Nervous tissue

 The nervous system is made up, predominantly, of

tissue that has the special property of being able to
conduct impulses rapidly from one part of the body
to another.
 The specialised cells that constitute the functional
units of the nervous system are called neurons.
 Within the brain and spinal cord neurons are
supported by a special kind of connective tissue that
is called neuroglia.
 Nervous tissue, composed of neurons and
neuroglia, is richly supplied with blood.
 Nerve cells can convert information obtained from
the environment into codes that can be transmitted
along their axons.
 By such coding the same neuron can transmit
different kinds of information.
 Neuron Structure
 Neurons vary considerably in size, shape and other
features. However, most of them have some major
features in common.
 A neuron consists of a cell body that gives off a
variable number of processes. The cell body is also
called the soma or perikaryon.
 Like a typical cell it consists of a mass of cytoplasm
surrounded by a cell membrane. The cytoplasm
contains a large central nucleus (usually with a
prominent nucleolus), numerous mitochondria,
lysosomes and a Golgi complex.
 In addition to these features, the cytoplasm of a
neuron has some distinctive characteristics not seen
in other cells. The cytoplasm shows the presence of
a granular material that stains intensely with basic
dyes; this material is the Nissl substance.
 These bodies are seen to be composed of rough
surfaced endoplasmic reticulum. The presence of
abundant granular endoplasmic reticulum is an
 indication of the high level of protein synthesis in
neurons.
 The proteins are needed for maintenance and repair,
and for production of neurotransmitters and
enzymes.
 Another distinctive feature of neurons is the
presence of a network of fibrils permeating the
cytoplasm. These neurofibrils are seen, with the EM,
to consist of microfilaments and microtubules.
 Some neurons contain pigment granules (e.g.,
neuromelanin in neurons of the substantianigra).
 Ageing neurons contain a pigment lipofuscin (made
up of residual bodies derived from lysosomes).
 The processes arising from the cell body of a neuron
are called neurites. These are of two kinds. Most
neurons give off a number of short branching
processes called dendrites and one longer process
called an axon.

Axoplasimic transport
 Axoplasmic transport, also called axonal transport,
is responsible for movement of mitochondria,
lipids, synaptic vesicles, proteins, and other cell
parts to and from a neuron's cell body through the
cytoplasm of its axon (the axoplasm).
 Axons, which can be 1,000 or 10,000 times the
length of the cell body, or soma, contain no
ribosomes or means of producing proteins, and so
rely on axoplasmic transport for all their protein
needs.
 Axonal transport is also responsible for moving
molecules destined for degradation from the axon to
lysosomes to be broken down.
 Movement toward the cell body is called retrograde
transport and movement toward the synapse is
called anterograde transport.

Mechanism
 The vast majority of axonal proteins are synthesized
in the neuronal cell body and transported along
axons.
 Axonal transport occurs throughout the life of a
neuron and is essential to its growth and survival.
 Microtubules lie along the axis of the axon and
provide the main cytoskeletal "tracks" for transport.
 The motor proteins kinesin and dynein are
mechanochemical enzymes that move cargoes
anterogradely (towards the axon tip) and
retrogradely (towards the cell body) respectively.
 Motor proteins bind and transport several different
cargoes including organelles such as mitochondria,
cytoskeletal polymers, and vesicles containing
neurotransmitter.
 Vesicular cargoes move relatively fast (50-400
mm/day) whereas transport of proteins takes much
longer (moving at less than 8 mm/day).

The glial cells

 The glial cells are a collective of cells. Their main
function is to protect and maintain the optimum
functioning of your nervous system. These cells are
commonly called glia or neuroglia.
 Further, they are linked with the central nervous
system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system(PNS).
 However, it is important to remember that the
neuroglia is a distinct kind of cell in itself. And, they
only support the neurons.

Neuroglia Functions
 It offers essential nutrients. It includes oxygen to
neurons.
 It also helps create the myelin sheath.
 it also helps to maintain homeostasis within the
neurons.
 It destroys pathogens. It helps protect the neurons.
 It also provides structural stability. It forms a support
structure that the neurons can inhabit.

Types of Glial cells and Their Functions

1. Astrocytes
 The Astrocytes get their name from ‘Astro’, meaning
‘star’, and ‘cyte’, meaning ‘cell’. Thus, they are star-
shaped cells found in the CNS.
 They provide structural integrity. They fill up the
spaces between neurons.
 Further, the astrocytes also conduct the metabolite
exchange. It is between the neurons and blood vessels.

Oligodendrocytes
 The oligodendrocytes are glial cells present in the CNS.
Further, they help in the making of the myelin sheath.
The sheath that encases the axons of neurons.

Microglia
 The microglias are phagocytic cells. They engulf
pathogens. Thus, serve a defensive role within the
nervous system.
 Further, it has flexible shapes. Its form tends to keep
changing. Mainly after it has engulfed a foreign body.
They are present throughout the brain and spinal cord

Ependymal Cells
 The ependymal cells are of three variants. Thus, they
are ependymocytes, tanycytes, and choroidal epithelial
cells.
 Similarly, these cells are a part of the CNS. They deal
with aspects of the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).

Schwann Cells
 The Schwann Cells are like a counterpart to the
oligodendrocytes. But, they are present in the PNS
instead. Just like them, the Schwann cells also help in
the making of the myelin sheath.
 Additionally, these cells are also phagocytes. They
engulf foreign particulate matter.

Satellite Cells
 The satellite cells are found in the PNS. Further, they
are found surrounding the nerve cells. The nerve cells
of the sensory system and the autonomic system.
 Further, the main function of the satellite cells is to
maintain a stable chemical environment.

The dendrites
 Are characterised by the fact that they terminate near
the cell body. They are irregular in thickness, and Nissl
granules extend into them.
 They bear numerous small spines that are of variable
shape.

The axon
 Extend for a considerable distance away from the cell
body. The longest axons may be as much as a metre
long.
 Each axon has a uniform diameter, and is devoid of
Nissl substance.
In addition to these differences in structure, there is a
fundamental functional difference between dendrites
and axons.
In a dendrite, the nerve impulse travels towards the
cell body whereas in an axon the impulse travels away
from the cell body.
The proteins present in dendrites and axons are not
identical. This fact is used for immunocytochemical
identification of dendrites in tissue sections. A protein
MAP-2 is present exclusively in dendrites and helps in
their identification.
We have seen above that the axon is free of Nissl
granules. The Nissl-free zone extends for a short
distance into the cell body: this part of the cell body is
called the axon hillock.
The part of the axon just beyond the axon hillock is
called the initial segment.
During its formation each axon comes to be associated
with certain cells that provide a sheath for it.
The cells providing this sheath for axons lying outside
the central nervous system are called Schwann cells.
Axons having a myelin sheath are called myelinated
axons.
The presence of a myelin sheath increases the velocity
of conduction (for a nerve fibre of the same diameter).
It also reduces the energy expended in the process of
conduction.
Each Schwann cell provides the myelin sheath for a
short segment of the axon.
 At the junction of any two such segments there is a
short gap in the myelin sheath. These gaps are called
the nodes of Ranvier.

Neuroglial Cells
 Neuroglial cells—usually referred to simply as glial cells
or glia—are quite different from nerve cells.
 The major distinction is that glia do not participate
directly in synaptic interactions and electrical signaling
 Glia are more numerous than nerve cells in the brain,
outnumbering them by a ratio of perhaps 3 to
 Although glial cells also have complex processes
extending from their cell bodies, they are generally
smaller than neurons, and they lack axons and
dendrites.

Ependymal cells
 Ependymal cells develop in the ventricles and fluid-
filled compartments of the CNS.
 They provide the lining for these fluid-filled spaces and
help form and transport cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
 The CSF carries chemical messengers, hormones,
nutrients, and waste from the brain to the spinal cord
and vice versa.

The function of glial cells in the PNS

 The peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists of the
nerves outside the brain and spinal cord.
 It is responsible for carrying signals to and from the
CNS.
 Glial cells play an important role in maintaining the
health of peripheral nerves and ensuring proper
communication between them and the CNS.
 Two main types of glial cells develop in this region:
Schwann cells and satellite cells.

Satellite cells
 Satellite cells help maintain the health and activity of
neurons in the PNS.
 They provide support and nutrition to peripheral
nerves and regulate their calcium levels.
 In addition, satellite cells release neurotrophic factors
that help protect neurons from degeneration or
death. They are essential for developing, maintaining,
and repairing peripheral nerves.