5.4.1.1 Parallel-Flow Arrangement 270
5.4.1.2 Counter Flow 271
5.4.1.3 Multi-Pass Shell-Tube and Cross Flow Heat Exchanger 274
5.4.2 Effectiveness – NTU Method 278
5.4.3 Overall Heat-transfer Coefficient in Heat Exchanger 283
 Contents xiii

5.4.4 Finned Surface 284

5.4.5 Fouling Factor 289
5.5 Shell-and-tube Heat Exchanger 292
5.5.1 Flow Geometry and Flow Parameters 292
5.5.1.1 Tube-Side Flow Geometry 292
5.5.1.2 Ratio of Tube-side Free Flow Area to Flow Area of the
Tubes 292
5.5.1.3 Net Surface Area for Heat Transfer 293
5.5.1.4 Shell-Side Flow Geometry 293
5.5.2 Types and Effects of Baffles 293
5.5.3 Tube Arrangements in Shell Side 293
5.5.4 Shell-Side Flow Area 294
5.5.5 Estimation of Heat-transfer Coefficients in a Shell and Tube 295
5.5.5.1 Tube Arrangements Inside Shell and Tube Heat
Exchanger 295
5.5.5.2 Tube-Side Convection Coefficient 296
5.5.5.3 Shell-Side Convection Correlation 297
5.5.6 Pressure Drops in Tube and Shell Sides 298
5.5.7 Additional Shell-Side Consideration 302
5.5.7.1 Corrected Shell-Side Convection Heat-transfer
Coefficient 302
5.5.7.2 Corrected Shell-Side Pressure Drop 303
5.5.8 Temperature-Dependent Fluid Properties and Corrections 303
5.5.9 Classification of Heat-exchanger Design Problems Types 304
5.5.10 Heat-exchanger Design Analysis: Methodology and Algorithms 304
5.5.10.1 Design Type-1: Design Methodology 304
5.5.10.2 Heat-exchanger Design Problem Type-IIa 316
5.5.10.3 Heat-exchanger Design Problem Type-IIb 320
5.5.10.4 Shah’s Method for Enhanced Convergence in Type-II Design
Problems 339
5.5.11 Design Procedure for Type-II Heat Exchanger Based on Shah’s
Method 339
5.6 Compact Heat Exchangers 343
5.6.1 Algorithm for Compact heat-exchanger Design and Analysis 347
5.7 Heat-exchanger Network (HEN) Analysis 349
5.7.1 Basic Analysis Process for HEN 350
The PINCH Design Method for Heat-exchanger Networks 352
Bibliography 352
Problems 353

6 Analysis and Design of Solar Collector and Solar Thermal System 356
6.1 Solar Thermal Energy System 356
6.1.1 Classification of Solar System 356
6.1.1.1 Active System 356
6.1.1.2 Passive System 357
xiv Contents

6.1.2 Examples of Active Solar Thermal System 357

6.1.2.1 Solar Water-Heating System 357
6.1.2.2 Solar Space-Heating System 357
6.1.2.3 Solar-Cooling System 358
6.1.2.4 A Solar-Driven Irrigation Pump 359
6.1.2.5 Solar Rankine Cycle Power Generation 359
6.2 Types and Selection of Solar Collectors 360
6.2.1 Collector Operational Temperatures 360
6.2.2 Fixed vs. Tracking 361
6.2.3 Types of Collector Design: Flat Plate vs. Concentrating 361
6.2.4 Flat-Plate Solar Collector 361
6.2.5 Concentrating Collector 363
6.2.5.1 Classification Concentrating Collector 364
6.2.6 Compound Parabolic Concentrator (CPC) Collector 365
6.2.6.1 Truncated CPC Collector 367
6.3 Solar Radiation Characteristics and Estimation 369
6.3.1 Solar Radiation 369
6.3.2 Thermal Radiation 369
6.3.3 Solar Intensity Distribution 369
6.3.4 Extraterrestrial Radiation 370
6.3.5 Solar Constant (Gsc ) 370
6.3.6 Total Incident Radiation 371
6.3.7 Computation of Solar Time 372
6.3.8 Greenwich Civil Time (LCT) 372
6.3.9 Local Civil Time (LCT) 372
6.3.10 Local Standard Time 373
6.3.11 Local Solar Time (LST) 373
6.3.12 Basic Earth and Sun Angles 375
6.3.13 Solar and Wall Angles 375
6.3.13.1 Solar Angles 375
6.3.13.2 Wall Angles 378
6.3.13.3 ASHRAE Clear-Day Model for Estimation of Solar
Radiation Flux 378
6.3.13.4 Diffuse Radiation on Nonhorizontal Surface 379
6.3.13.5 Reflected Radiation (GR) 380
6.4 Optical Properties of Absorber Plate and Glazing Materials 381
6.4.1 Solar Radiation – Material Interaction 381
6.4.2 Optical Property of Absorber Plate 382
6.4.3 Selective Coating 382
6.4.4 Optical Properties of Glazing Materials 384
6.4.4.1 Absorption Coefficient 385
6.4.4.2 Reflectance Coefficient 386
6.4.5 Transmittance Through Glass Cover 386
6.4.6 Optical Properties for Absorbing Glazing Cover 387
6.4.7 Transmittance–Absorptance Product of Collector (τα) 390
 Contents xv

6.4.8 Absorbed Solar Radiation on a Collector Surface 391

6.4.9 Types and Selection of Glazing 392
6.4.10 Thermal Insulation 393
6.5 Solar Thermal Collector Analysis and Performance 393
6.5.1 Flat-Plate Collector 393
6.5.1.1 Solar Collector Heat Loss and Overall Heat Transfer 394
6.5.1.2 Temperature Distribution in Absorbing Plate 396
6.5.1.3 Collector Performance 397
′
6.5.1.4 Collector Efficiency Factor (F ) 398
6.5.1.5 Fluid Temperature Distribution in the Collector Tube 398
6.5.1.6 Collector Heat Removal Factor (F R ) 399
6.5.1.7 Three-Dimensional Analysis 400
6.5.2 Concentrating Collector 400
6.5.3 Collector Performance Characterization 404
6.5.3.1 Solar Collector Efficiency (𝜂 c ) 404
Bibliography 406
Problems 407

7 Rotary Components in Thermal Systems 409

7.1 Turbomachine Types 409
7.2 Basic Equations of Turbomachines 410
7.2.1 Conservation of Angular Momentum 410
7.2.2 The Euler Equation of Energy Transfer in Turbomachines 412
7.2.3 Velocity Diagrams 414
7.2.4 Slip Consideration 417
7.3 Impeller-Blade Design and Flow Channels 419
7.4 Centrifugal Pumps 420
7.4.1 Components of Centrifugal Pumps 421
7.4.1.1 Vane or Blade Types 423
7.4.1.2 Impeller Casing 424
7.4.1.3 Volute and Vane Diffuser Casing 424
7.4.2 Velocity Triangles and Basic Equations for Pump Performance 426
7.4.2.1 Volume Flow Rates 427
7.4.2.2 Pump Performance Output 427
7.4.2.3 Major Pump Parameters 430
7.4.2.4 Pump Head, hP 430
7.4.2.5 Pump Efficiency 430
7.4.2.6 Pump Performance Characteristics 431
7.4.3 Real Pump Performance 434
7.4.3.1 Effect of Slip Factor 436
7.4.3.2 Pump Performance Characteristics 437
7.4.4 Effect of Operating Impeller Speed 437
7.4.5 External Losses 439
7.4.5.1 Leakage Loss 439
xvi Contents

7.4.5.2 Disk Friction Loss 439

7.4.5.3 Mechanical Loss 439
7.5 Specific Speed and Pump Selections 440
7.5.1 Effect of Specific Speed on Pump Performance Characteristics 442
7.5.2 Affinity Laws for Centrifugal Pumps 443
7.6 Cavitation and Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) 445
7.6.1 Thoma Cavitation Parameter (𝜎) 449
7.6.2 Cavitation Resistance Coatings 451
7.7 Pumps in Series or in Parallel 451
7.7.1 Pumps Connected in Series 451
7.7.2 Pumps Connected in Parallel 452
7.8 Pump Standards and Codes 452
7.8.1 ASME Centrifugal Pumps Standards – PTC 8.2 452
7.8.2 ANSI PUMPS – ASME B73.1 Standards for Chemical/Industrial
Process Pumps 453
7.8.3 ANSI/HI: Hydraulic Institute Standards for Pumps and Pumping
Systems 453
Bibliography 453
Problems 454

8 Analysis and Design of Fluid-Flow Systems 456

8.1 Basic Equations of Fluid Flow 456
8.1.1 Conservation of Mass 456
8.1.2 Conservation of Energy 457
8.1.3 Basic Energy Equation for Analyzing Pipe Flow 457
8.1.4 Frictional Head Loss for Flow in Pipes: Major Loss 460
8.1.4.1 Friction Factor: Fully Developed Laminar Flow in Circular
Pipe 462
8.1.4.2 Frictional Pressure Drops for Turbulent Flow 464
8.1.4.3 Minor Losses in Valves and Fittings 467
8.1.4.4 Minor Loss Coefficient Values 469
8.1.4.5 Gradual Expansion and Contraction 470
8.1.4.6 Valves and Fittings 470
8.1.4.7 Elbows and Bends 471
8.2 Piping Systems with Rotary Devices 473
8.3 Piping System Characteristics 477
8.4 Piping System Design Procedure 482
8.5 Piping Network Classifications 489
8.5.1 Pipes in Series 489
8.5.2 Pipes in Parallel 496
8.6 Piping System in Series–Parallel Network 502
8.6.1 Hardy Cross Method – Based on Darcy–Weisbach Friction Factor 505
8.6.2 Hazen Williams – Based Hardy Cross Method 510
8.6.2.1 Hazen Williams Expression and Coefficients 510
8.6.3 Hardy Cross Method Algorithm 512
8.6.4 Generalized Hardy Cross 522
 Contents xvii

8.6.4.1 Minor Losses 522

8.6.4.2 Devices 523
8.6.4.3 Pumps 523
8.6.4.4 Generalized Expression 523
Bibliography 524
Problems 525

9 Simulation of Thermal Systems 528

9.1 Basic Principles, Types, and Classes of Simulations 528
9.2 Simulation Procedure and Methodology 529
9.2.1 Information Flow Diagram 529
9.2.2 Development of the Information Flow Diagram 529
9.3 Solution Methods for System Simulation 535
9.4 Newton–Raphson Method for the Solution of Nonlinear Equations 536
9.5 Newton–Raphson Method for the Solution of a System of Equations 538
9.6 Newton–Raphson Solution Algorithm 540
9.7 Some Facts About the Newton–Raphson Method 552
9.8 Numerical Evaluations of Partial Derivatives in System Simulation 553
9.9 Different Solution Options for a Linear System of Equations 554
9.10 A Generalized Newton–Raphson Algorithm for System Simulation 555
Bibliography 556
Problems 556

10 Optimization of Thermal Components and Systems 562

10.1 Optimization Analysis Models 562
10.2 Formulation and Mathematical Representation of Optimization Problems in
Thermal Systems 563
10.2.1 Analysis and Design Variables 564
10.2.2 Objective Function 564
10.2.3 Design Constraints 565
10.2.3.1 Equality and Inequality Constraints 565
10.2.3.2 Linear and Nonlinear Constraints 566
10.2.3.3 Nonlinear Constraints 566
10.2.4 Implicit Constraints 566
10.2.5 Formulation of the Optimization Problem 567
10.2.6 General Mathematical Statement of Optimization Problems 569
10.2.7 Examples of Design Optimization Problems 570
10.3 Optimization Methods 573
10.3.1 Graphical Optimization Method 574
10.3.2 Optimization Method of Differential Calculus 575
10.3.2.1 Functions with Many Variables 578
10.3.3 Method of Lagrange Multiplier 579
10.4 A General Procedure for Lagrange Multiplier 581
10.4.1 Geometric Programming 585
10.4.1.1 Degree of Difficulty 585
xviii Contents

10.4.1.2 General Optimization Procedure by Geometric

Programming 585
10.4.1.3 Multivariable Geometric Programming 591
10.4.2 Procedure for Solving Multivariable Problem Using Geometric
Programing 592
10.4.2.1 Multivariable Geometric Programing with Constraints 593
Bibliography 595
Problems 595

Appendix A Parametric Representation of Thermal Parameters and Properties 599

A.1 Examples of Data for Parametric Representations 599
A.2 Basic Approaches for Equation Development 600
A.3 Parametric Representation Techniques 601
A.3.1 Polynomial Curve-Fitting 601
A.3.1.1 Polynomial Curve-Fitting – Single Variable 602
A.3.1.2 Polynomial Curve-Fitting – Two Variables or More
Variables 604
A.3.2 Least Square Regression Curve-Fitting 608
A.3.2.1 Accuracy of the Least Square Curve Fit 609
A.3.3 Curve-Fitted Correlational Function for Thermophysical
Properties 613
Bibliography 613
Problems 613

Appendix B Economic Analysis and Cost Estimation of Thermal Components and

Systems 614
B.1 Economic Analysis Procedure 614
B.1.1 Some Basic Concepts 614
B.1.1.1 Interest Rate and Its Effect on Investments 614
B.1.2 Some Common Methods of Economic Evaluation 616
B.1.2.1 Return on Investment (ROI) Method 617
B.1.2.2 Payback Method 617
B.1.3 Life Cycle Cost (LCC) Analysis 618
B.2 Cost Estimation of Thermal Components and Systems 621
B.2.1 Equipment Cost 621
Bibliography 625
Problems 625

Appendix C Thermodynamic and Thermophysical Properties 626

Bibliography 656

Appendix D Modified Bessel Function of the First and the Second Kinds 657

Appendix E Constants and Conversion Units 659

Index 663
 xix

Preface

This book is intended for undergraduate and first year graduate students in various fields
of engineering and science to introduce the design and analysis of thermal energy systems.
This book is also intended as a textbook for a required course in the core curriculum and
for the capstone design course in thermo-fluid science area of the mechanical engineering
degree program.
One of the essential requirements of mechanical engineering curriculum is to provide
strong coverage in the areas of thermal energy and fluid systems. Students are expected
to analyse and design of thermal systems such as conventional and renewable energy
systems, cooling systems and pump-piping systems, and thermo-fluid components such as
heat sinks, thermal interface materials, heat exchangers, condensers, solar collectors, wind
turbines, heat exchanger, piping systems and networks, and able to select and integrate
appropriate heat sinks, pumps, cooling tower, turbine, and compressors in thermal systems
for different applications.
This book can also be adapted as textbook for courses in various other fields of engi-
neering such as chemical engineering, nuclear engineering, and civil engineering. Students
in these programs are expected to have prerequisite knowledge of thermodynamics, fluid
mechanics and heat transfer. Students in other field of studies can also benefit from this
book since the book is comprehensive with the inclusion of the reviews of laws and prin-
ciples of thermodynamics, fluid mechanics and heat transfer. The book will continue to be
useful as a reference book for practicing engineers in the field of energy and power indus-
tries which experience demands for continuous increase in capacity of conventional power
generations as well as demands for developing renewable and alternative energy and power
generation systems.
The book contains essential topics in thermal energy systems and components such as
conventional power generation and cooling systems, renewable energy systems like solar
energy system, heat recovery systems, and thermal heat management. Examples are drawn
from solar energy systems, battery thermal heat management, electrical and electronics
cooling, engine exhaust heat and emissions and manufacturing processes. Contemporary
topics such as steady state simulation and optimization methods are also included. The
book includes number of worked out design problems to demonstrate iterative design
methodologies.
xx Preface

The book is written with a focus to satisfy following learning objectives:

● Apply thermal analysis techniques to generate design specification and ratings.

● Design thermal systems and components to meet engineering specifications.

● Apply design methodologies to design thermal systems and components.

● Apply iterative methodologies to design thermo-fluid systems and components.

● Develop ability to identify, formulate, and solve design problems.

● Understand the functions of various components and systems requiring thermal-fluid

principles.
● Decompose a problem into interdependent sub-problems as appropriate.

● Formulate mathematical problems from the physical/engineering description, and

choose physically meaningful boundary conditions and constraints.

● Evaluate economics and costs of thermal energy systems and components.

● Familiarize with various engineering standards and codes for thermal energy system and

components.
The book evolved from several years of my teaching a course on Design of Thermal Sys-
tems. I believe that the content of the book with comprehensive subject matters will help
students build a stronger grip on the subject of design and analysis of thermal and fluid
systems. I welcome suggestions from interested readers of the book.
I would like to thank my students for theirs comments, feedbacks, and suggestions over
many years. They were the continuous source of my motivation to continue and complete
the book.
I thank all reviewers for their constructive comments. I would like to express my sincere
appreciation to all editors, managers, designers, and editorial staff members at Wiley for
their efforts, supports, understanding and patience during the production of this book.
Special thanks to my children Diya and Ishan for helping me select the cover page of
the book.
I would like to express my deep appreciation to my wife: Srabani and my children: Diya
and Ishan for their continuous support, understanding and patience during preparation
of the manuscript.

Pradip Majumdar
 xxi

About the Author

PRADIP MAJUMDAR earned his M.S. and Ph.D. in mechanical engineering from Illinois
Institute of Technology. He was a professor and the chair in the Department of Mechani-
cal Engineering at Northern Illinois University. He is an adjunct faculty in Department
Mechanical, Materials and Aerospace Engineering at Illinois Institute of Technology. He is
recipient of the 2008 Faculty of the Year Award for Excellence in Undergraduate Education.
Dr. Majumdar has been the lead investigator for numerous federal and industrial projects.
Dr. Majumdar authored numerous papers on fluid dynamics, heat and mass transfer, energy
systems, fuel cell, Li-ion battery storage, electronics cooling and electrical devices, engine
combustion, nano-structured materials, advanced manufacturing, and transport phenom-
ena in biological systems. Dr. Majumdar is the author of three books including Computa-
tional Methods for Heat and Mass Transfer; Fuel Cells- Principles, Design and Analysis; and
Computational Fluid Dynamics and Heat Transfer (In Press). Dr. Majumdar is currently
serving as an editor of the International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer. He has
previously served as the Associate Editor of ASME Journal of Thermal Science and Engineer-
ing. Dr. Majumdar has been making keynote and plenary presentations on Li-ion Battery
storage, fuel cell, electronics cooling, nanostructure materials at national and international
conferences and workshops. Dr. Majumdar has participated as an international expert in
GIAN lecture series on fuel cell and Li-ion battery storage. Dr. Majumdar is a fellow of the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME).
 xxiii

About the Companion Website

This book is accompanied by a companion website:

https://www.wiley.com/go/majumdar

The website includes:

● Presentation Slides
● Solutions Manual
 1

Introduction

Mechanical engineering design involves both mechanical and thermal designs. Mechani-
cal design deals with mechanical strength and structural properties of materials; motion
and dynamics; geometrical dimensions and tolerances. Mechanical design requires knowl-
edge of engineering mechanics, materials and strength of materials, vibration, and machine
design. Thermal design deals with the thermal aspects of the components, processes, and
systems, and requires knowledge of thermal science subjects such as thermodynamics, heat
transfer, and fluid mechanics. A design of a product may require thermal design analysis
first followed by mechanical design and are often interrelated. A product design may not
only require mechanical concepts design but may also require knowledge of thermal sci-
ence concepts and thermal design analysis techniques. Often, the product design requires
additional subject areas such as electrical engineering and biomedical engineering, and
multiphysics analysis.

1.1 Thermal Engineering Design

A thermal engineering design process involves the applications of concepts from fundamen-
tal engineering science topics such as thermodynamics, heat transfer, and fluid dynamics,
following some specified well-defined steps and in an iterative process. A successful design
process may involve several steps as shown in Figure 1.1 and is described below:
1. Conception: Requires some intuition about the final end-product using one’s creative
sense.
2. Synthesis: Some vision of the way the end results might be achieved. Consideration of
multiple options and multiple pathways is given before developing the design.
3. Analysis: Ways to realize the design by following well-defined methodologies like
thermal analysis, computer simulation analysis, economic analysis, and cost estimation.
Such knowledge bases can be learned. The analysis step leads to defining the ratings and
specifications of the product.

Design of Thermal Energy Systems, First Edition. Pradip Majumdar.

© 2021 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2021 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Companion website: www.wiley.com/go/majumdar
2 1 Introduction

Figure 1.1 Design process.

Conception

Synthesis

Analysis

Evaluation

Communication

4. Evaluation: This is the way to prove the functioning of a successful design. This involves
testing of a prototype requiring iterations. Use of sophisticated simulation methods and
design tools may reduce number prototypes to be made, hence reduce cost in the design,
development, and production.
5. Communication: Present the design to others in the form of technical reports and oral
presentations.

1.2 Elements of Design Analysis of Thermal Systems

Various elements and steps generally used in the design analysis of thermal systems are
demonstrated in Figure 1.2. Column one in the figure shows that a design process starts
with a conceptual design along with some potential options and alternatives. This is
followed by the selection of type of components, selection of ranges for some key variables
and parameters, and setting any constraints. Thermodynamic analysis is carried out to
establish the initial specification and ratings of the major components.
The component-level analysis and design are next carried out to develop the detail specifi-
cation of each component in the system. Cost estimation followed by an economic analysis
are essential to check the feasibility of the design. Iterative refinement can be carried out
by changing the set variables and parameters. A system simulation is required to determine
the expected operating conditions and performance at offload or part-load conditions and
is generally used in the design stage to provide an improved design. Optimization step is
often carried out to ensure the feasibility of the concept based on either the performance or
the cost or both.
 1.2 Elements of Design Analysis of Thermal Systems 3

B
Design concept

System flow network

System options and diagram
alternatives

Set initial guesses

Components selection

Set constraints and set System simulation

some parameters
Thermodynamic Analysis
and get initial specifications
Component design and
update specification
Final flow and operating
parameters
Use constrains and set
Parametric objective function
representation

Equation solver Optimization and

Cost estimation optimum design
Economic analysis
Data base
• Properties Final specification of the
B • Cost prototype

Figure 1.2 Flowchart showing detail elements of thermal design process.

1.2.1 Some Special Aspects of Thermal Design

A thermal system may be very large and have a single application. For example: A util-
ity large thermal power plant that produces 1000 MW of electric power. It could also be
some systems that are produced in large numbers. For example, refrigeration units, air-
conditioning unit, fuel cells, solar water-heating system, or smaller solar thermal power
generation units in the ranges of 1–10 kW. Thermal systems generally involve a large num-
ber of components in one design, and often these components can be categorized such as
heat exchangers, condensers, boilers, cooling towers heat sinks, pumps, fans, etc. Another
important aspect of the thermal system design process is that many parameters must often
be set, either arbitrarily or in relation to other aspects of the design. The values of the param-
eters will, however, affect both capital and operating cost, including the energy cost, and
hence will require iterative refinements of the parameter values assumed.

1.2.2 Design Types

Designs can be categorized into different types: nonfunctional, functional, satisfactory, and
optimum.

Nonfunctional: The device does not function. For example, the cooling device is designed,
but produces no cooling effect, and even produces undesirable effects such as irreversible
heating.
Functional: The device performs in the expected manner as it is designed to do so. For
example, a designed cooling device is capable of cooling a water stream.
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