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YEAR 12 Philip Young

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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 22 21 20 19 18
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .viii
AUTHOR AND REVIEWER TEAMS. . . . . . . . . . ix
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
USING PHYSICS IN FOCUS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x
OUTCOME GRID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xiii
1 Working scientifically and depth studies 1

1.1 Physics knowledge and understanding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Solving scientific problems: depth studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3 Planning your depth study. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4 Implementation and collecting data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.5 Analysing and interpreting your results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.6 Communicating your understanding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
MODULE FIVE » ADVANCED MECHANICS 30
2 Projectile motion 31
2.1 Projectile motion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.2 The trajectory of a projectile. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.3 Investigating projectile motion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.4 Modelling projectile motion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Chapter summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Chapter review questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3 Circular motion 55
3.1 Uniform circular motion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.2 Applications of the uniform circular motion model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.3 Energy and work in uniform circular motion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3.4 Rotation and torque. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Chapter summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Chapter review questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4 Motion in gravitational fields 79

4.1 The gravitational force and the gravitational field. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.2 The orbits of planets and satellites. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.3 Kepler’s laws. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.4 Energy in gravitational fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Chapter summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Chapter review questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Module 5 review questions 102
9780170409131 iii
MODULE SIX » ELECTROMAGNETISM 104
Charged particles, conductors and electric and magnetic fields 105 5

5.1 Charged particles in uniform electric fields. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
5.2 The trajectory of a charged particle in a uniform electric field. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
5.3 Charged particles in uniform magnetic fields. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
5.4 The gravitational, electric and magnetic fields. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Chapter summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
The motor effect 131 6

6.1 Current-carrying wires in magnetic fields. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
6.2 Forces on parallel current-carrying wires. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Chapter summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Electromagnetic induction 149 7

7.1 Magnetic flux. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
7.2 Electromagnetic induction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
7.3 Transformers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Chapter summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Applications of the motor effect 173 8

8.1 DC motors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
8.2 Generators and AC induction motors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
8.3 Lenz’s Law and conservation of energy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Chapter summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
iv CONTENTS 9780170409131
MODULE SEVEN » THE NATURE OF LIGHT 201
9 Electromagnetic spectrum 202

9.1 Maxwell’s contributions to the theory of electromagnetism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .203
9.2 The production and propagation of electromagnetic waves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
9.3 Determining the speed of light. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
9.4 The electromagnetic spectrum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
9.5 Astronomical applications of spectroscopy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Chapter summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
10 Light: wave model 226

10.1 Competing models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
10.2 Diffraction patterns and interference. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
10.3 Polarisation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Chapter summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
11 Light: quantum model 250

11.1 Black body radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
11.2 Investigating the photoelectric effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
11.3 Analysing the photoelectric effect. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Chapter summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
12 Light and special relativity 272

12.1 Frames of reference and relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
12.2 The aether and problems with classical relativity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
12.3 Einstein’s Theory of Special Relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
12.4 Experimental evidence for relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
12.5 Relativistic mass and momentum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
12.6 Einstein’s mass–energy equivalence relationship: E = mc2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Chapter summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
9780170409131 CONTENTS v
MODULE EIGHT » FROM THE UNIVERSE TO THE ATOM 308
Origins of the elements 309 13

13.1 Radiation transforms into matter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
13.2 The expanding Universe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
13.3 The production of spectra. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
13.4 Features of stellar spectra – classifying stars. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
13.5 The Hertzsprung–Russell diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
13.6 Einstein’s equivalence of mass and energy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .332
13.7 Nucleosynthesis in stars. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Chapter summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
Structure of the atom 340 14

14.1 The electron. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
14.2 Thomson’s charge-to-mass ratio experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
14.3 Millikan’s oil drop experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
14.4 The nucleus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
14.5 Chadwick’s discovery of neutrons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
Chapter summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Quantum mechanical nature of the atom 357 15

15.1 Bohr’s atomic model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
15.2 Spectra. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
15.3 Energy, frequency, wavelength and the hydrogen spectrum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
15.4 de Broglie’s matter waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
15.5 Modern quantum mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
Chapter summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
Properties of the nucleus 383 16

16.1 Spontaneous decay of unstable nuclei. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
16.2 Properties of alpha, beta and gamma radiation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
16.3 Decay and half-life. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
16.4 Energy from the nucleus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
16.5 Nuclear fusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
Chapter summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
vi CONTENTS 9780170409131
17 Deep inside the atom 412
17.1 Are protons and neutrons fundamental particles?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
17.2 Further evidence for fundamental particles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
17.3 The Standard Model of matter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
Chapter summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
NUMERICAL ANSWERS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
GLOSSARY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
INDEX. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
9780170409131 CONTENTS vii

INTRODUCTION
Physics in Focus Year 12 (2nd edition) has been written to meet standard. The intention is to ensure all students achieve
the requirements of the NESA NSW Physics Stage 6 Syllabus the level of depth and interest necessary to pursue tertiary
(updated January 2018). The text has been written to enable studies in physics, engineering, technology and other STEM-
students to meet the requirements of achieving a Band 6 in the related courses. Physics taken for the Higher School Certificate
Higher School Certificate. It also allows all students to maximise provides opportunities for students to arrive at a deeper
their learning and results. understanding of their world, whether they are intending to
Physics deals with the wonderfully interesting and pursue STEM-related careers or take a different pathway.
sometimes strange Universe. Physicists investigate space Each chapter of the Physics in Focus text follows a consistent
and time (and space–time), from the incredibly small to the pattern. Learning outcomes from the syllabus appear on
incredibly large, from the nucleus of atoms to the origin of the the opening page. The text is then broken into manageable
Universe. They look at important, challenging and fun puzzles sections under headings and sub-headings. Question sets are
and try to work out solutions. found at the end of each section within the chapter. Relevant
Physicists deal with the physical world where energy diagrams that are easy to interpret and illustrate important
is transferred and transformed, where things move, where concepts support the text. New terms are bolded and defined
electricity and magnetism affect each other, where light and in a glossary at the end of the book. Important concepts are
matter interact. As a result, physics has been responsible summarised to assist students to take notes.
for about 95% of the world’s wealth – including electricity Worked examples, written to connect important ideas and
supply and distribution, heating and cooling systems, solution strategies, are included throughout the text. Solutions
computers, diagnostic and therapeutic health machines, are written in full, including algebraic transformations with
telecommunications and safe road transport. substitution of values with units and significant figures. In
Physicists are not just concerned with observing the order to consolidate learning, students are challenged to try
Universe. They explain these observations, using models, laws similar questions on their own.
and theories. Models are central to physics. Physicists use There is a comprehensive set of review questions at the
models to describe, explain, relate and predict phenomena. end of each chapter which expands on the questions sets
Models can be expressed in a range of ways – via words, for further revision and practice. Questions have been set to
images, mathematics (numerical, algebraic, geometric, accommodate the abilities of all students. Complete worked
graphical), or physical constructions. Models help physicists to answers appear on the teacher website.
frame physical laws and theories, and these laws and theories Investigations demonstrate the high level of importance
are also models of the world. Models are not static – the authors attach to understanding-by-doing physics. These
as scientific understanding of concepts or physical data or activities introduce, reinforce and enable students to practise
phenomena evolves, so too do the models scientists use first-hand investigation skills, especially experimental design, data
to describe, explain, relate and predict these. Thus, the text collection, analysis and conclusions. Chapter 1 explores in detail
emphasises the observations and quantitative data from the concepts of reliability, validity and the nature of scientific
which physicists develop the models they use to explain investigation using the scientific method, and provides valuable
the data. Central to this is the rigorous use of mathematical information for performing and analysing investigations. This
representations as a key element of physics explanations. is designed to enhance students’ experiences and to provide
Physics in Focus Year 12 (2nd edition) is written by academic them with information that will maximise their marks in this
and classroom teaching experts. They were chosen for their fundamental area, and is reinforced throughout the course.
comprehensive knowledge of the physics discipline and Système Internationale d’Unités (SI) units and conventions,
best teaching practice in physics education at secondary including accuracy, precision, uncertainty and error, are also
and tertiary levels. They have written the text to make it introduced in the first chapter. This invaluable chapter supports
accessible, readable and appealing to students. They have student learning through questions and investigations.
included numerous current contexts to ensure students gain Physics in Focus Year 12 (2nd edition) provides students with a
a wide perspective on the breadth and depth of physics. This comprehensive study of modern physics that will fully prepare
mathematically rigorous and methodological approach is them for exams and any future studies in the area.
designed to ensure students can reach the highest possible Robert Farr (lead author)
viii 9780170409131
AUTHOR AND REVIEWER TEAMS
Author team papers, including more than 20 in physics education research,
and is an author of the first-year university text Physics by
Rob Farr has taught Science for over 30 years, 20 of those as
Serway, Jewett, Wilson and Wilson. Kate also runs a primary
Head of Department. He has extensive experience as an HSC
school science enrichment program.
marker in Physics and Chemistry, and is a past Supervisor of
Philip Young is a former director of the National Space
Marking. Rob has co-authored the very successful Physics in
Society in Washington DC, and former President of the National
Focus series and is a contributing author to the iScience for NSW
Space Society of Australia. He was Coordinator for the Australian
series and the Nelson Physics for the Australian Curriculum books.
Space Network run by the Australian Centre for Astrobiology,
He writes trial HSC examinations for Physics, used in over 120
a NASA-affiliated organisation hosted at Macquarie University.
schools across NSW, and leads workshops for the Broken Bay
For the last decade he has been teaching high school Science,
Diocese Science teachers to help improve their HSC results.
specialising in Physics, and writing textbook materials at
Rob maintains his passion for Science teaching through active
both senior and junior levels for the Australian Curriculum
engagement with bodies such as the CSIRO and the STANSW,
in several states. He holds a Bachelor of Science (Physics and
as well as sitting on the experienced teacher accreditation
Mathematics) from the University of Sydney.
assessment panel for the NSW Association of Independent
Dr Darren Goossens has a PhD in Physics from Monash
Schools (AIS). He is a NESA Board Curriculum Committee (BCC)
University and a GradCert in Professional Writing (Editing)
member for the Stage 6 Science syllabuses, representing the
from the University of Canberra. He is currently a science
NSW AIS.
writer, editor and educator with Biotext in Canberra. Darren
Dr Kate Wilson is a senior lecturer and Scientia Education
has worked as a research scientist at the Australian Nuclear
Fellow at UNSW Canberra (ADFA) in the School of Engineering
Science and Technology Organisation, and as an educator
and IT. She has a PhD in physics from Monash University and
and researcher at the University of New South Wales and
a GradDipEd (Secondary Teaching) from the University of
the Australian National University, where he won several
Canberra. Kate has been first year coordinator in physics at the
awards for his teaching. He has published over 100 research
ANU and Director of the Australian Science Olympiads Physics
papers, including work in education research. In 2012 he
Program. She is a past member of the Sydney University
won the inaugural Sandy Mathieson Medal of the Society
Physics Education Research Group and has held an Innovative
of Crystallographers in Australia and New Zealand for
Teaching and Educational Technology Fellowship at UNSW
distinguished contributions to crystallography.
(Kensington). Kate has published more than 30 research
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Author acknowledgements Darren Goossens would like to thank his co-authors,
particularly Dr Kate Wilson, for their guidance and advice.
Rob Farr would like to thank his wife Elisa and children Josh
and Lauren for the use of their kitchen table, study and other Publisher acknowledgements
rooms in the house during the writing of this book. Without
Eleanor Gregory sincerely thanks Rob, Kate, Philip and Darren
their calming support it would not be possible to produce a
for their perseverance and dedication in writing this manuscript.
work such as this.
Thanks also to Dr Xiao L. Wu for co-writing the first edition of
Kate Wilson would like to thank David Low for valuable
Physics in Focus and for allowing use of some of his material in
suggestions and feedback, and her students who have very
this edition. She also thanks Neil Champion, Bill Matchett and
patiently been guinea pigs for her teaching experiments.
Megan Mundy for reviewing the manuscript to ensure that it
Philip Young would like to thank his wife Jennie and
was of the best quality.
children Sophie and Mark for their forbearance at his
Also thanks to Bill Matchett, Neil Champion, Gillian
distractedness.
Dewar and Philip Young for authoring NelsonNet material.
9780170409131 ix
USING PHYSICS IN FOCUS
Physics in Focus has been purposely crafted to enable you, the student, to achieve maximum understanding and success in
this subject. The text has been authored and reviewed by experienced Physics educators, academics and researchers to ensure
up-to-date scientific accuracy for users. Each page has been carefully considered to provide you with all the information you
need without appearing cluttered or overwhelming. You will find it easy to navigate through each chapter and see connections
between chapters through the use of margin notes. Practical investigations have been integrated within the text so you can see
the importance of the interconnectedness between the conceptual and practical aspects of Physics.
2 Projectile motion
» MODULE FIVE
INQUIRY
OUTCOMES
Students:
QUESTION
• analyse the motion of projectiles by resolving the motion into horizontal and vertical components, making
ADVANCED
How can models that the following assumptions:
are used to explain – a constant vertical acceleration due to gravity
projectile motion be used – zero air resistance
to analyse and make
MECHANICS
• apply the modelling of projectile motion to quantitatively derive the relationship between the following
predictions? variables:
– initial velocity
– launch angle
– maximum height
– time of flight
– final velocity
2 Projectile motion – launch height
– horizontal range of the projectile (ACSPH099)
• conduct a practical investigation to collect primary data in order to validate the relationships derived above
3 Circular motion • solve problems, create models and make quantitative predictions by applying the equations of motion
relationships for uniformly accelerated and constant rectilinear motion ICT, N
Physics Stage 6 Syllabus © 2017 NSW Education Standards Authority (NESA) for
4
and on behalf of the Crown in right of the State of New South Wales.
Motion in gravitational fields
Getty Images/Abeleao
Shutterstock.com/Rawpixel.com
30 9780170409131 9780170409131 31
The content is organised under four modules as set out in Learning across the curriculum content has been
the NESA Stage 6 Physics syllabus. Each module begins with a identified by NESA as important learning for all students. This
Module opener. content provides you with
Each chapter begins with a Chapter opener. This the opportunity to develop Critical and
creative thinking
presents the learning outcomes from the NESA Stage 6 general capabilities beyond
Physics syllabus that will be covered in the chapter and also the Physics course, as well as
gives you the opportunity to monitor your own progress links into areas that are important to Australia and beyond.
and learning. This content has been identified by a margin icon.
To assist comprehension, a number of strategies have Mathematical relationships are presented in context.
been applied to the preparation of our text to improve Step-by-stepIfinstructions
we separate the positionon howandto
into vertical perform
horizontal components mathematical
we have:
1
literacy and understanding. One of these is the use of shorter calculations are shown in the Worked examples. The logic
2
x=x +u t+ a t =x +u t 0 x x 0 x
2
and
sentences and paragraphs. This is coupled with clear and behind each step is explained y = y and
+ u t + you
1
2
a t = y can
+ u t + practise
1
2
gt these 0 y y
2
0 y
2
Often we take the starting position of a projectile to be the origin, so that x = 0 and y = 0, which
concise
DISCUSSION explanations and real-world examples. New terms steps by attempting the
simplifies the equations to: related problems presented at the 0 0
x=u t
arevalue
bolded as they are introduced and are consolidated in an
1 Did the expected value of the initial velocity, based on the height of the ramp, agree with the calculated
from the range? Don’t forget to consider the uncertainty in the value.
end of the worked
and
example. x
1 2
end-of-book
2 If the values for the glossary.
initial velocity did not agree, which of your assumptions do you think was not a valid
approximation? Can you think of any way of testing which assumptions were valid?
y = uyt +
2
gt
Throughout
3 State the was
whether your hypothesis text, important
supported or not. ideas, concepts and WORKED EXAMPLE 2.3
theories
CONCLUSION
are summarised in Concept
Write a conclusion summarising the outcomes of your investigation.
boxes. This provides For the shell fired from the Bofors gun described in the previous two worked examples, at what time and
repetition and summary for improved assimilation of new ideas. height does it have a zero vertical velocity?
ANSWER LOGIC
ux = 762 m s−1, uy = 440 m s−1 • Identify the relevant data; refer to previous worked example.
vy = 0 • State the velocity a the time we need to calculate.
vy = uy + gt • Write the expression for the vertical component of v .
KEY CONCEPTS
● The trajectory of a particle is a parabolic arc.

v y − uy • Rearrange for time.
● The highest point of the arc is the maximum height. The maximum height can be found from
t=
uy2 g
h = y0 − , where y0 is the launch height and uy = u sin θ.
2g • Substitute values with correct units.
The time of flight of a projectile is the time between launch and landing, and is given by 0 − 440 m s−1
● t=
2uy −9.8 m s−2
t flight = − when the launch and landing heights are the same. When the launch and landing
g t = 44.9 s • Calculate the final value.
heights are different, the motion can be broken into two stages, the ascent and the descent, to 1 2 • Write the expression for the vertical position at this time.
find the total flight time. y = uyt + gt
2
● The final velocity of a projectile that lands at the same height from which it was launched has 1 • Substitute values with correct units.
the same magnitude as the initial velocity. The angle of the final velocity is as far below the y = (440 m s−1)(44.9 s) + (−9.8 m s−1)(44.9 s)2
x horizontal as the initial velocity was above the horizontal.
y = 9877 m
2
• Calculate the final value.
9780170409131
● The horizontal range of a projectile is given by xmax = uxtflight.
t = 45 s, y = 9900 m • State the final answer with correct units and appropriate
significant figures.
Physics is a science, and you need to be given the Full understanding You may want to
opportunity to explore and discover the physical world of a concept is review chapter 4
of Physics in Focus
through practical investigations. Investigations introduce often constructed Year 11 to remind
and reinforce the Working scientifically skills listed in the NESA from many pieces yourself how to work
with vectors.
Stage 6 Physics syllabus. In some cases, the investigations of information. Due
are open-ended. These provide you with the opportunity to the sequential DISCUSSION
1 Did the expected value of the initial velocity, based on the height of the ramp, agree with the calculated
value from the range? Don’t forget to consider the uncertainty in the value.
to design and carry out your own scientific investigation, nature of a book, this
2 If the values for theinformation cannot
initial velocity did not agree, which always
of your assumptions bewaspresented
do you think not a valid
approximation? Can you think of any way of testing which assumptions were valid?
either individually or in a group. At times you are prompted together as it is best placed in other chapters. Links between
3 State whether your hypothesis was supported or not.
CONCLUSION
to consider ideas for improvement to illustrate that science concepts thatWriteoccur on other
a conclusion summarising pages
the outcomes and chapters are
of your investigation.
is constantly undergoing review and improvement. At other indicated using the Margin notes.
times investigations are secondary-sourced, meaning that Regular opportunities to recall new terms and
KEY CONCEPTS
● The trajectory of a particle is a parabolic arc.
● The highest point of the arc is the maximum height. The maximum height can be found from
review recent concepts are provided as short Check

uy2
you need to research the subject using data and information ●
h = y0 −
2g
, where y0 is the launch height and uy = u sin θ.
The time of flight of a projectile is the time between launch and landing, and is given by
gained by other people. Further information on how to your understanding question sets throughout each
2uy
t flight = − when the launch and landing heights are the same. When the launch and landing
g
heights are different, the motion can be broken into two stages, the ascent and the descent, to
conduct a scientific investigation can be found in the chapter.

find the total flight time.
● The final velocity of a projectile that lands at the same height from which it was launched has
the same magnitude as the initial velocity. The angle of the final velocity is as far below the
Working scientifically and depth study chapter on page 1.

horizontal as the initial velocity was above the horizontal.
● The horizontal range of a projectile is given by xmax = uxtflight.
CHECK YOUR
UNDERSTANDING 1 Sketch separate speed versus time graphs for the horizontal and vertical motions of a projectile that is
launched directly upwards and lands below the launch position.
2.2 2 Draw the trajectory of a projectile which is launched at an angle θ above the horizontal with an initial
velocity u. On your sketch, draw vectors to represent the horizontal, vertical and total velocity:
INVESTIGATION 2.3 a immediately after the projectile is launched.
b at the highest point of its trajectory.
c just before it hits the ground.
Computer simulation of the trajectory of a projectile Critical and
creative thinking
3 Find the range of a cannon ball that is launched with a velocity of 300 m s−1 at an angle of 35° above the
AIM horizontal and lands at the same height as the launch site.
To use spreadsheet software to model the trajectory of a projectile
Numeracy 4 Figure 2.7 shows the trajectory of a projectile when launched at different angles. Using any one of the
Write a hypothesis or an inquiry question for this investigation.
Information and
trajectories shown, calculate the initial speed of the projectile.
MATERIALS communication
technology
5 Find the time of flight for each of the projectiles shown in Figure 2.7. Sketch a graph of time of flight vs
• Computer with spreadsheet software capability launch angle.
METHOD 6 A rock is thrown from a 55 m high cliff at an angle of 20° below the horizontal at an initial speed of 35 m s−1.
Open a new file in your spreadsheet software and put a descriptive heading at the top of the sheet, then save Find:
it with a suitable filename. Remember to save your file frequently. It is also a good idea to save multiple pages in a the time of flight.
your file for different variations of your simulation so you can return to earlier versions.
b the range.
1 Set up the initial conditions for the projectile. These are the initial velocity, launch angle and acceleration
due to gravity. Figure 2.11 shows how this can be done using Excel spreadsheet software. Cells are labelled c the final velocity of the rock.
above the value. Because Excel uses angles in radians when calculating sine and cosine, the launch
angle, θ, is entered in degrees in cell B4 and then converted to radians in cell C4 using the command
=RADIANS(B4).
The components of the initial velocity are then calculated below. Cell A6 contains the command
=25*COS(C4) for the horizontal component. Cell B6 contains the command =25*SIN(C4) for the
horizontal component.
The end-of-chapter review provides:

44 MODULE FIVE » ADVANCED MECHANICS 9780170409131
•• a Summary of the important concepts that have been

covered in the chapter. This will be a valuable tool when
you are revising for tests and exams.
2 CHAPTER SUMMARY
FIGURE 2.11 Set up the initial conditions in your spreadsheet.
◗ A projectile is an object that has been launched or thrown, ◗ The time of flight of a projectile is the time between launch
2 Implement the equations of motion to calculate the velocity as a function of time. Label three columns for and does not propel itself once it is lauched. 2uy
and landing, and is given by tflight = − when the launch
time, vx and vy. Enter the initial time, 0, in the cell immediately under the time label. Below this cell enter g
◗ Our model of projectile motion assumes that the projectile
a command to increase the time. In Figure 2.12 this command is =A10+0.05, but you can add any time and landing heights are the same. When the launch and
is subject only to the force of gravity. It ignores air resistance
increment you want to make the time steps bigger or smaller. Copy this command into as many cells landing heights are different, the motion can be broken
and assumes that the projectile remains close to Earth’s
below as you want (use shift and page down to highlight many cells at once). into two stages – the ascent and the descent – to find the
surface so that g is constant.
total flight time.
◗ The trajectory (path) of a projectile is determined only by
◗ The horizontal range of a projectile is given by xmax = uxtflight.
the initial (launch) velocity, and the force of gravity.
9780170409131 CHAPTER 2 » PROJECTILE MOTION 49 ◗ Projectile motion can be investigated using a simple
◗ The initial velocity, u, has components ux = u cos θ and
projectile launcher and a suitable projectile.
uy = u sin θ.
◗ Projectile motion can be modelled mathematically using
◗ The horizontal and vertical components of a projectile’s
the kinematics equations for constant velocity rectilinear
position, velocity and acceleration are determined by the
The Risk assessment table occurs

motion and constant acceleration rectilinear motion.
kinematics equations and are given in Table 2.1.
! ◗ The trajectory of a particle is a parabolic arc.

◗ Projectile motion can also be modelled graphically using
diagrams, and numerically using computer simulations.
within the investigations. The table highlights RISK

◗ The highest point of the arc is the maximum height. The
u2
maximum height can be found from h = y0 − y , where y0
2g
the risks of the investigation and provides ASSESSMENT is the launch height, uy = u sin θ, and g = −9.8 m s−1.
suggestions on how to minimise these risks –

2 CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONS Qz
they are not to be considered comprehensive. Teachers are Review quiz
expected to amend this table in the case of substitutions or in 1 List the kinematic equations associated with projectile
motion. Define all variables.
2 What is the horizontal acceleration of a projectile?
the case of any additional risks. This may mean obtaining and 3 What general expression can be used to find the
horizontal component, ux, of a projectile’s initial velocity?
A B
C
4 A shell is fired with initial velocity components
following Safety Data Sheets (SDS) for certain chemicals. All ux = 550 m s−1 and uy = 650 m s−1. Calculate the initial
velocity and launch angle.
D
5 A cricket ball is bowled with an initial velocity of

teachers are required to follow the safety guidelines of their 120 km h−1 at an angle of 10° below the horizontal.
Calculate the horizontal and vertical components of its FIGURE 2.14 Four different trajectories. Rank the time of flight for
initial velocity. the trajectories from shortest to longest.
specific school and associated government legislation when 6 Four different projectile trajectories are shown in
Figure 2.14. Rank these trajectories from shortest to
longest time of flight. Justify your answer.
students are in their care.
xi
9780170409131 CHAPTER 2 » PROJECTILE MOTION 53
9780170409131 USING PHYSICS IN FOCUS
◗ A projectile is an object that has been launched or thrown, ◗ The time of flight of a projectile is the time between launch
and does not propel itself once it is lauched. 2uy
and landing, and is given by tflight = − when the launch
g
◗ Our model of projectile motion assumes that the projectile
and landing heights are the same. When the launch and
is subject only to the force of gravity. It ignores air resistance
landing heights are different, the motion can be broken
and assumes that the projectile remains close to Earth’s
into two stages – the ascent and the descent – to find the
surface so that g is constant.
total flight time.
◗ The trajectory (path) of a projectile is determined only by
◗ The horizontal range of a projectile is given by xmax = uxtflight.
the initial (launch) velocity, and the force of gravity.
◗ Projectile motion can be investigated using a simple
The initial velocity, u, has components ux = u cos θ and
•• Chapter review questions that review understanding

◗
The Depth study provides you with the opportunity

projectile launcher and a suitable projectile.
uy = u sin θ.
◗ Projectile motion can be modelled mathematically using
◗ The horizontal and vertical components of a projectile’s
the kinematics equations for constant velocity rectilinear
position, velocity and acceleration are determined by the
and provide opportunities for application and analysis of
kinematics equations and are given in Table 2.1.
◗
motion and constant acceleration rectilinear motion.
Projectile motion can also be modelled graphically using

to pursue a topic of interest from within the course. It
b Some cosmological theories suggest that as the e Find the distance from the centre of Earth, along a line
◗ The trajectory of a particle is a parabolic arc.
diagrams, and numerically using computer simulations. Universe is expanding the value of G will change. If the from Earth to the Moon, at which the gravitational
concepts and how they interrelate.
◗ The highest point of the arc is the maximum height. The
u2
enables you to study a topic in more depth and present your
value of G decreases, what happens to the gradient of
your graph?
forces of the Moon and Earth are equal, so the net
gravitational force is zero.
maximum height can be found from h = y0 − y , where y0
2g
is the launch height, uy = u sin θ, and g = −9.8 m s−1.
findings in a format of your choice. Advice and support to
MOON PERIOD (DAYS)
ORBITAL RADIUS
(106 km)
9 The Sun has a mass of 2.00 × 1030 kg and rotates once
every 24 days. If you want to put a heliostationary satellite
Alpha 39 1.1 (that stays over the same point on the Sun’s equator) with
assist you in undertaking your depth study can be found
Beta
Gamma
110
230
2.2
3.6
mass 120 kg into orbit about the Sun, then:
a What must its orbital radius be?
2 CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONS Qz
in chapter 1, and there are suggestions for topics provided

Delta 343 4.7 b What must its orbital speed be?
Review quiz
Epsilon 519 6.2 c What is the total energy of the satellite in this orbit?
d What is the escape speed from this orbit?
1 List the kinematic equations associated with projectile
motion. Define all variables. at the end of each module review. Refer to the NESA
8 The distance between Earth and the Moon is 384 000 km.
Earth has a mass of 5.97 × 1024 kg and radius of 6370 km;
10 A 15 000 kg spacecraft is to be launched for travel into
deep space from the equator of Mars. Mars has a day
2 What is the horizontal acceleration of a projectile? the Moon has a mass of 7.35 × 1022 kg.
3 What general expression can be used to find the
horizontal component, ux, of a projectile’s initial velocity?
A B
Stage 6 Physics syllabus for the full details on scoping and
a Calculate the gravitational field due to Earth at:
i the International Space Station at an altitude of
length of 24 hours and 40 minutes, a radius of 3390 km,
and a mass of 6.39 × 1023 kg.
C a Calculate the minimum kinetic energy that must be
completion of your depth study.

4 A shell is fired with initial velocity components 400 km. given to the spacecraft, given that it already has some
ux = 550 m s−1 and uy = 650 m s−1. Calculate the initial D ii a geostationary satellite at an altitude of 36 000 km. kinetic energy due to the rotation of Mars, to ensure
velocity and launch angle.
iii the Moon. that it can reach deep space.
5 A cricket ball is bowled with an initial velocity of d Calculate the gravitational force that the Moon exerts b Repeat your calculations for the spacecraft if it is to be
120 km h−1 at an angle of 10° below the horizontal.
on Earth. launched from Earth, which has mass 5.97 × 1024 kg,
Calculate the horizontal and vertical components of its FIGURE 2.14 Four different trajectories. Rank the time of flight for
initial velocity. the trajectories from shortest to longest. radius 6370 km.
6 Four different projectile trajectories are shown in

Figure 2.14. Rank these trajectories from shortest to
longest time of flight. Justify your answer.
▻ Perform a first-hand investigation to measure the trajectory of a projectile using data loggers or a webcam.
▻ Perform a first-hand investigation to compare the trajectories of projectiles of different shapes and
densities, to explore the effect of air resistance on projectiles.
9780170409131 CHAPTER 2 » PROJECTILE MOTION 53 ▻ Extend the numerical modelling investigation of projectile motion in chapter 2 to include the effect
of air resistance.
▻ Investigate projectile motion in one or more sports. Are different sports characterised by different
typical trajectories? Is air resistance an important factor in any of them?
▻ Investigate circular motion on carnival rides – what typical speeds, accelerations and forces are involved?
Each module concludes with a Module review. This ▻ Perform a first-hand investigation to measure the force required to keep an object moving in a
circular path on a string. Investigate how that force varies with speed and radius.
contains short-answer questions that provide you with the ▻ Investigate levers and the role of torque in tool design to provide mechanical advantage.
Create a numerical model (computer simulation) to calculate the orbital speed, period, and energies
opportunity to assimilate content from across the chapters
▻
of satellites at different radii about different planets.
Develop a lesson plan or website to teach younger students about the orbit, rotation and phases of
that fall within that module.
▻
the Moon.
▻ Do a literature review and make a timeline of the history of the development of our understanding
NelsonNet of gravity, including early theories, classical mechanics, general relativity and particle physics.
» END-OF-MODULE REVIEW
MODULE 5 : ADVANCED NelsonNet is your protected portal to the premium 103
MECHANICS 9780170409131 CHAPTER 4 » MOTION IN GRAVITATIONAL FIELDS
digital resources for Nelson textbooks, located at

Answer the following questions.
1 Dimitra has made herself a potato launcher. It has a barrel constant speed. Harriet sits on a horse near the outer
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25 cm long, and she loads it with a 150 g potato. edge, 2.5 m from the centre. Karolina sits on a frog 2.0 m
a If the average force applied to the potato as it moves
along the barrel is 150 N, with what speed does it
from the centre.
a Draw a force diagram for each girl.
complete you will have access to a helpful suite of
leave the barrel? b Which girl has the larger angular velocity?
b If the barrel is aimed at an angle of 50° above the
horizontal, what are the horizontal and vertical
c Which has the larger speed?
d If they have the same mass, which experiences the greater
digital resources for each chapter to further enhance
components of its initial velocity? net force?
c What forces act on the potato after it has left the
barrel? Draw a force diagram for the potato.
The carousel does 5 rotations per minute.
e Calculate the angular velocity of the carousel.
and reinforce learning.
d Calculate the maximum height that the potato
Each chapter will be supplemented with the

f Calculate the acceleration of each girl.
reaches.
g If the ride goes for 5 minutes, what angular and linear
e Calculate the time of flight of the potato.
distances are travelled by each girl?
f Calculate the range of the potato.
g Calculate the kinetic energy of the potato just before it
hits the ground.
5 Greg, who can’t get his yoyo to work, is swinging it on its
string around his head in a horizontal circle 100 cm above following digital resources:
the ground. The string is 80 cm long, the yoyo has a mass
•• Worksheets to review concepts and to practise

2 Cooper kicks a soccer ball with an initial speed of 8.5 m s–1 of 80 g, and Greg swings it so that it does a complete
at an angle of 25° above the horizontal. circle each 0.60 s, before letting go of the string. While the
a Ignoring air resistance, make calculations to complete yoyo is moving in a circle:
the following table.
applying understanding to new examples
a Calculate the speed of the yoyo.
TIME (s) 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 b Calculate the acceleration of the yoyo.
vx (m s−1) c Calculate the tension in the string.
After Greg has let go of the string:
•• A review quiz containing 20 auto-correcting

vy (m s−1)
−1
d Calculate the time taken before the yoyo hits the ground.
v (m s )
e Calculate the distance travelled by the yoyo before it
x (m) hits the ground.
y (m)
6 Fei is driving her car along the Kings Highway. She
approaches a left-hand corner with an advisory speed
multiple-choice questions to review understanding
−1
b Draw graphs of: sign of 45 km h . The corner is banked at an angle of 5°.
i v vs t.
ii y vs t.
a If the corner is banked such that this is the correct
speed at which a car could negotiate this corner •• Links to websites that contain extra information. These
iii y vs x. with no frictional force required, what is the radius of
are hotspotted within the ebook and they can also be

curvature of this corner?
Make sure you label your graphs and their axes carefully.
b If the corner has this radius of curvature and is not
3 The battery in Hussein’s smartphone has run flat, but he banked at all, what minimum coefficient of static
accessed at http://physicsinfocus12nelsonnet.com.au.
needs to send an urgent message to his girlfriend, Jill. He friction is required between the road and the car’s
−1
writes a note, folds it around a rock and stands 3.0 m back tyres for it to negotiate the corner at 45 km h ?
from her window, which is 2.8 m above the ground. The c Fei is a rally driver. She negotiates the corner by
window is only open at the bottom in a narrow horizontal entering it at the left-hand edge of the road and
Please note that complimentary access to NelsonNet

slit, so Hussein must throw accurately. If Hussein throws exiting it at the right-hand edge. Draw a sketch
the note so it leaves his hand at a speed of 12 m s−1, at a showing this path, and explain how it enables her to
height of 1.7 m above the ground, at what angle should maintain a higher speed through the corner.
he throw the note? Why does the note hit the wall a little
below the window instead of passing through, when
thrown at the angle you calculated?
7 A distant planet is observed to have 5 moons, with
periods and orbital radii as given in the table below. and the NelsonNetBook is only available to teachers
a Plot an appropriate graph and deduce the mass of the
who use the accompanying student textbook as a core

4 A circular carousel has different types of seats at different planet from the gradient of your graph.
distances from the centre, about which it rotates at
102 MODULE FIVE » ADVANCED MECHANICS 9780170409131
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xii USING PHYSICS IN FOCUS 9780170409131

OUTCOME GRID
Working Scientifically mapping
Content statements from the NESA Stage 6 Physics syllabus are shown in full on the chapter opening pages of the chapters
where they are dealt with. A full mapping of chapters and content statements can be found on the NelsonNet Teacher website.
Below is a mapping of the outcome statements for Working scientifically across all the chapters of Physics in Focus Year 12.
OUTCOME STATEMENTS CHAPTER

STUDENTS:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
PH11/12-1 develops and evaluates questions
and hypotheses for scientific investigation
✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
PH11/12-2 designs and evaluates investigations
in order to obtain primary and secondary data ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
and information
PH11/12-3 conducts investigations to collect
valid and reliable primary and secondary data ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
and information
PH11/12-4 selects and processes appropriate
qualitative and quantitative data and information ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
using a range of appropriate media
PH11/12-5 analyses and evaluates primary and
secondary data and information
✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
PH11/12-6 solves scientific problems using
primary and secondary data, critical thinking skills ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
and scientific processes
PH11/12-7 communicates scientific
understanding using suitable language and ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
terminology for a specific audience or purpose
Physics Stage 6 Syllabus © 2017 NSW Education Standards Authority (NESA) for and on behalf of the Crown in right of the State of New South Wales.
9780170409131 xiii
Working scientifically
1 and depth studies
OUTCOMES
Knowledge and understanding
A student:
•• describes and analyses qualitatively and quantitatively circular motion and motion in a gravitational field, in
particular, the projectile motion of particles (PH12-12)
•• explains and analyses the electric and magnetic interactions due to charged particles and currents and
evaluates their effect both qualitatively and quantitatively (PH12-13)
•• describes and analyses evidence for the properties of light and evaluates the implications of this evidence
for modern theories of physics in the contemporary world (PH12-14)
•• explains and analyses the evidence supporting the relationship between astronomical events and the
nucleosynthesis of atoms and relates these to the development of the current model of the atom (PH12-15)
Skills
A student:
•• develops and evaluates questions and hypotheses for scientific investigation (PH12-1)
•• designs and evaluates investigations in order to obtain primary and secondary data and information (PH12-2)
•• conducts investigations to collect valid and reliable primary and secondary data and information (PH12-3)
•• selects and processes appropriate qualitative and quantitative data and information using a range of
appropriate media (PH12-4)
•• analyses and evaluates primary and secondary data and information (PH12-5)
•• solves scientific problems using primary and secondary data, critical thinking skills and scientific processes
(PH12-6)
•• communicates scientific understanding using suitable language and terminology for a specific audience or
purpose (PH12-7)
Shutterstock.com/Lightpoet
9780170409131 1
Science is the systematic study, by observation and experiment, of the natural and physical world
(Figure 1.1). Science is characterised by a way of thinking and working, and, most fundamentally, by
questioning. Physics asks questions about matter and energy, and the interactions between matter
and energy. As you have already seen in Physics in Focus Year 11, the theories and models of physics,
which are based on matter and energy, give us powerful explanatory and predictive power. In this
book we will continue to explore the interactions of matter and energy, using the same fundamental
concepts of forces, motion, energy and conservation principles. You will extend your knowledge
and understanding of mechanical systems and electricity and magnetism, and begin to learn about
atomic and subatomic particles and their interactions. By undertaking investigations and depth
studies you will develop your scientific problem-solving skills. These skills include questioning
and developing hypotheses, planning and carrying out investigations, analysing the results and
evaluating both the outcomes and the process itself.
Alamy Stock Photo/Adrian Buck
Shutterstock.com/Akimov Igor
Shutterstock.com/massawfoto
FIGURE 1.1 Science is the systematic study of the natural and physical world.
1.1 Physics knowledge and understanding

The knowledge that has arisen from answering the questions asked by physicists can be broadly
categorised into five areas. These are mechanics, waves, thermodynamics, electromagnetism and
quantum physics. You have already begun your study of the first four of these areas in Physics in Focus
Year 11. The first half of this book (chapters 2 to 8) describes more applications of mechanics and
electromagnetism. The second half (chapters 9 to 17) introduces quantum mechanics.
While at first glance these may seem to be distinct topics, they are all related, and they are all based on
the same central ideas introduced in chapter 1 of Physics in Focus Year 11: energy, forces and conservation
principles.
Recall from Physics in Focus Year 11 that mechanics describes the motion and interaction of objects
and uses the ideas of force and energy to explain phenomena. We use mechanics to describe and predict
the behaviour of small numbers of macroscopic (bigger than atomic-sized) objects. In Physics in Focus
Year 11 the core ideas of motion, forces, energy and conservation principles were introduced. The
mathematical models that we use to describe mechanical systems, including kinematics and Newton’s
laws, were applied to objects accelerating in straight lines.
In chapters 2, 3 and 4 of this book we extend the classical mechanics that was first introduced in
Physics in Focus Year 11. We apply Newton’s laws of motion to two special cases where there is a constant
magnitude net force.
The first of these special cases is projectile motion; the motion of an object close to, but not touching,
the surface of Earth and subject only to a gravitational force that is constant in both magnitude and
direction. The model we present is an approximation – it ignores the interaction of the air with the
projectile, so that drag and lift forces are neglected. So this model, like all models, is limited, and gives
2 CHAPTER 1 » WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY AND DEPTH STUDIES 9780170409131

useful predictive and descriptive power only in limited situations. But it is a useful starting model, to
which more detail can be added as needed.
The second special case is uniform circular motion. Uniform circular motion occurs when there is a
constant magnitude net force that always acts perpendicular to the direction of motion. Such a force is
called a centripetal force. The net force may be a single force, like the tension in a string, or a combination
of forces, like contact forces and gravity. It causes an object to travel in a circle with constant speed
and radius.
In chapter 4 we look at the gravitational force, and see how Newton’s laws apply for this fundamental
force. We also see an example of circular motion due to the gravitational force; the orbital motion of
satellites. The concept of energy is very important here, because potential energy is stored in the
gravitational field.
Figure 1.2 shows how these forces and types of motion are related to the fundamental concepts of
motion, force, energy and conservation that were introduced in Physics in Focus Year 11.
Newton’s Law of Universal

Projectile motion is Gravitation describes the
described by height, gravitational interaction
range and time of flight. between objects with mass.
An object subject to a single constant force moves as
a projectile; an object subject to a (net) centripetal
Motion force undergoes circular motion. Forces
Circular motion Motion can be described in terms Forces are interactions
is described by of the vector quantities position, between objects.
radius and speed. velocity and acceleration Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation
using kinematics. predicts the motion of orbiting
bodies such as planets and satellites.
Any object in orbital

Any object in uniform
motion has both
circular motion has
gravitational potential Fields apply a force at a distance
constant kinetic energy.
energy and kinetic and can do work.
energy. When work is done energy is transferred.
Energy is stored in fields; the gravitational
field stores gravitational potential energy.
Energy Conservation
Energy comes in two types: Some things are conserved,
potential and kinetic. e.g. energy and momentum.
For an idealised projectile (no drag) and an
object in orbit, the sum of the gravitational
potential energy and kinetic energy is constant.
FIGURE 1.2 Concept map for mechanics (chapters 2 to 4)
Chapters 5 to 8 extend the description of electromagnetism that was begun in chapters 12 to 14

of Physics in Focus Year 11. In chapter 5 of this book we will look at how charged particles interact
with electric and magnetic fields. As you will see, a charged particle in a uniform electric field
behaves exactly as a projectile in a gravitational field, as described in chapter 2. A charged particle
in a magnetic field follows a curved path, and may undergo uniform circular motion, as described in
chapter 3. The models that were introduced in mechanics apply to situations in electromagnetism
also. The underlying mathematical models are the same. This is why it is important not to treat
different topics in physics separately – they are really just different examples of the application of the
same fundamental ideas. We will also use the idea of potential energy stored in the electric field to
understand how work can be done by a field.
In chapters 5 to 8 we look at useful applications of the interaction between charged particles
and magnetic fields; motors, generators and transformers. The concept of energy is central to our
understanding of these devices. The core ideas are again that energy is stored in fields, in this case the
magnetic field, and energy can be transformed from one form into another but it is always conserved.
Figure 1.3 summarises the main ideas introduced in chapters 5 to 8 and how they relate to the core
ideas of force, energy and conservation.
A charged particle in a Electric charges create electric

uniform electric field fields; moving charges (currents)
moves as a projectile. create magnetic fields.
Motion The electric field accelerates charged Forces

particles parallel to the field.
Motion is described in Charges create and interact with
A charged particle in a terms of position, velocity electric and magnetic fields.
uniform magnetic field and acceleration. The magnetic field accelerates moving
may move in a circle. charged particles and currents
perpendicular to the field.
When a charged particle moves

in an electric field, energy is
converted between kinetic An electric field exerts a force on a charged
and potential. particle, does work on it, and changes its
kinetic energy.
A magnetic field exerts a force on a moving
charged particle but does not do work on it.
Lenz’s Law: energy is conserved so an

Energy induced field acts to reduce the change that Conservation
created it (induced currents, back emf).
Potential energy is stored in Energy and charge are
electric and magnetic conserved.
fields. A motor converts electric potential
energy to kinetic energy; a generator
converts kinetic energy to electric
potential energy.
A charged particle in an electric A transformer changes potential
field has potential energy. Potential and current. If one increases, the
is potential energy per unit charge. other must decrease.
FIGURE 1.3 Concept map for electromagnetism (chapters 5 to 8)
Chapters 9 to 12 describe light. Two different models are presented: the electromagnetic wave model
and the particle (photon) model. Light is a pair of coupled, oscillating electric and magnetic fields that
travel together. Energy is stored in the fields, and as one field gets smaller, the other gets bigger, so that
the energy of the two fields is constant. Light travels as a wave, and we can describe it in terms of wave
properties including frequency and wavelength.
But when light interacts with matter it also behaves like a particle. When light is emitted or absorbed
by matter it is always in discrete amounts, with a particular energy. The quantisation of the energy of
light into discrete amounts called photons is the beginning of your study of quantum mechanics and
particle physics. Because light is a pair of coupled, oscillating fields, it does not need a medium to travel
through – the fields are both the wave and its medium. As a result, the speed of light in vacuum is always
the same, regardless of the motion of an observer. This is the basis of special relativity, which is described
in chapter 12.

Figure 1.4 shows how the ideas in chapters 9 to 12 are related to each other, and to the core ideas
of mechanics and electromagnetism. You will see that a fifth core idea has been added – the idea of
quantisation.
All electromagnetic waves travel at the same

speed in vacuum (c) (special relativity) regardless of observer.
So time and space are measured differently by
different observers (time dilation, length contraction).
Motion
Light moves (propagates) as waves. Motion is described in terms Electromagnetic waves are
Waves interfere and diffract. of position, velocity and created by oscillating charges.
acceleration.
Light is quantised.
We call the quanta
Electromagnetic waves exert
photons.
Quantisation forces on charged particles
and accelerate them.
Mass, charge and
energy are quantised.
Black body
radiation
Electric and magnetic
Forces
fields transport energy
as electromagnetic Electric and magnetic fields
The colour of light depends waves (light). exert forces on charged
on the photon energy. particles.
This is used in spectroscopy.
Energy Mass can be converted into electromagnetic Conservation

Potential energy is stored in potential energy (photons). Energy and charge are
electric and magnetic conserved.
fields. The photoelectric equation is a
statement of conservation of energy.
Mass is a form of energy.
FIGURE 1.4 Concept map for light (chapters 9 to 12). Note that a new core idea is introduced – quantisation.
The final section of this book, chapters 13 to 17, deals primarily with particle physics. Particle physics
describes the fundamental interactions of matter and energy. It is based on quantum mechanics, and so
quantisation is central to particle physics.
Conservation principles are particularly important in particle physics, and we introduce a new type
of potential energy – the potential energy associated with mass. This allows us to model nuclear and
other subatomic reactions in which the conversion of mass-energy to or from other forms is important.
The application of particle physics to cosmology is explored in chapter 13. While the structure of the
Universe may seem a very different topic from the interactions of fundamental particles, in fact they are
intimately related, as is every part of physics with every other part. Figure 1.5 summarises the main ideas
presented in chapters 13 to 17.

Stars and galaxies are getting further
away from us, so the Universe is expanding.
Motion
Motion is described in terms
Atoms are not fundamental particles (quanta) – they
of position, velocity
have internal structure: a nucleus and electrons.
and acceleration.
Nucleons are not fundamental particles.
An electron is a fundamental particle (quantum).
Quantisation Forces change the state of

Charge and energy motion of a particle.
are quantised. In the Standard Model, forces
are exerted by exchange
The Standard Model describes particles, e.g. photons.
fundamental particles: leptons and
quarks that all matter is made of, and
the exchange particles (e.g. photons)
through which matter interacts. Forces
Electrons are bound to the nucleus, by the Particles exert and are subject
electromagnetic force, in orbits with discrete to four fundamental forces:
Spectroscopy uses (quantised) energy. gravitational, electromagnetic,
energy quantisation Electrons change orbits by emitting or absorbing strong and weak.
to identify elements a photon (quantum of energy).
in stars.
Mass can be converted into energy
(photons) in a spontaneous or artificial
Energy nuclear reaction: fission and fusion Conservation
Particles can have kinetic, (radioactive decay, stars, reactors). Energy, momentum and
potential and mass energy. charge are conserved.
Electromagnetic energy (photons) can
be converted into mass (the Big
Bang, pair production).
FIGURE 1.5 Concept map for particle physics (from the Universe to the atom) (chapters 13 to 17).
As you learn more of the content knowledge of physics, you need to create your own mental
models to help you understand it. Concept maps are a useful way of representing your mental models.
They help to remind you that physics is not simply a collection of facts and formulae. Every idea in
physics is connected to other ideas, and always to one of the fundamental ideas of force, energy and
conservation. All of the theories, laws and equations of physics are fundamentally interconnected, none of
them stands alone.
These concept maps (Figures 1.2 to 1.5) summarise some of our knowledge and understanding of
physics. This knowledge and understanding was arrived at by physicists who asked questions and then
tried to answer those questions by conducting investigations, making measurements and evaluating
their results. Working scientifically is more characteristic of, and more important to, the study of physics
than any particular collection of content knowledge. You will practise working scientifically, working like
a physicist, when you undertake investigations and depth studies.
KEY CONCEPTS
●● Physics is not a collection of facts and formulae. All of the theories, laws and equations of
physics are fundamentally interconnected.
●● Force, energy and conservation are the central ideas in physics that we use to understand the
interactions of matter and energy. All the knowledge that you learn in physics will be related to
one or more of these ideas.

Solving scientific problems:
1.2 depth studies
You have already had some experience of performing depth studies. You will further hone the skills that
you developed by doing more depth studies, and develop new skills. In particular, your prior experience
will help you to evaluate your own work and that of others.
Depth studies provide you with an opportunity to:
◗◗ use the research methods that scientists use
◗◗ analyse and evaluate works for scientific relevance and validity
◗◗ broaden your range of reading in a field of interest
◗◗ extend your depth of thinking and understanding
◗◗ ask questions and investigate areas that do not have definite answers
◗◗ investigate contentious issues and use critical thinking skills to evaluate views expressed in a variety
of sources
◗◗ use inquiry-based learning to develop your creative thinking.
When performing a depth study you pose questions, develop a hypothesis to answer your questions,
and then seek evidence to support or disprove your hypotheses. The evidence may come from the
existing scientific literature, or from your own experiments. You need to analyse data to determine
whether your hypotheses are supported. Analysing data usually requires you to represent it in some way,
often mathematically or graphically. Finally, as scientists do, you need to communicate your findings to
others. There are many ways that you can do this, and you need to choose the method most appropriate
to the audience you wish to communicate to.
Depth studies can take different forms, and over the year you may undertake several different types
of depth study.
Types of depth study

There are two broad types of depth study. In first-hand practical investigations, you design and perform
experiments or make observations to gather primary data. Investigations based on secondary sources
require you to research and evaluate information and data collected by other people.
First-hand investigations include experiments in a laboratory, field work at home, school or elsewhere,
or the creation and testing of a model or device.
Secondary-sourced depth studies may include undertaking a literature review, investigating emerging
technologies, evaluating a hypothesis, or developing and evaluating an evidence-based argument.
Depth studies may be presented in different forms, some of which include:
◗◗ written texts (reports, summaries, essays)
◗◗ visual presentations (diagrams, flow charts, posters, portfolios)
◗◗ multimedia presentations
◗◗ physical models
◗◗ a blend of the above.
All depth studies will involve the analysis of data, either primary data that you collect or other people’s
research. Looking for patterns and trends in data will involve analysing and constructing graphs, tables,
flow charts and diagrams.
All depth studies involve evaluation – evaluation of the hypothesis or question posed, evaluation of
the method as valid and appropriate, and evaluation the data as reliable and valid.

Stages in a depth study
The summary below outlines four main stages of conducting a depth study, as well as the Working
scientifically skills that you will need to develop and apply at each stage.
1 Initiating and planning involves:
Questioning and predicting (PH12-1): formulating and evaluating questions or hypotheses
Planning (PH12-2): researching background information; assessing risks and considering ethical issues;
evaluating methods and secondary sources to plan valid experiments
2 Implementation and recording
Conducting investigations (PH12-3): safely carrying out valid investigations using appropriate technology
and measuring instruments
Processing data and information (PH12-4): collecting, organising, recording and processing data/
information.
3 Analysing and interpreting
Analysing data (PH12-5): looking for trends or patterns, finding mathematical relationships and
evaluating data
Problem-solving (PH12- 6): drawing and justifying conclusions, testing hypotheses and answering
questions, evaluating the study.
4 Communicating (PH12-7): using appropriate language, visualisations and technologies to communicate
scientific ideas, procedures and results.
Physics Stage 6 Syllabus © NSW Education Standards Authority for and on behalf of the Crown in right of the State of New South Wales, 2002.
Critical and
creative
thinking
Posing questions and formulating hypotheses
The first step to beginning any
iStock/Getty Images Plus/asiseeit
investigation or depth study is deciding

on a question.
A good way to start is by
‘brainstorming’ for ideas (Figure 1.6).
This works whether you are working
on your own or in a group. Write down
as many ideas as you can think of. Don’t
be critical at this stage. Get everyone
involved to contribute, and write every
idea down.
After you have run out of ideas, it is
time to start being critical. You need to
evaluate each of the ideas.
Decide which questions or ideas
are the most interesting. Think about
which of these it is actually possible
FIGURE 1.6 Brainstorm as many ideas as you can in your group.
to investigate given the time and
resources available. Make a shortlist
of questions, but keep the long list too for the moment. Once you have your shortlist it is time to start
Information and refining and evaluating your ideas.
communication Your depth study will be based on one of the areas described in Figures 1.2 to 1.5, which are discussed
technology
capability in the remaining chapters of this book.

Because the purpose of a depth study is to extend your knowledge, while at the same time building
your skills at working scientifically, you will need to go beyond the basic syllabus content. The next step
is therefore to find out what is already known about the ideas on your list. You need to do a literature
review. If your depth study is a secondary-sourced investigation, then the literature review may be the
investigation itself. A formal, written literature review includes the information you have found, and
complete references to the sources of information. It also includes interpretation and critique of what
you have read. This is particularly important for a secondary-sourced investigation.
Literature reviews are important because they help you to increase your breadth of knowledge and
learn from others, and stimulate new ideas. They are necessary to identify gaps in current knowledge
that you may wish to research and to identify methods that you could use. You may also find that there
are a variety of views (sometimes opposing views) in an area of research. A literature review will help
you evaluate your questions and hypotheses by showing you whether they have already been posed
or investigated by someone else and, if so, what the results of other investigations to answer them
have been.
Your literature review Literacy
A literature review is a search and evaluation of available literature in a particular subject area. It has a
particular focus that is defined by your research question or hypothesis.
The process of conducting a literature review involves researching, analysing and evaluating the
literature. It is not merely a descriptive list of the information gathered on a topic, or a summary of one
piece of literature after another. It outlines any opposing points of view in the research and also expresses
the writer’s perspective of the strengths and weaknesses of the research being reviewed. A literature review
brings together results of different studies, pointing out areas where researchers or studies agree, where
they disagree, and where major questions remain. By identifying gaps in research, literature reviews often
indicate directions for future research.
Your literature review will give you an idea of past findings and procedures, techniques and
research designs that have already been used. This will help you to evaluate which methods are worth
copying, which need modifying and which to avoid (those that have been inconclusive or invalid). You
may plan your investigation to target a gap in research or try to replicate an investigation to test or
validate it.
The length of your literature review will depend on its purpose. If it is a depth study in itself, it will
need to be more detailed and draw conclusions about the research and evaluate existing studies. If it is
used as an introduction to inform your own research, it will be shorter and more focused.
To write a literature review you first need to define the topic. It may help to formulate a literature
review question. Then write a list of key words that will help you search for information.
To find articles you can use library catalogues, databases and the internet. Refine your search
technique by using specific words that narrow your search. Record search words that are successful and,
if necessary, modify your search strategy.
When you write your literature review for your report it should have an introduction that defines the
topic and gives your specific focus. For a lengthy secondary-sourced depth study it may also explain the
structure of the review.
The main body of the review will then group the literature according to common themes and
provide an explanation of the relationship between the research question and the literature reviewed.
It should proceed from the general, wider view of the research to the specific area you are targeting.
Include information about the usefulness, recency and major authors or sources of the literature. This Literature
review
information is necessary to support your evaluation of the sources and of your results.
More information
The literature review concludes by summarising the major contributions of the literature and about literature
reviews, and how to
explaining the link between your investigation and the literature reviewed. It should also evaluate the complete them.
current state of knowledge in the area and point out major flaws or gaps in research if appropriate.

Evaluating sources
Always be critical of what you read. Be wary of pseudoscience and any material that has not been peer
reviewed. Apply the CRAAP (currency, relevance, authority, accuracy, purpose) test to websites that you
find. The most reliable sites are from educational institutions, particularly universities, and government
The CRAAP test and scientific organisations such as the CSIRO and NASA, and professional organisations such as the
Apply the CRAAP tests Australian Institute of Physics and international equivalents. You can narrow your search to particular
to any websites that
you find. types of sites by including in your search terms “site:edu” or “site:gov” so that you only find sites from
educational or government sources.
Make sure you keep a record of the information that
you find as well as the sources, so you can reference them
iStock/Getty Images Plus/bo1982
correctly later (Figure 1.7). You should start a logbook at

this stage. You can write in references, or attach printouts
to your logbook. This can save you a lot of time later on!
Your logbook may be hardcopy or electronic, but either
way, begin keeping it now.
Finally, talk to your teacher about your ideas. They
may be able to suggest sources of information. They will
also be able to tell you whether your ideas are likely to be
possible given the equipment available. They may have
had students with similar ideas in the past and will make
suggestions.
After you have researched and evaluated your questions
FIGURE 1.7 Start researching your topic and make sure you keep and ideas, you will hopefully be able to narrow the shortlist
a record of all your references. Good record-keeping is important in down to the one question that you want to tackle. If none
scientific research, and it begins at this stage of the investigation.
of the questions or ideas looks possible (or still interesting),
then you need to go back to the long list.
Proposing a research question or hypothesis

Alamy Stock Photo/Marmaduke St. John
You need to evaluate your question or hypothesis. An appropriate research

question is one that can be answered by performing experiments or
making observations. A good hypothesis is a prediction of the results of
an experiment that can be tested by performing experiments or making
observations. It should be able to be clearly disproved and, ideally, be clearly
supported. The predictions of your hypothesis should be different enough
from those of other hypotheses that experiments can be performed to
distinguish between them.
You need to frame a research question carefully. A good research question
should define the investigation, set boundaries and provide some direction
to the investigation. It needs to be specific enough that it guides the design
of the investigation (Figure 1.8). A specific question rather than a vague one
will make the design of your investigation much easier. Asking ‘what volume
of water gives the maximum height for a water rocket?’ tells you what you
will be varying and what you will be measuring. It also gives a criterion
for judging whether you have answered the question. Use these criteria to
evaluate your proposed research question, and reframe it if needed.
Asking ‘How can we make a water rocket fly the best?’ is not a good
FIGURE 1.8 You need to frame your research
question carefully. These students are investigating question. This question does not say what will be varied, nor does it tell
the launch angle at which their water rocket will you when you have answered the question. ‘Best’ is a vague term. What you
achieve maximum range.
mean by ‘best’ may not be what someone else means.

A hypothesis is a tentative explanation or prediction, such as ‘The height attained by a water rocket
will increase with the amount of water contained in the rocket’. Your hypothesis should give a prediction
that you can test, ideally quantitatively. A hypothesis needs to be falsifiable, that is, able to be proved false.
Remember that for a hypothesis or theory to be considered scientific, it must be able to be disproved (but
no theory can ever be proved to be true).
A hypothesis is usually based on some existing model or theory. It is a prediction of what will happen
in a specific situation based on that model. For example, kinematics describes the trajectory of projectiles.
A hypothesis based on the kinematics model predicts the range of a specific projectile launched at a
given angle and speed.
Often in physics there is more than one model that can be used to generate a hypothesis, so there may
be multiple hypotheses to explain a given phenomenon. A good hypothesis for an investigation is one
that gives a prediction sufficiently different from those of other hypotheses. The prediction is sufficiently
different if the experiment can disprove one or more hypotheses, and ideally provide support for only one.
You can use these criteria to evaluate your hypothesis: is it based on an existing model, is it testable,
and will any test distinguish between your hypothesis and competing hypotheses.
A good research question or hypothesis identifies the variables that will be investigated. Usually you
will have one dependent variable and one independent variable. For a depth study you may have two or
more independent variables that you control.
If your experiments agree with predictions based on your hypothesis, then you can claim that they
support your hypothesis. This increases your confidence in your model, but it does not prove that it is true.
Hence an aim for an experiment should never start ‘To prove …’, because it is not possible to actually
prove a hypothesis, only to disprove it.
If your experimental results disagree with your hypothesis, then you may have disproved it. This is
not a bad thing! Often the most interesting discoveries in science start when a hypothesis based on an
existing model is disproved, because this raises more questions.
Even if you evaluate your question or hypothesis and it meets these criteria, do not be surprised if
you change or modify the question during the course of your investigation or depth study. In scientific
research, the question you set out to answer is often only a starting point for more questions.
KEY CONCEPTS
●● Investigations begin with a question, which is used to formulate a hypothesis. You need to
evaluate your question or hypothesis. A good research question is specific and can be answered
by performing experiments and making measurements. A good hypothesis is based on a
model and is a statement that predicts the results of an experiment and can be tested using
measurements.
●● A literature review helps you refine and evaluate your question or hypothesis. It helps you
know what knowledge and ideas have been established on a topic and the areas of strength and
weakness in the research.
1.3 Planning your depth study Critical and

creative
thinking
There are many things to consider when planning an investigation. You need to think about how much
time you will have, what space and equipment you will need and where you will go if you want to make
measurements or observations outside. If you are doing a secondary-sourced investigation or some
other type of depth study, such as a creative work, you still need to plan ahead to make sure you have the
resources you need.
You may be working in a group or on your own. Most scientists work in groups. If you can choose who
you work with, think about it carefully. It is not always best to work with friends. Think about working
with people who have skills that are different from your own.

Having a plan allows you to ensure that you collect the data, whether primary- or secondary-sourced,
that you need to test your hypothesis. The longer the investigation, the more important it is that you
have a clear plan. There are several things to consider, as listed in Table 1.1.
TABLE 1.1 Factors to consider when planning your depth study

PRIMARY-SOURCED INVESTIGATION SECONDARY-SOURCED INVESTIGATION
What data will you need to collect? What information will you need to gather?
What materials and equipment will you need? What sources will you use?
When and where will you collect the data? When and where will you gather the information?
If you are working in a group, what tasks are If you are working in a group, what tasks are assigned to
assigned to which people? which people?
Who will collect the data? Who will collect what information?
Who will be responsible for record-keeping? How will record-keeping be done to avoid plagiarism?
How will the data be analysed? How will the information be analysed?
How will sources be referenced? How will sources be referenced?
The most common problem that students have is time management. It is important to plan to have
enough time to perform the experiments, including repeat measurements, to analyse them and to report
on them.
A good plan will help you keep on track. Your teacher may ask you to hand in a plan of your depth
study before you begin the implementation stage. Table 1.2 gives an idea of the types of things you should
think about.
TABLE 1.2 Depth study plan

1 INTRODUCTION
Title Choose a title for your depth study.
What?
Rationale Explain why you have chosen this area of research.
Why? Describe what you are hoping to achieve through this
investigation. Include any applications.
Type of depth study State the type of depth study you intend conducting
Which? (e.g. literature review / practical investigation).
Where applicable, describe any theoretical models
(e.g. kinematics) that you will use.
2 TIMELINE
Action and time frame – When? Working scientifically skills – How?
1 Initiating and planning Questioning and predicting: Formulate questions and/or a
When? (e.g. week 1 and 2) hypothesis.
Planning: Wide reading – research background information;
assess risks and ethical issues; plan methods; design experiments.
2 Implementation and recording Conducting investigations: Carry out experiments safely; make
When? observations and/or measurements; use appropriate technology
and measuring instruments.
Process and record data and information: Collect, organise, record
and process information and/or data as you go.
4 Analysing and interpreting Analyse data and information: Begin looking for trends or patterns
When? or mathematical relationships.
Problem-solve: Evaluate the adequacy of data (relevance,
accuracy, validity and reliability) from primary and/or secondary
sources; answer your research question; draw and justify
conclusions.

5 Communicating Present your depth study: Write the report or other presentation,
When? using appropriate language, visualisations, and technologies.
Final presentation Due date: Allow time for proofreading and editing.
3 DATA COLLECTION
Variables Measurements and uncertainties
What will you measure and what will you hold How will you make measurements?
constant?
What equipment will you need?
Identify dependent and independent
variables. How will you minimise uncertainties?
4 DATA ANALYSIS AND PROBLEM-SOLVING

Data analysis Conclusions
What method(s) will you use to analyse the How will you judge whether the experiment was valid?
data and how will you represent the trends How will your data allow you to test your hypothesis or answer
and patterns? your question?
Keep a record of your planning. This should go in your logbook. Recording what you plan to do, and why,
will help you stay focused. This is particularly important for a depth study. If you are working in a group, then
keep a record of what each person agrees to do. But remember, the plan may need to be adjusted as you go.
Designing your depth study

When designing your depth study or investigation you should be aiming for reliable and valid
measurements with good accuracy and precision. This is also true if you are doing a secondary-sourced
investigation – in this case you should be trying to find resources that have these characteristics.
Remember that when you have completed your depth study you will need to evaluate it, so you should
consider this at the design stage.
Some good questions to ask to evaluate the reliability, validity, accuracy and precision of your design
are given in the table below.
TABLE 1.3 Evaluating a depth study for reliability, accuracy and validity in investigations
PRIMARY INFORMATION AND DATA SECONDARY INFORMATION AND DATA
Reliability Have I tested with repetition? How consistent is the information with other
reputable sources?
Are the data presented based on repeatable
processes?
Accuracy and Have I designed my experiments to minimise Is this information similar to information
precision uncertainties? presented in peer-reviewed scientific journals?
Have I used repeat measurements to estimate Are the data given with uncertainties, and are
random errors? these uncertainties small compared to the
Have I used the best measuring equipment measured values?
available, and used it correctly?
Validity Does my experiment actually test the Do the findings relate to the hypothesis or
hypothesis that I want it to? problem?
Have all variables apart from those being Are the findings accurate and the sources
tested been kept constant? reliable?
Selecting equipment
A well-framed question or hypothesis will help you choose the equipment that you need. For example,
if your hypothesis predicts a temperature change of 0.5°C, then you will need a thermometer that can
measure to at least this precision (precision and accuracy are discussed later). You also need to know
how to use the equipment correctly. Always ask if you are unsure. Reading the user manual is also a good
idea. It will usually specify the precision of the device, and let you know of any potential safety risks.

You need to think about how you can minimise uncertainties. Minimising uncertainty is not just
about using the most precise equipment you can find, it is also about clever experimental technique.
Very precise measurements are possible using simple equipment. For example, in 1862 Léon Foucault
Minimising
uncertainty measured the speed of light with an uncertainty of 0.2%, without a computer, data logger or even a digital
Find out how Foucault stopwatch. Remember that it is a poor workman who blames his tools!
measured the speed
of light so precisely.
Working safely: risk assessment

Ethical You may be required to complete a risk assessment before you begin your depth study. You need to think
understanding
about three factors.
Personal and
1 What are the possible risks to you, to other people, to the environment or property?
social capability
2 How likely is it that there will be an injury or damage?
3 How serious are the consequences likely to be if there is an injury or damage to property or
environment?
A ‘risk matrix’, such as that shown in Table 1.4, can be used to assess the severity of a risk associated
with an investigation. The consequences are listed across the top from negligible to catastrophic.
Negligible may be getting clothes dirty. Marginal might be a bruise from falling off a bike, or a broken
branch in a tree. Severe could be a more substantial injury or a broken window. Catastrophic would be a
death or the release of a toxin into the environment. You need to ensure that your investigation is low risk.
TABLE 1.4 Risk matrix for assessing for severity of risk

CONSEQUENCES→ NEGLIGIBLE MARGINAL SEVERE CATASTROPHIC
LIKELIHOOD↓
Rare Low risk Low risk Moderate risk High risk
Unlikely Low risk Low risk High risk Extreme risk
Possible Low risk Moderate risk Extreme risk Extreme risk
Likely Moderate risk High risk Extreme risk Extreme risk
Certain Moderate risk High risk Extreme risk Extreme risk
Once you have considered what the possible risks are, you need to think about what you will do
about them. What you will do to minimise them, and what you will do to deal with the consequences if
something does happen? You can use a risk assessment table like Table 1.5.
TABLE 1.5 Example risk assessment table

WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS EXPERIMENT? HOW CAN YOU MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE?
Water from the rocket may be spilled and someone might slip. Clean up all spills immediately.
Stay safe online! Consider where you will perform your experiments or observations. Will you need to consider the
Think about what convenience or safety of others? Talk to your teacher about what space is available.
you could do to keep
yourself safe online. In a secondary-sourced investigation, take precautions with cyber safety and remember to keep your
personal information private.
KEY
CONCEPTS
●● In primary-sourced investigations you collect and analyse your own data. In secondary-sourced
investigations you analyse someone else’s data.
●● Investigations need to be planned carefully so that they answer your research question. You
also need to consider safety and possible environmental impacts of your investigation.

1.4 Implementation and collecting data
Scientists keep a logbook for each project that they work on. The logbook is the primary source of
information when a scientist writes up their work for publication. A logbook is a legal document for
a working scientist. If the work is called into question, then the logbook acts as important evidence.
Logbooks are even provided as evidence in court cases sometimes; for example, in patent disputes,
claims of academic misconduct or scientific fraud. The logbook is necessary for the evaluation of the
investigation, or for any subsequent investigation of the research.
Every entry in a scientist’s logbook is dated, records are kept in indelible form (pen, not pencil), and
entries may even be signed. Scientists’ logbooks include details of experiments, ideas and analysis. They
frequently include printouts of data, photocopies of relevant information, photos and other items.
Your logbook records
Getty Images/Hill Street Studios

You need to begin keeping a logbook as soon as you
begin planning your depth study. Your logbook may be
paper or electronic. Either way, your logbook is a detailed
record of what you did and what you found out during your
investigation. Make an entry in the logbook every time you
work on your depth study (Figure 1.9). At the start of each
session you should record the date and the names of all the
people with whom you are working at the time. A logbook
is particularly vital for primary-sourced investigations, but is
also important for secondary-sourced investigations.
Always write down what you do as you do it. It is easy to
forget what you did if you do not write it down immediately.
FIGURE 1.9 Make sure you keep an accurate record of what you do
Record the results of all measurements immediately and as you do it.
directly into your logbook, in pen if using hardcopy. Never
record data onto bits of scrap paper instead of your logbook!
Results must be recorded in indelible form. Never write your results in pencil or use white-out. If you want
to cross something out, just put a line through it and make a note explaining why it was crossed out. If
you are using an electronic logbook then do not delete data or working; label it appropriately and keep it.
A good logbook contains:
◗◗ notes taken during the planning of your investigation
◗◗ a record of when, where and how you carried out each experiment
◗◗ diagrams showing the experimental setups, circuit diagrams, etc.
◗◗ all your raw results
◗◗ all your derived results, analysis and graphs
◗◗ all the ideas you had while planning, carrying out experiments and analysing data
◗◗ printouts, file names and locations of any data not recorded directly in the logbook.
It is not a neat record, but it is a complete record. It needs to be complete to enable you to evaluate
your work thoroughly.
KEY
CONCEPTS
●● Logbooks are important working documents for scientists. All your data should be recorded in a
logbook, along with all records of your investigations.

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This manner of asceticism is not particularly common nowadays,
and we need not fear that it will be too generally practiced. I am
calling attention to it in order to show that selfishness may take on
the mask of purity or of respectability, a selfishness that springs from
pure moral motives and a longing for the elevation of character.
But there is another type of respectable selfishness that is far
more common, possibly more common in America than in any other
country. It is not usually recognised as selfishness, but regarded as
one of the greatest—perhaps the greatest—of the virtues. It is seen
chiefly among earnest and ambitious young men, who assume that
life is not a holiday, but a serious affair, a struggle, a strictly
competitive race, where if you stop a moment, even for reflexion, you
are left behind.
We are bound to respect these men. They have at all events
found out half the secret of life. They have set before themselves
some goal, in politics, in business, in literature, and they are
determined to reach it. They are equally determined to gain the prize
by no dishonourable means. Their minds are full of the lessons
learned from their predecessors, men who by the sacrifice of
temporary pleasures, by the refusal to indulge in recreation or
relaxation, have surpassed their competitors and reached the top.
We are constantly told that it is only by intense concentration, by
terrific efforts day and night, and by keeping the end constantly in
view that one can attain success. Surely these young men are to be
admired, surely they are models, examples worthy of emulation?
Well, they are better than criminals, they are better than
parasites, they are better than drones. But their driving motive is
selfishness. Tennyson wrote The Palace of Art, Browning wrote
Paracelsus, because each of these poets knew that his individual
danger was not what is usually known as “temptation.” They knew
that they would never go to hell by the crowded highway of
dissipation, for they were above the mere call of the blood. Their
danger lay in a high and noble ambition, which has wrecked many
first-rate minds.
Modern life tends to encourage this respectable selfishness. The
central law of the so-called science of Economics is selfishness. A
whole science is built on one foundation—that every man in the
world will get all he can for himself. The subject is naturally studied
not from an ethical, but from a scientific standpoint. Life is a race.
Now I believe that Efficiency—mere practical success in the
world—is as false an ideal as asceticism. If the morality of
withdrawal is not good enough, neither is the morality of success.
Those deserve the highest admiration and the most profound
respect who have actually aided their human brethren, who have left
the world better than they found it.
This is by no means a hopeless ideal of character. It is not
necessary to crush a tyrant or to organise a revolution or to
reconstruct society or to be a professional reformer. There are plenty
of professional reformers who have tremendous enthusiasm for
humanity and who have never helped an individual. Those who by
unselfish lives and consideration for others elevate the tone of the
community in which they live and who by their presence make others
happier, these are the salt of the earth. Their daily existence is more
eloquent than a sermon.
American young men and women in our High Schools and
universities are not often face to face with the mystery of life. They
have no conception of the amount of suffering in the world. Their
own lives are comparatively free from it, in many cases free even
from anxiety. These boys and girls are for the most part sensible,
alert, quick-witted, and practical; what I should like to see would be a
change in their ideals from mere Success to something nobler. I
should like to see them devoting their intelligence and energy to the
alleviation of suffering and to the elevation of human thought and life.
If one still believes that the highest happiness and satisfaction
come from the attainment of any selfish ambition, no matter how
worthy in itself, it is well to remember the significance of the fact that
Goethe, acknowledged to be one of the wisest of men, made Faust
happy only when he was unselfishly interested in the welfare of
others; and to remember that Benjamin Franklin, perhaps the
shrewdest of all shrewd Americans, found the greatest pleasure of
his long life in two things—public service and individual acts of
kindness.
XX
BIRDS AND STATESMEN
When, in the Spring of 1910, Theodore Roosevelt was on his

way to England from his African explorations, he wrote a strange
letter to the British Foreign Office in London. I call it a strange letter,
because it is the kind of epistle one would not expect to be sent by
an ex-executive of one country to the Foreign Office of another. He
wrote that during his stay in England he would like to make an
excursion into the woods, hear the English songbirds and learn their
names; in order that he might do this satisfactorily and intelligently,
would the Foreign Office please select some naturalist who knew the
note of every bird in England and request him to accompany Mr.
Roosevelt on this expedition?
Well, the head of the British Foreign Office was Sir Edward Grey
and he himself knew the note of every singing bird in England—a
remarkable accomplishment for one of the busiest statesmen in the
world. He therefore appointed himself as bird-guide for the ex-
President of the United States.
The two distinguished men stood on a railway platform one day
in May and were surrounded by reporters, who supposed that a new
world-problem of the first magnitude was on the carpet. But the two
men told the reporters that they were going away into the country for
two days, did not wish to be disturbed, and asked the journalists to
leave them alone. Accordingly, it was generally believed that
Roosevelt and Grey were absorbed in the discussion of international
affairs, and as the great war broke out a few years later, some went
so far as to believe then that it had its origin in this sinister interview.
Now, as a matter of fact, the two men did not mention either war
or politics; they went a-walking in the New Forest and every time
they heard the voice of a bird, Grey told Roosevelt the singer’s
name. They both agreed (and so do I) that the English blackbird is
the best soloist in Great Britain.
It is a curious fact that the four most famous birds in English
literature are none of them native in America. The Big Four are the
Nightingale, the Skylark, the Blackbird and the Cuckoo. From
Chaucer to Kipling the British poets have chanted the praise of the
Nightingale. And of all the verses in his honour, it is perhaps the
tribute by Keats that is most worthy of the theme.
Thou was not born for death, immortal Bird!

No hungry generations tread thee down;
The voice I hear this passing night was heard
In ancient days by emperor and clown:
Perhaps the self-same song that found a path
Through the sad heart of Ruth, when, sick for home,
She stood in tears amid the alien corn;
The same that oftimes hath
Charmed magic casements, opening on the foam
Of perilous seas, in faery lands forlorn.
We never had nightingales in the United States until Edward W.

Bok imported them into his Bird Paradise in Florida. Previous
attempts to bring them over had failed; the birds invariably died.
Some investigators declared that this tragedy was owing to the
change of diet; but of course the real reason for their death was
American poetry. After the nightingales had listened for centuries to
Chaucer, Shakespeare, Milton, Wordsworth, Keats, etc., the change
to the level of American verse was too much for them, and they died
of shock.
The English skylark leaves the grass and soars aloft, singing his
heart out, so that after he has disappeared in the sky, we hear his
voice coming down out of the blue, like a revelation. One of the
poets calls it a “sightless song.”
Shakespeare sends the skylark to the gate of heaven.
And Shelley’s poem on the skylark expresses the ethereal nature
of the soaring voice of this bird:
Higher still and higher

From the earth thou springest,
Like a cloud of fire;
The blue deep thou wingest,
And singing still dost soar, and
Soaring ever singest.
American blackbirds do not sing well; the so-called crow-

blackbird, so common in flocks in autumn, makes a noise like
tonsillitis, or as if he had a boy’s voice in process of changing, or as
if he were a hinge that needed oiling. Our redwing blackbird, with his
scarlet epaulets, has a good-natured and perky wheeze, which can
hardly be called singing. But the English and Continental blackbird
pours out of his throat the most heavenly melody. One Winter day in
Munich, in the midst of a snowstorm, I saw a blackbird perched on a
tree directly in front of the University building. He was “hove to,” that
is, he had his beak turned directly into the wind, and as the
snowflakes beat against his little face, he sent straight into the gale
the loveliest music. Tennyson has observed how the voice of the
blackbird loses its beauty in the hot Summer days.
A golden bill! the silver tongue,

Cold February loved, is dry:
Plenty corrupts the melody
That made thee famous once, when young;
And in the sultry garden-squares,
Now thy flute-notes are changed to coarse,
I hear thee not at all, or hoarse
As when a hawker hawks his wares.
The nearest we Americans can get to the English cuckoo is the

abominable cuckoo clock. The voice of the English cuckoo sounds
exactly like the clock, only of course you can’t train him to strike
right. In addition to his regular accomplishment, he is a ventriloquist
and can throw his voice a tremendous distance. One day, crossing a
field in Sussex, I heard the loud double note of the cuckoo,
apparently directly behind me. He was in reality a furlong away.
Wordsworth says:
O blithe New-comer! I have heard,

I hear thee and rejoice.
O Cuckoo! shall I call thee Bird,
Or but a wandering Voice?
While I am lying on the grass

Thy twofold shout I hear,
From hill to hill it seems to pass,
At once far off and near.
Concerning the all too common crimes of shooting, snaring, and

eating little singing birds, the English poet, Ralph Hodgson, has
expressed himself in words that ought to be everywhere read:
I saw with open eyes

Singing birds sweet
Sold in the shops
For the people to eat,
Sold in the shops of
Stupidity Street.
I saw in a vision
The worm in the wheat
And in the shops nothing
For people to eat:
Nothing for sale in
Stupidity Street.
XXI
RUSSIA BEFORE THE REVOLUTION
The best way to invade Russia is by sea; and I advise those who
plan to visit the Soviet Republic to go via Stockholm. Copenhagen,
Christiania, Stockholm are three interesting cities and should be
seen in that order. Stockholm, the “Venice of the North,” is one of the
most beautiful, most picturesque, and most attractive places in the
world.
It is surprising that the short sea voyage from Stockholm to Saint
Petersburg (now Leningrad) is not better known; it is enchantingly
beautiful. We left Stockholm at six o’clock in the evening of a fine
September day, and as our tiny steamer drew away, the sunset light
over the fair city hung a new picture on the walls of my mind. It took
some five hours to reach the Baltic, five hours of constantly changing
scenery, one view melting into another like a succession of
dissolving panoramas. Hundreds of miniature islands dotted with
châteaux and country houses; winking lighthouse towers; “the grey
sea and the long black land.”
An impossible half-moon lent the last touch of glory to the scene.
We stood on the top deck and beheld the spacious firmament on
high, thick inlaid with patines of bright gold; while the long level light
of the crazy moon fell across the darkening water and the myriad
islands.
In the middle of the night we crossed the Baltic, and in the
whitening dawn entered the gulf of Finland. The air was nipping and
eager, but the sun rose in a cloudless sky. All day long the steamer
nosed her way through the blue sea, twisting and turning among the
countless points of the earth’s surface that were just able to keep
their heads above water. A few of these were covered with green
grass, and supported white farm buildings where laughing children
accompanied by dignified dogs ran out to see our transit; but for the
most part these elevations were bald, with a tall lighthouse as sole
decoration.
At five in the afternoon we reached Helsingfors (still my farthest
north) and stepped ashore to spend six hours in seeing the town, the
boat not proceeding toward Russia until late in the night. The
clouded sky was low and harsh the next morning, and the sea was
surly. Toward noon it cleared, and early in the afternoon we saw the
gilded domes and spires of Holy Russia. After a long delay with
passports, we drove across one of the bridges over the Neva to our
hotel at a corner of the Nevski Prospekt. Although it was only
September, the temperature was under fifty, and seemed colder.
I had a severe cold, which had its origin in a chill I had caught in
rashly touching a piece of toast that a waiter brought me in a London
hotel. But I was right in style. Accustomed as I was to see on the
streets of any American city the healthy, cheerful, well-clad and well-
shod men and women, I was appalled by the faces and the clothes
of the Russians. What they look like today I know not, but a more
unhappy looking crowd than I saw every day on the streets of
Russian cities I have never seen outside of pictures of Hell. Many of
the people had their ears and mouths bandaged and on their feet
were (if they could afford it) enormous knee-boots. All seemed to be
suffering from the foot and mouth disease.
Never shall I forget the boots and overcoats and uniforms on the
Nevski Prospekt. The question of leg-clothes would have interested
the author of Sartor Resartus. In Edinburgh all the men and some of
the women wore knickers, with stockings that seemed an inch thick.
Compared with Europeans, Americans are tropically clad. In order to
avoid the glare of publicity, I bought in Scotland a homespun golf
suit.
I tried these abbreviated trousers just once on the Nevski
Prospekt. Everybody stopped to stare. Had I worn a flowing purple
robe, I should not have attracted such attention. Military officers
gazed at me in cold amazement, as though I had leprosy; while the
more naïve passers made audible comment, which fortunately I
could not translate. Then I tried the experiment of conventional
clothing, but wore low shoes. Everyone gazed at my feet, some in
wonder, some in admiration, some in terror. I felt as I did many years
ago when I wore a striped cap in Brussels. A stranger looked at me
earnestly and then said in an almost reverent tone, and he said it
three times: Nom de Dieu!
In America our citizens show much the same interest in strange
clothing. Professor E. B. Wilson, a distinguished mathematician,
bought a suit of clothes in Paris. He wore it only once in America. A
citizen gazed at him steadfastly, and said “J——!”
The faces of the common people in Russian cities were sad to
behold, whether one saw them on the street or in church. Not only
was there no hilarity, such as one sees everywhere in American
towns; those faces indicated a total lack of illuminating intelligence.
They were blank, dull, apathetic, helpless. Gorki said that the people
in Russia had so little to look forward to that they were glad when
their own houses burned down, as it made a break in the dull routine
of life.
One afternoon I walked the entire length of the Nevski Prospekt,
no mean achievement in a heavy overcoat. I began at the banks of
the restless, blustering Neva, passed the extraordinary statue of
Peter the Great, came through the garden by the statue of Gogol,
and with the thin gold spire of the Admiralty at my back, entered the
long avenue.
I followed the immense extension of the Nevski, clear to the
cemetery, and stood reverently before the tomb of Dostoevski. Here
in January, 1881, the body of the great novelist was laid in the grave,
in the presence of forty thousand mourners.
In a corner of the enclosure I found the tomb of the composer
Chaikovski; I gazed on the last resting-place of Glinka, father of
Russian music. On account of the marshy soil, the graves are built
above instead of below the surface of the ground, exactly as they are
in New Orleans. It is in reality a city of the dead, the only place
where a Russian finds peace. I passed out on the other side of the
cemetery, walked through the grounds of the convent, and found
myself abruptly clear from the city, on the edge of a vast plain.
XXII
THE DEVIL
It is rather a pity that the Devil has vanished with Santa Claus
and other delectable myths; the universe is more theatrical with a
“personal devil” roaming at large, seeking whom he may devour. In
the book of Job the Devil played the part of the return of the native,
coming along in the best society in the cosmos to appear before the
Presence. And when he was asked where he came from, he replied
in a devilishly debonair manner, “From going to and fro in the earth,
and from walking up and down in it.”
There are so many things in this world that seem to be the
Devil’s handiwork, and there are so many people who look like the
devil, that it seems as if he could not be extinct. His chief service to
the universal scene was to keep virtue from becoming monotonous;
to warn even saints that they must mind their step; to prove that
eternal vigilance is the price of safety. The Enemy of Mankind never
took a holiday. Homer might nod, but not he. In fact, on human
holidays he was, if possible, unusually efficient. The idleness of man
was the opportunity of Satan.
The principle of evil is so active, so tireless, so penetrating that
the simplest way to account for it is to suppose that men and things
receive constantly the personal attention of the Devil. Weeds, and
not vegetables, grow naturally; illness, not health, is contagious;
children and day-labourers are not instinctively industrious;
champagne tastes better than cocoa.
Throughout the Middle Ages, although every one believed
steadfastly in the reality of the Devil and that he was the most
unscrupulous of all foes, there was a certain friendliness with him,
born, I suppose, of daily intimacy. It was like the way in which hostile
sentries will hobnob with one another, swap tobacco, etc., in the less
tense moments of war. The Devil was always just around the corner
and would be glad of an invitation to drop in.
Thus in the mediæval mystery plays, the forerunners of our
modern theatres, the Devil was always the Clown. He supplied
“comic relief” and was usually the most popular personage in the
performance. He appeared in the conventional makeup, a horrible
mask, horns, cloven hoofs and prehensile tail, with smoke issuing
from mouth, ears and posterior. He did all kinds of acrobatic feats,
and his appearance was greeted with shouts of joy. In front of that
part of the stage representing Hellmouth he was sometimes
accompanied with “damned souls,” persons wearing black tights with
yellow stripes. On an examination at Yale I set the question,
“Describe the costume of the characters in the mystery plays.” One
of the students wrote: “The damned souls wore Princeton colours.”
The modern circus clown comes straight from the Devil. When
you see him stumble and fall all over himself, whirl his cap aloft and
catch it on his head, distract the attention of the spectators away
from the gymnasts to his own antics, he is doing exactly what his
ancestor the Devil did in the mediæval plays.
It is at first thought singular that those audiences, who believed
implicitly in a literal hell of burning flame, should have taken the Devil
as the chief comic character. I suppose the only way to account for
this is to remember how essential a feature of romantic art is the
element of the grotesque, which is a mingling of horror and humour,
like our modern spook plays. If you pretend that you are a hobgoblin
and chase a child, the child will flee in real terror, but the moment
you stop, the child will say, “Do that again.”
There are many legends of compacts with the Devil, where some
individual has sold his soul to gain the whole world. The most
famous of these stories is, of course, Faust, but there are
innumerable others. Here is a story I read in an American magazine
some fifty years ago.
A man, threatened with financial ruin, was sitting in his library
when the maid brought in a visiting card and announced that a
gentleman would like to be admitted. On the card was engraved
Mr. Apollo Lyon.
As the man looked at it his eyes blurred, the two words ran
together, so they seemed to form the one word
Apollyon.
The gentleman was shown in; he was exquisitely dressed and
was evidently a suave man of the world. He proposed that the one
receiving him should have prosperity and happiness for twenty
years. Then Mr. Lyon would call again and be asked three questions.
If he failed to answer any of the three the man should keep his
wealth and prosperity. If all three were correctly answered the man
must accompany Mr. Lyon.
The terms were accepted; all went well for twenty years. At the
appointed time appeared Mr. Lyon, who had not aged in the least; he
was the same smiling, polished gentleman. He was asked a question
that had floored all the theologians. Mr. Lyon answered it without
hesitation. The second question had stumped all the philosophers,
but it had no difficulties for Mr. Lyon.
Then there was a pause, and the sweat stood out on the
questioner’s face. At that moment his wife came in from shopping.
She was rosy and cheerful. After being introduced to Mr. Lyon she
noticed her husband was nervous. He denied this, but said that he
and Mr. Lyon were playing a little game of three questions and he did
not want to lose. She asked permission to put the third question and
in desperation her husband consented. She held out her new hat
and asked: “Mr. Lyon, which is the front end of this hat?” Mr. Lyon
turned it around and around, and then with a strange exclamation
went straight through the ceiling, leaving behind him a strong smell
of sulphur.
XXIII
THE FORSYTE SAGA
It is impossible to say what books of our time will be read at the

close of this century; it is probable that many of the poems and tales
of Kipling, the lyrics of Housman, dramatic narratives by Masefield,
some plays by Shaw and Barrie, will for a long time survive their
authors.
Among the novels, I do not know of any that has or ought to
have a better chance for the future than the books written about the
family of the Forsytes by John Galsworthy. They at present hold
about the same place in contemporary English literature as is held in
France by Romain Rolland’s Jean Christophe. Both are works of
great length which reflect with remarkable accuracy the political,
social, commercial, artistic life and activity of the twentieth century,
the one in England, the other on the Continent.
Entirely apart from their appeal as good novels, that is to say,
apart from one’s natural interest in the plot and in the characters,
both are social documents of great value. If the future historian
wishes to know English and Continental society in the first quarter of
the twentieth century, he will do well to give attention and reflexion to
these two works of “fiction.”
John Galsworthy was just under forty when in 1906 he published
a novel called The Man of Property. He had produced very little
before this, but it took no especial critical penetration to discover that
the new book was a masterpiece. The family of the Forsytes bore a
striking resemblance to one another in basic traits and ways of
thinking, yet each was sharply individualised. A new group of
persons had been added to British fiction. The word “Property,” as in
Tennyson’s Northern Farmer, was the keynote, and before long it
began to appear that one of the most dramatic of contrasts was to be
used as the subject. This is the struggle between the idea of
Property and the idea of Beauty—between the commercial,
acquisitive temperament and the more detached, but equally
passionate artistic temperament.
Even in the pursuit of beauty Mr. Soames Forsyte never forgot
the idea of property. He was a first-class business man in the city,
but he was also an expert judge of paintings, which he added to his
collection. Oil and canvas do not completely satisfy any healthy
business man; so Soames added to his collection, as the
masterpiece in his gallery, an exquisitely beautiful woman whom he
made his wife.
The philosophy of love comes in here. What is love? Is it
exclusively the idea of possession, which often is no more dignified
than the predatory instinct or is it the unalloyed wish that the object
of one’s love should be as happy and secure as possible? No one
can truly and sincerely love Beauty either in the abstract or in the
concrete if one’s eyes are clouded by predatory desire. One must
look at beauty without the wish to possess it if one is really to
appreciate beauty. A first-class French chef would look into the big
front window of a confectioner’s shop and fully appreciate the art and
taste that created those delectable edibles; but a hungry boy who
looked at the same objects would not appreciate them critically at all.
The wife of Soames finds him odious, so odious that we cannot
altogether acquit her of guilt in marrying him; and Soames, who as a
Man of Property expected her to fulfill her contract, did not make
himself more physically attractive by insisting on his rights. She left
him for a man of exactly the opposite temperament.
When Mr. Galsworthy finished this fine novel, he had no intention
of going on with the history of the family. He wrote many other novels
and some remarkable plays, but nothing made the impression on
readers that had been produced by the Forsyte family. Nearly twenty
years later he returned to the theme, and at once his power as a
novelist seemed to rise; there is something in this family that calls
out his highest powers. When he discovered that he had written five
works of fiction on the Forsytes, three long novels and two short
stories, of which the brief interlude called Indian Summer of a
Forsyte is an impeccable and I hope imperishable work of art, he hit
upon the happy idea of assembling them into one prose epic, and
calling the whole thing by the ironical title of The Forsyte Saga. It is
my belief that for many years to come the name of John Galsworthy
will be associated with this work, in what I fervently hope will be its
expanded form.
For since the assembling of the five pieces Mr. Galsworthy has
published several other novels dealing with the family—The White
Monkey, The Silver Spoon and in 1928 he wrote FINIS with Swan
Song. Here he kills Soames, and while he probably does not feel
quite so sad as Thackeray felt when he killed Colonel Newcome, I
venture to say that he does not gaze on the corpse of Soames with
indifferent eyes. For to my mind the most interesting single feature of
this whole mighty epic is the development of the character of this
man.
Clyde Fitch used to say something that is no doubt true of many
works of the imagination; he said that he would carefully plan a play,
write his first act, and definitely decide what the leading characters
should say and do in the subsequent portions of the work. Then
these provokingly independent characters seemed to acquire, not
only an independent existence, but a power of will so strong that
they insisted on doing and saying all kinds of things which he tried in
vain to prevent.
In The Man of Property Soames Forsyte is a repulsive character;
he is hated by his wife, by the reader, and by the author. But in these
later books Soames becomes almost an admirable person, and we
may say of him at the end in reviewing his life, that nothing became
him like the leaving of it—for he died nobly. Long before this
catastrophe, however, we have learned to admire, respect, and
almost to love Soames. Is it possible that Mr. Galsworthy had any
notion of this spiritual progress when he wrote The Man of Property,
or is it that in living so long with Soames he began to see his good
points?
Dickens was a master in this kind of development. When we first
meet Mr. Pickwick, he seems like the president of a service club as
conceived by Sinclair Lewis; he is the butt of the whole company.
Later Mr. Pickwick develops into a noble and magnanimous
gentleman, whom every right-minded person loves. Look at Dick
Swiveller—when we first see him, he is no more than a guttersnipe.
He develops into a true knight.
XXIV
PROFESSION AND PRACTICE
Beautiful lines which show that the man who wrote them had a
clear conception of true religion are these:
Thus to relieve the wretched was his pride,

And even his failings leaned to virtue’s side;
But in his duty prompt at every call,
He watched and wept, he prayed and felt for all;
And, as a bird each fond endearment tries
To tempt its new-fledged offspring to the skies,
He tried each art, reproved each dull delay,
Allured to brighter worlds, and led the way.
The man who wrote them is thus described by James Boswell:

“Those who were in any way distinguished excited envy in him to so
ridiculous an excess that the instances of it are hardly credible.
When accompanying two beautiful young ladies with their mother on
a tour of France, he was seriously angry that more attention was
paid to them than to him.” Goldsmith wrote of virtue, modesty, sweet
unselfishness in the most convincing manner; his words were more
convincing than his behaviour. He allured to brighter worlds, but did
not lead the way.
Schopenhauer, the great philosopher of pessimism, taught that
absolute asceticism was the only true religion and method of escape
from the ills of life; but he never practiced it, and told his disciples to
mind his precepts and not his example. Unfortunately, whenever any
one gives advice in the field of morality or religion, the first person on

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Physics in Focus (Year 12 Student

Book), 2nd Edition Robert Farr

YEAR 12 Philip Young

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Cengage Learning Australia

Cengage Learning New Zealand

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Printed in China by China Translation & Printing Services.

1 Working scientifically and depth studies 1

MODULE FIVE » ADVANCED MECHANICS 30

4 Motion in gravitational fields 79

Module 5 review questions 102

Charged particles, conductors and electric and magnetic fields 105 5

The motor effect 131 6

Electromagnetic induction 149 7

Applications of the motor effect 173 8

Module 6 review questions 198

9 Electromagnetic spectrum 202

10 Light: wave model 226

11 Light: quantum model 250

12 Light and special relativity 272

Module 7 review questions 306

Origins of the elements 309 13

Structure of the atom 340 14

Quantum mechanical nature of the atom 357 15

Properties of the nucleus 383 16

Module 8 review questions 427

9780170409131 CONTENTS vii

● The trajectory of a particle is a parabolic arc.

review recent concepts are provided as short Check

conduct a scientific investigation can be found in the chapter.

Working scientifically and depth study chapter on page 1.

The end-of-chapter review provides:

•• a Summary of the important concepts that have been

The Risk assessment table occurs

! ◗ The trajectory of a particle is a parabolic arc.

within the investigations. The table highlights RISK

suggestions on how to minimise these risks –

they are not to be considered comprehensive. Teachers are Review quiz

5 A cricket ball is bowled with an initial velocity of

students are in their care.

•• Chapter review questions that review understanding

The Depth study provides you with the opportunity

Projectile motion can also be modelled graphically using

in chapter 1, and there are suggestions for topics provided

completion of your depth study.

6 Four different projectile trajectories are shown in

digital resources for Nelson textbooks, located at

Each chapter will be supplemented with the

•• Worksheets to review concepts and to practise

•• A review quiz containing 20 auto-correcting

are hotspotted within the ebook and they can also be

Please note that complimentary access to NelsonNet

who use the accompanying student textbook as a core

102 MODULE FIVE » ADVANCED MECHANICS 9780170409131

educational resource in their classroom. Contact your

xii USING PHYSICS IN FOCUS 9780170409131

OUTCOME STATEMENTS CHAPTER

1.1 Physics knowledge and understanding

2 CHAPTER 1 » WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY AND DEPTH STUDIES 9780170409131

Newton’s Law of Universal

Any object in orbital

FIGURE 1.2 Concept map for mechanics (chapters 2 to 4)