KNUFXRLG S

XTNO[CBTBOKFN HB KNLGT
>. Knlgr

Bobriín tærmfkn bo trnoscbrbokfn botrb uo sfstbmn y su botgrog. Bl knlgr cluyb hb uon

rbifûo hb mnygr tbmpbrnturn n uon rbifûo hb mbogr tbmpbrnturn.
Ln prfmbrn lby hb ln tbrmghfoîmfkn (kgosbrvnkfûo hb ln bobriín) pbrmftb knlkulnr ln
knotfhnh hb knlgr fotbrknmdfnhn g trnoscbrfhn
t rnoscbrfhn hurnotb uo prgkbsg.

q = m ¹ (jsnl - jbot)
Lgs mbknofsmgs hb trnoscbrbokfn hb knlgr y lns bkunkfgobs kgrrbspgohfbotbs
pbrmftbo1
• Tblnkfgonr bl cluag hb knlgr kgo ln hfcbrbokfn hb tbmpbrnturn botrb lns rbifgobs
qub fotbrknmdfno knlgr.
• Hbtbrmfonr bl îrbn n trnvæs hb ln kunl sb trnoscfbrb bl knlgr n kfbrtn vblgkfhnh.
[go trbs lgs mbknofsmgs mbhfnotb lgs kunlbs bl knlgr sb trnoscfbrb. Bo knsgs
prîktfkgs, bstgs mbknofsmgs sb hno sfmultîobnmbotb. Unrn bl bstuhfg
kgrrbspgohfbotb, hbsnrrgllnrbmgs knhn uog hb bllgs pgr sbpnrnhg y nsí
kgogkbrbmgs quæ bkunkfgobs sb kumplbo pnrn knhn mbknofsmg.
Kgohukkfûo

Babmplg1 trnoscbrbokfn hb knlgr n trnvæs hb uon tudbrín hb nkbrg.

Kgovbkfûo
Babmplg1 trnoscbrbokfn hb knlgr bo bl rnhfnhgr hb uo nutgmûvfl.

Tnhfnkfûo
Babmplg1 trnoscbrbokfn hb knlgr hbl sgl n ln tfbrrn.

4. Xrnoscbrbokfn hb knlgr pgr kgohukkfûo

Ugr bstb mbknofsmg, bl knlgr bs trnoscbrfhg botrb hgs kubrpgs bo kgotnktg hfrbktg, g
botrb rbifgobs hbl mfsmg kubrpg, pgr fotbrnkkfûo mglbkulnr.

Bo lgs insbs y líqufhgs. pbrg sgdrb tghg bo lgs sûlfhgs, lns mglækulns qub bstîo kgo
ofvblbs hb bobriín mîs nltgs (tfbobo mnygr tbmpbrnturn) fmpnrtbo nlig hb su
bobriín n lns mglækulns nhynkbotbs qub tfbobo ofvblbs hb bobriín mîs dnags.
Ln Lby qub rfib ln kgohukkfûo hb knlgr cub prgpubstn pgr bl císfkg y mntbmîtfkg
crnokæs A.D. Cgurfbr1

hX
q = ∔` N
hx

S-4
Hgohb1

q = cluag hb knlgr (vblgkfhnh Y

hb trnoscbrbokfn hb knlgr)
` = kgohuktfvfhnh tærmfkn Y / m
N = îrbn hb trnoscbrbokfn m4
hX/hx = irnhfbotb hb tbmpbrnturn
bo ln hfrbkkfûo x @/m

4.> Xrnoscbrbokfn hb knlgr n trnvæs hb uon pnrbh plnon sfmplb

` qx = ∔ ` N hX
hx
N

x4 X4
qx
N ∠ hx = ∔` ∠ hX
x> X>
X>
qx
(x4 ∔ x> ) = ` (X> ∔ X4 )
N
X4
sgl.
nk. ⇔ qx = ` N (X> ∔ X4 ) (>)
(x 4 ∔ x> )
x

[f nsumfmgs qub ln kgohuktfvfhnh tærmfkn vnrín lfobnlmbotb kgo ln tbmpbrnturn (lg

kunl bs uon dubon nprgxfmnkfûo pnrn ln mnygrín hb lgs knsgs), sb tfbob1

x4 X4
qx
N ∠ hx = ∔ ∠ (n + dX )hX
x> X>

qx d
(x 4 ∔ x> ) = n (X> ∔ X4 ) + (X>4 ∔ X44 )
N 4
 d  (X ∔ X ) (X> ∔ X4 )
⇔ qx = n + (X> + X4 ) N > 4 = ` m N
 4  (x4 ∔ x> ) (x 4 ∔ x> )

Hgohb `m bs ln kgohuktfvfhnh mbhfn hbl mntbrfnl, bs hbkfr, bl vnlgr hb ln kgohuk-

tfvfhnh tærmfkn n ln tbmpbrnturn mbhfn (X> + X4)/4.
Bs kgovbofbotb nirupnr nliuogs tærmfogs hb ln bkunkfûo (>) bo bl kgokbptg hb
rbsfstbokfn tærmfkn (gpgsfkfûo nl cluag hb knlgr)1

∃x ∃X Cubrzn fmpulsgrn
TX = ⇔ qx = =
`⋂N TX Tbsfstbokfn tærmfkn

S-;

4.4 Xrnoscbrbokfn hb knlgr n trnvæs hb pnrbhbs plnons bo sbrfb

`N `D `K
 XND Xbmp. hb kgotnktg botrb lns
pnrbhbs N y D
XDK1 Xbm
Xbmp.
p. h
hb
b kg
kgotn
otnktg
ktg bbotr
otrb
b lns
X> XND pnrbhbs D y K
X>1 Xb
Xbmp
mp.. h
hb
b lln
nppnr
nrbh
bh fotb
fotbrf
rfgr
gr bo N
X41 Xb
Xbmp
mp.. h
hb
b lln
nppnr
nrbh
bh bx
bxtb
tbrf
rfgr
gr b
bo
oK

qx XDK X4

xN xD xK

Ugr knhn knpn hb mntbrfnl sbiño (>)1

`N N ` N ` N
qx = (X> ∔ XND ) = D (XND ∔ XDK ) = K (XDK ∔ X4 )
∃x N ∃x D ∃xK

G dfbo, usnohg bl kkgokbptg

gokbptg hb rbsfstbokfn
rbsfstbokfn tærmfkn bo knh
knhnn knpn1

X> ∔ XND XND ∔ XDK XDK ∔ X4

qx = = =
TXN TXD TXK

Botgokbs, pgr bl tgtnl hb knpns1

q x TXN + TX + TX = X> ∔ X4
D K

∃X Cubrzn fmpulsgrn
⇔ qx = =
∞T Xf Tbsfstbokfn tærmfkn

4.; Xrnoscbrbokfn hb knlgr pgr kgohukkfûo n trnvæs hb uo kflfohrg sfmplb

r> = rnhf
rnhfg
g fo
fotb
tbrf
rfgr
gr
r4 = rnhf
rnhfg
g bx
bxtb
tbrf
rfgr
gr
L L = lgo
lgoift
iftuh
uh hbl kfl
kflfoh
fohrg
rg

r
hX
X qr = ∔` N
r X hr

S-8

Hgohb bl îrbn hb sbkkfûo trnosvbrsnl ogrmnl nl cluag hb knlgr bs bl îrbn lntbrnl hbl
kflfohrg y bs cuokfûo hbl rnhfg1
N = 4υ r L

Fotbirnohg botrb lgs límftbs hb lns pnrbhbs fotbrfgr y bstbrfgr sb gdtfbob1

 r4 X4 r4 X4

qr
∠
r>
hr
N
= ∔`
∠
X>
hX ⇔ qr
∠
r>
hr
4υ r L
= ∔`
∠
X>
hX

Tbsglvfbohg ln fotbirnl, tbobmgs1

4υ L ` (X> ∔ X4 )
qr =
lo(r4 r> )

Fotrghukfbohg bl kgokbptg hb îrbn mbhfn lginrítmfkn (NML)1

N4 ∔ N>
NML =
lo (N 4 N > )

Unrn bl kflfohrg sbrín1

NML = 4υ L (r4 ∔ r> )

lo (r4 r> )

Tbbmplnznohg bstb vnlgr bo ln bkunkfûo hb trnoscbrbokfn

t rnoscbrbokfn hb knlgr sb tfbob1

` NML ∃X
qr = (X4 ∔ X> ) =
∃r TX

Bo luinr hbl îrbn mbhfn lginrítmfkn sb pubhb trndnanr kgo bl îrbn mbhfn nrftmætfkn
(NMN)1

N> + N4
NMN = = υ L (r> + r4 )
4
Ln nprgxfmnkfûo gdtbofhn kgo bl usg hbl NMN bs sucfkfbotb kunohg lgs rnhfgs sgo
muy irnohbs g bl bspbsgr hb lns pnrbhbs bs pbqubþg (pgr babmplg kgo uon rblnkfûo
rnhfg / bspbsgr ? ;).

S-2

4.8 Xrnoscbrbokfn hb knlgr pgr kgohukkfûo n trnvæs hb pnrbhbs kflíohrfkns

kgokæotrfkns bo sbrfb.

Unrn kflfohrgs bo sbrfb, sb nplfkn bl mfsmg krftbrfg qub pnrn pnrbhbs plnons bo sbrfb.

X> ∔ X4
qr =
TXN + TXD
r4
 r>
∃r N ∃rD
T = 0 T =
XN XD
r; ` N NMLN ` D NMLD

4.2 Xrnoscbrbokfn hb knlgr n trnvæs hb bscbrns jubkns sfmplbs.

Îrbn hb trnoscbrbokfn1
r4
r> N = 8υ r 4

r4 X4 r4
hr hr
qr N = ∔` X hX ⇔ qr 8υ r 4 = ∔` (X> ∔ X4 )
∠
r>
∠ >
∠
r>

Tbsglvfbohg, sb gdtfbob1
8υ r>r4 `
qr = (X> ∔ X4 )
r4 ∔ r>

Nonlûifknmbotb nl knsg hbl kflfohrg, fotrghukfmgs pnrn ln bscbrn bl kgokbptg hbl îrbn
mbhfn ibgmætrfkn (NMI)1

NMI = N> ⋂ N4 = 8υ r> r4

Tbbmplnznohg bo ln bkunkfûo hb trnoscbrbokfn hb knlgr sb llbin n ln cgrmn yn
kgogkfhn hb lgs knsgs notbrfgrbs1

` NMI ∃X
qr = (X> ∔ X4 ) =
∃r TX

S-3

4.3 Xrnoscbrbokfn hb knlgr n trnvæs

tr nvæs hb bscbrns jubkns kgokæotrfkns bo sbrfb

Nl fiunl qub pnrn pnrbhbs plnons g kflíohrfkns bo sbrfb, pubhb hbmgstrnrsb qub ln
trnoscbrbokfn hb knlgr pgr kgohukkfûo vfbob hnhn pgr

X> ∔ X4 ∃r N ∃rD
qr = TXN = 0 TXD =
TXN + TXD ` N NMIN ` D NMID

Uuhfbohg fiunlmbotb bmplbnrsb bl îrbn mbhfn nrftmætfkn bo vbz hbl îrbn mbhfn
ibgmætrfkn, pnrn rnhfgs muy irnohbs g bspbsgrbs muy pbqubþgs.

;. Xrnoscbrbokfn hb knlgr pgr kgovbkkfûo

Bstb mbknofsmg hb trnoscbrbokfn hb knlgr sb hbdb nl mgvfmfbotg hbl clufhg. Bl clufhg
críg nhynkbotb n supbrcfkfbs knlfbotbs rbkfdb knlgr qub lubig trnoscfbrb nl rbstg hbl
clufhg críg mbzklîohgsb kgo æl.
Bo ln kgovbkkfûo
kgovbkkfûo lfdrb g onturnl bl mgvfmfbotg hbl clufhg og sb kgmplbmbotn pgr
niftnkfûo mbkîofkn.
Bo ln kgovbkkfûo
kgovbkkfûo cgrznh
cgrznhnn bl mgvfmf
mgvfmfbotg
botg hbl cluf
clufhg
hg sb fokrbmbotn
fokrbmbotn pgr
pgr niftnkfûo
niftnkfûo
mbkîofkn g hîohglb nl clufhg uon kfbrtn vblgkfhnh mbhfnotb uo mbhfg bxtbrog nl
prgkbsg hb trnoscbrbokfn hb knlgr.

;.> Kgbcfkfbotb hb pblíkuln (j)

Kunohg bstîo bo kgotnktg uon supbrcfkfb knlfbotb (X>) y uuoo cclu

lufh
fhgg (X5), hgohb X> bs
mnygr qub X5, gkurrfrî uon trnos
trnoscbrbokfn
cbrbokfn hb knlgr. Ln rbsfstbokfn
rbsfstbokfn nl cluag hb knlgr bo
bstb knsg sb hbtbrmfon bxpbrfmbotnlmbotb mfhfbohg lns tbmpbrnturns y bl cluag hb
knlgr trnoscbrfhg hbshb ln supbrcfkfb.
Jnkfbohg uon nonlgiín kgo ln trnoscbrbokfn hb knlgr pgr kgohukkfûo T = x/(`¹N),
hgohb x bs bl bspbsgr hb ln pnrbh, pnr n ln kgovb
kgovbkkf
kkfûo
ûo x rbprbsbotnrín bl nokjg hb
uon pblíkuln fmnifonrfn n trnvæs hb ln kunl sb hfcuohfrín bl knlgr.
Bl rbkíprgkg hb ln rbsfstbokfn bs kgogkfhg kgmg bl kgbcfkfbotb hb pblíkuln g
kgbcfkfbotb kgovbktfvg. Lns uofhnhbs hb j bo bl sfstbmn [F sgo1 Y / m 4. @

Nliuogs cnktgrbs qub focluybo bo bl vnlgr hbl kgbcfkfbotb hb pblíkuln sgo1

• Urgpfbhnhbs císfkns hbl clufhg
• Irnhg hb niftnkfûo (vblgkfhnh)
• Xnmnþg hbl tudg (hfîmbtrg)
• Cluag pgr bl bxtbrfgr hbl tudg g pgr bl fotbrfgr

S-9

Og jny uon hbrfvnkfûo rnkfgonl qub pbrmftn uo kîlkulg hfrbktg hb j. Og bs prîktf

prîktfkg
kg
bstnr jnkfbohg bxpbrfmbotgs knhn vbz qub sb hbdb nþnhfr g rbmgvbr knlgr hb uo
clufhg.
Ln vblgkfhnh hb trnoscbrbokfn hb knlgr pgr kgovbkkfûo bs uon cuokfûo kgmplfknhn
qub hbpbohb hb vnrfgs cnktgrbs, botrb bllgs oñmbrgs nhfmbosfgonlbs qub hbskrfdbo
ln trnoscbrbokfn hb bobriín bo mgmbotg y knlgr. Unrn knsgs prîktfkgs bl cluag hb
knlgr pgr kgovbkkfûo, pubhb sbr knlkulnhg kgo uon bkunkfûo sfmplfcfknhn sbiño1

q = j ⋂ N ⋂ ∃X

hgohb1

j kgbcfkfbotb
kgovbkkfûo.kgovbktfvg (kgbcfkfbotb hb trnoscbrbokfn hb knlgr pgr
N îrbn n trnvæs hb ln kunl sb hfcuohb bl knlgr.
∃X hfcbrbokfn hb tbmpbrnturns botrb ln pnrbh y bl clufhg.
Bl kgbcfkfbotb kgovbktfvg bs uo pnrîmbtrg qub hbpbohb hb ln cgrmn ibgmætrfkn y
pgsfkfûo hb ln supbrcfkfb, hb ln hfcbrbokfn hb tbmpbrnturns y hbl tfpg hb clufhgs
fovglukrnhgs. Sænsb bl nobxg pnrn nliuons bkunkfgobs bmpírfkns pnrn ln bstfmnkfûo
hb bstb kgbcfkfbotb.
Unrn bstnhg bstnkfgonrfg, bl cluag hb knlgr n trnvæs hb knhn pnrbh y hb knhn pblíkuln,
bs bl mfsmg. Ugr tnotg sb pubhb hbsnrrgllnr uon bkunkfûo qub fovglukrb nsí lgs
mbknofsmgs hb kgohukkfûo y kgovbkkfûo.

;.4 Kgovbkkfûo y kgohukkfûo bo pnrbhbs plnons

X>
Xk>
Clufhg knlfbotb Clufhg críg
Xk4
qx X4

hgohb1 ∃x

X> = Xbm
Xbmpbr
pbrntu
nturn
rn hbl cl
clufh
ufhg
g knlf
knlfbot
botb
b
X4 = Xbmpbr
Xbmpbrntu
nturn
rn hbl
hbl clufhg
clufhg críg
Xk> = Xbmpbrntur
Xbmpbrnturnn hb kgotnktg
kgotnktg kkgogo bl clclufhg
ufhg kknlfbo
nlfbotb
tb
Xk4 = Xbmpbrntur
Xbmpbrnturnn hb kgotnk
kgotnktgtg kg
kgoo bl clufhg críg
Bo bstnhg bstndlb, ln trnoscbrbokfn hb knlgr vfbob hnhn pgr

XK> ∔ X> XK4 ∔ XK X4 ∔ XK

qx = = >
= 4

TX> TX[ TX4

S-:

[fbohg T> ln rbsfstbokfn tærmfkn bo bl clufhg knlfbotb, T[ ln rbsfstbokfn tærmfkn bo bl

sûlfhg y T4 ln rbsfstbokfn tærmfkn bo bl clufhg críg. Tbbmplnznohg lgs rbspbktfvgs
vnlgrbs sb tfbob1

> ∃x >
TX> = 0 TX[ = 0 TX4 =
j> N `N j4 N
Bo nonlgiín kgo rbsfstbokfns blæktrfkns sb pubhb bskrfdfr1

∞T X = TX + TX + TX
> [ 4

Blfmfonohg Xk> y Xk4 sb tfbob1

X4 ∔ X>
q x
= ∞T X

Bstn bkunkfûo tnmdfæo sb pubhb bxprbsnr kgmg1

qx =R N ∃X
sfbohg R bl llnmnhg kgbcfkfbotb ilgdnl hb kgohukkfûo y kgovbkkfûo1
> >
R = =
∞
TX >
+ ∃x + >
j> ` j4

Bstb kgbcfkfbotb pubhb ibobrnlfznrsb pnrn bl knsg hb pnrbhbs plnons bo sbrfb1

> >
R = =
∞ TX >
+∞
∃xf
+
>
j> `f j4

;.; Kgovbkkfûo y kgohukkfûo bo pnrbhbs kflíohrfkns

Hbl mfsmg mghg qub bo pnrbhbs plnons sb pubhb bstndlbkbr bl pbrcfl hb

tbmpbrnturn n trnvæs hb uo kflfohrg hb lgoiftuh “L” y lns kgrrbspgohfbo
kgrrbspgohfbotbs
tbs bkunkfgobs
bkunkfgobs
hb trnoscbrbokfn hb knlgr pgr kgovbkkfûo y kgohukkfûo.
Bo bquflfdrfg sb kumplb1

qKgov> = qKgoh>4 = qKgov 4 = qr

S-6

qr = X> ∔ XK>
>
N> ⋂ j>
r4 X> XK>∔ XK
r> Xk4 qr = 4

Xk> ∃x
X4 NML ⋂ `
XK ∔ X4
qr = 4

>
N4 ⋂ j4

[umnohg lns trbs bkunkfgobs y kgosfhbrnohg qub bl îrbn hb trnoscbrbokfn bo bstb

knsg og sb mnotfbob kgostnotb, sb gdtfbob
gdt fbob cfonlmbotb1

= ∃X
qr
>
+ ∃x + >
N> ⋂ j> NML ⋂ ` N4 ⋂ j4

Unrn bl knsg hb pnrbhbs kflíohrfkns bo sbrfb, ln bkunkfûo ibobrnlfznhn sbrín1

∃X
 qr
> ∃x f
+∞ + >
N> ⋂ j> NML f ⋂ ` f N4 ⋂ j4

;.8 Fotbrknmdfnhgrbs hb knlgr

[go bqufpgs bo lgs kunlbs sb llbvn n kndg ln gpbrnkfûo uoftnrfn hb trnoscbrbokfn hb
knlgr. Bl tfpg mîs kgmño bs kunohg uo clufhg knlfbotb fotbrknmdfn knlgr kgo uo clufhg
críg n trnvæs hb ln pnrbh mbtîlfkn hb uon tudbrín. N ofvbl fohustrfnl, bl fotbrknmdfnhgr
hb knlgr mîs kgogkfhg bs bl hb kgrnzn y tudgs, qub bo su vbrsfûo mîs sfmplb sb
kgmpgob hb hgs tudgs kgokæotrfkgs.
Lgs fotbrknmdfnhgrbs hb knlgr hb tudgs y kgrnzn tfbobo hfcbrbotbs hfsbþgs, kgo bl
ñofkg gdabtfvg hb fokrbmbotnr bl îrbn hb trnoscbrbokfn pnrn mbagrnr bl fotbrknmdfg hb
knlgr botrb hgs clufhgs, lgs kunlbs pubhbo kfrkulnr bo kgrrfbotb pnrnlbln, kruznhn, g
bo kgotrnkgrrfbotb. Unrn bl knsg hb cluag bo kgrrfbotb pnrnlbln bl bsqubmn hbl pbrcfl
hb tbmpbrnturn sbrín hb ln sfiufbotb cgrmn1
X
Xkf
Xjf
Xjf Xjg ∃X> Xjg
∃X4
Xkg
Xkf
Xkg x
5 L

S->5

mfbotrns qub pnrn bl knsg bxtrbmg gpubstg hb cluag bo kgotrnkgrrfbotb bl bsqubmn

hb pbrcfl hb tbmpbrnturns sbrín1
X
Xkg Xjf

∃X>
Xjf Xjg Xjg
∃X4
Xkg Xkf

x
Xkf 5 L

Hgohb1
Xjf tbmpbrnturn hb botrnhn hbl clufhg knlfbotb
Xjg tbmpbrnturn hb snlfhn hbl clufhg knlfbotb
Xkf tbmpbrnturn
Xkg tbmpbrnturn hb
hb botrnhn
snlfhn hblhblclufhg
clufhgcríg
críg

[b gdsbrvn qub bo nmdgs knsgs, ln tbmpbrnturn hb knhn clufhg vnrín uofcgrmbmbotb

n lg lnrig hb ln lgoiftuh hhbb ln tudbrín, pgr lg qub ln hfcbrbokfn hb tbmpbrnturn tnmdfæo
tnmdfæo
sbrî uon cuokfûo hb ln hfstnokfn. [b pubhb hbmgstrnr qub ln hfcbrbokfn hb
tbmpbrnturn rblbvnotb pnrn bl kîlkulg hb ln trnoscbrbokfn hb knlgr bs ln mbhfn
lginrítmfkn hb lns hfcbrbokfns hb tbmpbrnturns n ln botrnhn y ln snlfhn hbl
q = N ⋂ R ⋂ ∃XML

∃X> ∔ ∃X4
 ∃XML
 ∃X> 
lo 
fotbrknmdfnhgr1  ∃ X4 

Hgohb bl îrbn hb trnoscbrbokfn N y bl kgbcfkkgbcfkfbotb

fbotb ilgdnl
ilgdnl hb trnoscbrbo
trnoscbrbokfn
kfn R pubhbo
rbcbrfrsb n ln supbrcfkfb fotbrfgr g bxtbrfgr hb ln tudbrín fotbrfgr, bs hbkfr hgohb gkurrb
ln trnoscbrbokfn hb knlgr. Kunohg sb mnobano cluags mîs irnohbs sb usno mnogags
hb tudgs pnrnlblgs bokbrrnhgs bo uon sgln kgrnzn hb mnygr hfîmbtrg, sbiño sb
mubstrn bo ln cfiurn.
botrnhns n snlfhn hb tndfqubs hb
lgs tudgs clufhg críg turdulbokfn

kndbznl hb
hfstrfdukfûo

kgrnzn

S->>

8. Fotrghukkfûo n ln trnoscbrbokfn hb knlgr pgr rnhfnkfûo

Xghgs lgs kubrpgs rnhfno knlgr. Bo bstb mbknofsmg hb trnoscbrbokfn hb knlgr, ln

bobriín tærmfkn bs trnoscbrfhn pgr gohns blbktrgmnioætfkns botrb lgs kubrpgs sfo
tbobr kgotnktg botrb sí y sfo obkbsfhnh hb uo mbhfg. Ln rnhfnkfûo tærmfkn g knlgr
rnhfnotb bs rnhfnkfûo hb ln mfsmn onturnlbzn qub lns gohns hb luz.
[upgoinmgs hgs kubrpgs sglgs, nfslnhgs hb tghg lg hbmîs pbrg og botrb sí
nmdgs kubrpgs rnhfno knlgr nl gtrg, sfo bmdnrig bl mîs críg (C) sb knlbotnrî pgrqub
ln tbmpbrnturn hbl mîs knlfbotb (K) bs mnygr.

C K

Hurnotb bl prgkbsg hb trnoscbrbokfn hb knlgr pgr rnhfnkfûo nlig hb ln bobriín fotbron

hbl kubrpg (K) sb trnoscgrmn kgotfounmbotb bo bobriín rnhfnotb. Ln fotbosfhnh hb ln
rnhfnkfûo numbotn kgo bl numbotg hb tbmpbrnturn. Ln bobriín rnhfnotb bs
trnoscbrfhn hbshb bl kubrpg pgr gohns blbktrgmnioætfkns jnstn qub nlknozn bl gtrg
kubrpg (C). Bo bstb kubrpg, uon pnrtb hb ln bobriín rnhfnotb bs ndsgrdfhn y
rbtrnoscgrmnhn bo bobriín fotbron.

8.> Tnhfnkfûo hbshb uo kubrpg

Ln bobriín rnhfnotb mîxfmn fhbnl bmftfhn pgr uo kubrpg fhbnl (kubrpg obirg) bs
prgpgrkfgonl n ln kunrtn pgtbokfn hb su tbmpbrnturn ndsglutn hb nkubrhg kgo ln lby
hb [tbcno-Dgltzmnoo1

q = ϋg Ns X8
Hgohb1
q 1 rnh
rnhfnk
fnkfûo
fûo hbl
hbl kubr
kubrpg
pg ob
obirg
irg
-: 4 8
ϋg 1 2,39 x >5 Y / m ¹@ (kgostnotb hb [tbcno-Dgltzmnoo)
Ns 1 sup
supbrcf
brcfkfb
kfb rnh
rnhfno tb (m4)
fnotb
X 1 tbmpb
tbmpbrnturn
rnturn ndsglutn
ndsglutn hb lnln su
supbrcfk
pbrcfkfb
fb (@)
(@)
Ln bobriín frrnhfnhn pgr uo kubrpg rbnl (kubrpg irfs) bs fiunl n

q = β ϋg Ns X8

Hgohb β bs ln bmfsfvfhnh (rnhfnkfûo hb uo kubrpg rbnl / rnhfnkfûo hbl kubrpg obirg).

Bstb cnktgr hbpbohb hb ln onturnlbzn hb ln sustnokfn, hbl knrîktbr g cgrmn hb ln
supbrcfkfb bmfsgrn y vnrín kgo ln tbmpbrnturn, nuoqub og bo cgrmn sfiofcfkntfvn.
Nliuogs vnlgrbs hb supbrcfkfbs kgmuobs sb bokubotrno bo bl nobxg.

S->4

Ln bobriín rnhfnotb qub llbin n uo kubrpg1

Tnhfnkfûo rbclbanhn

ndsgrdfhn

trnosmftfhn
• Bs pnrkfnlmbotb ndsgrdfhn pgr bl kubrpg. Ln crnkkfûo hb bobriín rnhfnotb
ndsgrdfhn sb llnmn ndsgrdnokfn (ξ). Kunohg ln bobriín rnhfnotb bs tgtnlmbotb
ndsgrdfhn bl kubrpg bs llnmnhg kubrpg obirg.
• Bs pnrkfnlmbotb rbclbanhn. Ln crnkkfûo hb bobriín rnhfnotb rbclbanhn sb llnmn
rbclbktnokfn (ώ). Kunohg ln bobriín bs tgtnlmbotb rbclbanhn bl kubrpg bs llnmnhg

• kubrpg dlnokg. trnosmftfhn n trnvæs hbl kubrpg. Ln crnkkfûo hb bobriín rnhfnotb

Bs pnrkfnlmbotb
trnosmftfhn sb llnmn trnosmftnokfn (ψ). Kunohg ln bobriín pnsn tgtnlmbotb n
trnvæs hbl kubrpg, æstb bs llnmnhg kubrpg trnospnrbotb.
Ugr lg tnotg sb kumplb qub1

ξ+ώ+ψ = >
Bo ln prîktfkn ln mnygrín hb sûlfhgs y líqufhgs sgo gpnkgs (fotrnospnrbotbs) pnrn
bobriín rnhfnotb. Lgs insbs pubhbo sbr trnospnrbotbs kgmg bl nfrb g knsf gpnkgs
kgmg bl vnpgr hb niun g bl hfûxfhg hb knrdgog (hb nllí bl kgogkfhg “bcbktg
fovbronhbrg” bo ln ntmûscbrn). Unrn lgs kubrpgs sûlfhgs, ln rbclbxfûo y ln ndsgrkfûo
hb bobriín rnhfnotb fokfhbotb hbpbohb nmplfnmbotb hbl nkndnhg hb ln supbrcfkfb. Ln
rbclbktfvfhnh hb uon supbrcfkfb pulfhn pubhb sbr vnrfns vbkbs mnygr qub nqublln hb ln
supbrcfkfb îspbrn, fohbpbohfbotbmbotb hb su kglgr. Ln ndsgrtfvfhnh hb uo kubrpg
pubhb fokrbmbotnrsb rbkudrfbohg su supbrcfkfb kgo uon knpn îspbrn u gskurn.
8.4 Fotbrknmdfg hb knlgr pgr rnhfnkfûo botrb hgs kubrpgs sûlfhgs

Knhn kubrpg bmftfrî bobriín hb nkubrhg kgo su tbmpbrnturn, kgo ln bmfsfvfhnh (β)
hb su supbrcfkfb, kgo su îrbn supbrcfkfnl. Og tghn ln rnhfnkfûo bmftfhn pgr uo kubrpg
llbinrî nl gtrg.

S->;

Ln rnhfnkfûo tgmn bo kubotn bl cnktgr hb rnhfnkfûo (C>4). Nsí, ln trnoscbrbokfn obtn hb

knlgr pgr rnhfnkfûo botrb hgs kubrpgs bs1

q>4 = C>4 ϋg N (X>8 - X48)

Hgohb1

>
C>4 =
> > > N
+ +  ∔ > > ∔ >
β> I>4  β 4  N4
I>4 = cnktgr hb kgocfiurnkfûo ibgmætrfkn (pgrkfûo hb ln rnhfnkfûo
bmftfhn pgr uo kubrpg qub knb sgdrb bl gtrg)
Kunohg bl îrbn supbrcfkfnl
supbrcfkfnl hb uo kubrpg bs mukjg mbogr qub ln hhbl
bl gtrg, ln rbifûo
hb îrbns N> / N 4 sb nprgxfmn n kbrg. Unrn uo kubrpg pbqubþg hbotrg hb uon irno
kudfbrtn (kunrtg) I>4 = >, pgr tnotg1

C>4 = β>

q>4 = β> ϋg N> (X>8 - X48)

8.; Kgovbkkfûo y rnhfnkfûo hbshb g jnkfn uon supbrcfkfb

Bo knsgs qub fovglukrbo uon supbrcfkfb y uo mbhfg, bs kgovbofbotb knlkulnr ln

trnoscbrbokfn hb knlgr kgmdfonhn pgr kgovbkkfûo y rnhfnkfûo1

q = jk N (X> - X4) + β ϋg N (X>8 - X48)

Fotrghukfbohg ln bxprbsfûo1

X>8 ∔ X48
jr = β ϋg
X> ∔ X4

sb rbhukb ln bkunkfûo n ln sfiufbotb cgrmn sfmplfcfknhn1

 q = (jk + jr) N (X> - X4)
Hgohb jk rbprbsbotn bl kgbcfkfbotb hb trnoscbrbokfn pgr kgovbkkfûo y jr bl kgbcfkfbotb
hb trnoscbrbokfn pgr rnhfnkfûo. Bs bvfhbotb qub n mbhfhn qub krbkb ln hfcbrbokfn hb
tbmpbrnturns mnygr sbrî ln prgpgrkfûo hb trnoscbrbokfn hb knlgr pgr rnhfnkfûo. Bstg
gkurrb tnmdfæo kunohg ln bmfsfvfhnh hb ln supbrcfkfb numbotn, pgr babmplg pgr
gxfhnkfûo hbl mbtnl hb ln supbrcfkfb g pgrqub jn sfhg rbkudfbrtn kgo pfoturn hb gtrg
kglgr. Og bs hb bxtrnþnrsb qub ln supbrcfkfb hbl nfslnotb hb tudbríns bstæo
rbkudfbrtns hb uon lîmfon hb kglgr mbtîlfkg pnrn rbhukfr lns pærhfhns pgr rnhfnkfûo.

S->8

UTGDLBMN[ UTGURB[XG[

>. Ro pnobl hb prubdn hb 45,;4 x 45,;4 km y 4,28 km hb bspbsgr bstî kglgknhg botrb 4 plnkns y bl
kgoauotg bstî hbdfhnmbotb nfslnhg. Ln supbrcfkfb hb sbpnrnkfûo (fotbrcnz) hb uon plnkn sb
mnotfbob n 96,8 µK mbhfnotb uo sumfofstrg hb bobriín blæktrfkn hb 25 `Y0 ln gtrn plnkn pgsbb
uon tbmpbrnturn fotbrcnkfnl hb 4>,6 µK. Kgo bstgs hntgs gdtbobr ln kgostnotb hb kgohuktfvfhnh
tærmfkn ` pnrn bl pnobl hb prubdn.
Tptn.1 2;2 Y/m¹@
4. Ro kunrtg hb nlmnkbonmfbotg rbcrfibrnhg sb kgostruyb kgo uon plnokjn fotbron hb >4 mm hb
mnhbrn hb pfog, uon plnokjn fotbrmbhfn hb >55 mm hb kgrkjg prbosnhg y uon plnokjn bxtbron
hb 92 mm hb kgokrbtg. Ln tbmpbrnturn supbrcfkfnl hb ln pnrbh fotbron hbl kunrtg hb
nlmnkbonmfbotg bs 425 @ y ln hbl bxtbrfgr hb kgokrbtg bs ;55 @. ·Kuîl bs ln pærhfhn hb knlgr bo
Y/m´7
Tptn.1 45 Y/m´
;. [b hbdb mnotbobr uo nlmnkæo n >5 µK kunohg ln tbmpbrnturn bxtbrfgr bstî n 42 µK. Bl nlmnkæo
tfbob pgr hfmbosfgobs 3 x 3 x 4,2 m y tnotg lns pnrbhbs kgmg bl tbkjg bstîo kgostrufhgs hb
mnhbrn hb pfog, cfbltrg hb lnon y kgokrbtg (bl grhbo bs hbl fotbrfgr nl bxtbrfgr), sfbohg sus
bspbsgrbs hb 4 km, 2 km y 45 km rbspbktfvnmbotb. Hbsprbkfnohg lgs bcbktgs hb trnoscbrbokfn hb
knlgr pgr bl pfsg y pgr lns bsqufons hbl nlmnkæo, sb pfhb1
n) Ln knotfhnh hb knlgr (`Y) qub sb trnoscfbrb kgotfounmbotb pnrn mnotbobr bl nlmnkæo n ln
tbmpbrnturn fohfknhn.
d) Bl kgbcfkfbotb ilgdnl hb trnoscbrbokfn hb knlgr , bo Y/m´¹@
Hntgs1
Kgbcfkfbotb kgovbktfvg fotbrfgr hbl nfrb1 jf = : Y/m
Y/m´¹
´¹@
@
Kgbcfkfbotb kgovbktfvg bxtbrfgr hbl nfrb1 jb = >2 Y/m´
Y/m´¹@
¹@
Tptns.1 n) d)
8. [b hbsbn qub og mîs hb >:64 Y/m´ sbno kgohukfhgs n trnvæs hb uon pnrbh plnon hb ;5 km hb
bspbsgr kuyn kgohuktfvfhnh tærmfkn bs ` = 5,:32 Y/m¹@
Y/m¹@.. Bl knlgr trno
trnoscbrfhg
scbrfhg sbr
sbrîî kgotrgln
kgotrglnhg
hg pgr
bl nfslnmfbotg hb ln pnrbh kgo uo mntbrfnl nfslnotb kuyn kgohuktfvfhnh tbrmfon ` = 5,;83
5,;83 Y/m
Y/m¹@.
¹@.
Knlkulnr bl míofmg bspbsgr hb mntbrfnl nfslnotb qub nsbiurnrî bstn lfmftnkfûo hb cluag hb knlgr, sf
lns tbmpbrnturns hb lns supbrcfkfbs hb ln pnrbh kgmpubstn bo sbrfb, hbl lnhg hb ln pnrbh plnon bs
>>25 µK y hbl lnhg hbl mntbrfnl nfslnotb bs hb 85 µK.
2. Ro tudg hb mbtnl hb >5 km hb hfîmbtrg bxtbrfgr bstî kudfbrtg pgr hgs knpns hb mntbrfnl nfslnotb,
knhn uog hb 4 km hb bspbsgr. Lns kgohuktfvfhnhbs tærmfkns hb lgs hgs mntbrfnlbs nfslnotbs sgo
5,592 Y/m¹@ y 5,585 Y/m¹@. ·Bo quæ grhbo hbdbo kglgknrsb lgs hgs mntbrfnlbs nfslnotbs
nlrbhbhgr hbl tudg sf hbsbnmgs mfofmfznr ln trnoscbrbokfn hb knlgr botrb bl tudg y bl mbhfg
bxtbrfgr7. Austfcfknr hbdfhnmbotb su rbspubstn.
Tptn.1 Urfmbrg sb kglgkn bl mbagr nfslnotb hbdfhg nl mnygr irnhfbotb hb tbmpbrnturn
3. Ron kgrrfbotb hb vnpgr hb niun snturnhn n 455 µK cluyb pgr bl fotbrfgr hb uon tudbrín hb nkbrg hb
;" hb hfîmbtrg ogmfonl Knt. # :5. Ln tudbrín bstî rbkudfbrtn hb lnon hb cfdrn hb vfhrfg hb 2 km hb
 bspbsgr. Bl kgbcfkfbotb kgovbktfvg pnrn ln supbrcfkfb fotbron hb ln tudbrín bo kgotnktg kgo bl
vnpgr bs hb 2255 Y/m´¹@. Bl nfslnotb bxtbrfgr bstî bo kgotnktg kgo nfrb n 45 µK y bl kgbcfkfbotb
kgovbktfvg bstfmnhg hbl nfrb bs hb ;5 Y/m´¹@.
Ugr knhn mbtrg lfobnl hb tudbrín, sb pfhb knlkulnr1
n) Ln pærhfhn hb knlgr bo Yntts.
d) Lgs kgbcfkfbotbs ilgdnlbs hb trnoscbrbokfn hb knlgr dnsnhg bo bl îrbn fotbrfgr y bxtbrfgr hb ln
tudbrín rbspbktfvnmbotb.

S->2

Hntgs1
Kgohuktfvfhnh tærmfkn hbl nkbrg1 82 Y/m¹@.
Kgohuktfvfhnh tærmfkn hb ln lnon cfdrn hb vfhrfg1 5,582 Y/m¹@
9. Ro tnoqub kflíohrfkg hb 3,>5 m hb llnrig
nrig tfbob bo sus bxtrbmgs kndbznlbs sbmfbscærfkgs hb >,45 m
hb hfîmbtrg, y æstb kgotfbob gxíibog líqufhg n ‛>:; µK. Kgo bl prgpûsftg hb rbhukfr ln rnpfhbz hb
bdullfkfûo hbl gxíibog n og mîs hb >>,;8 `i/j, sb rbqufbrb kgo uribokfn nfslnr hfkjg tnoqub kgo
uon
bs hbknpn uofcgrmb
5,55:2; hb uo
Y/m¹@. mntbrfnlqub
Kgosfhbrb nfslnotb hfspgofdlb
bl puotg bo bl ogrmnl
hb bdullfkfûo nlmnkæohblkuyn kgohuktfvfhnh
gxíibog bs hb ‛>:;tærmfkn
µK y
su knlgr lntbotb hb vnpgrfznkfûo n bstn tbmpbrnturn bs hb 4>4,69 `A/`i. Ln tbmpbrnturn nmdfbotb
sb bokubotrn n 45 µK. [b pfhb knlkulnr1
n) Bl cluag tgtnl hb knlgr n trnvæs hbl nfslnotb bo wntts.
d) Bl bspbsgr hbl nfslnotb rbqubrfhg bo km.
Ogtn1 Kgosfhbrnr bl îrbn mbhfn nrftmætfkn pnrn bl knlgr trnoscbrfhg n trnvæs hb ln pnrbh kflíohrfkn.
:. Snpgr snturnh
snturnhgg n >45 µK (jci = 4454 `A/`i) sb kgohbosn
kgohbosn tgtnlmb
tgtnlmbotb
otb bo ln supbrcfkf
supbrcfkfbb bxtbrfgr hbl
tudg hb uo fotbrknmdfnhgr hb knlgr hb tudgs kgokæotrfkgs ( Hf = 4”, Hb = ;”). [f bl vnl
vnlgr
gr hb Rg bs
>:55 Y/m´¹@, knlkulnr bl îrbn hb fotbrknmdfg hb knlgr rbqubrfhg pnrn knlbotnr 4555 `i/j hb niun
líqufhn hb 45 µK jnstn 65 µK. Hbsprbkfb pærhfhns hb knlgr.
Tptn.1 >,2: m4
6. ;55 `i/j hb vnpgr snturnhg n >45 µK sb kgohbosn tgtnlmbotb bo ln supbrcfkfb bxtbrfgr hb uo
fotbrknmdfnhgr
hb hb knlgr
niun (Kp = 8,>:8 bo @)
`A/`i kgotrnkgrrfbotb
hb 45 µ
µK (Rg65
K jnstn = >,:
µK. `Y/m´
`Y/m´¹@)
¹@) qub
[f bl knlgr sfr
sfrvb
lntbot
lntbotbbvbhbpnrn knlbot
knlbotnr
nr 4555
vnpgrfznkfûo n >45`i/j
µK
hbl vnpgr snturnhg bs jci = 4454 `A/`i, sb pfhb1
n) Îrbn hhbb ln supbrcfkfb hb fotbrknmdfg hb knlgr, bo m´.
d) Cluag mîsfkg hb vnpgr kgohbosnhg obkbsnrfg pnrn knlbotnr bl niun, bo `i/j.
k) Knlgr pbrhfhg pgr bl fotbrknmdfnhgr bo `A/j.
h) Bl bspbsgr hbl nfslnotb rbqubrfhg pnrn rbhukfr lns pærhfhns nl >%.
Tptns.1 n) >,22 m4 0 d) 433 `i/j 0 k)
k)98:85
98:85 `A/
`A/jj 0 h) : km
>5. Bo uo fotbrknmdfnhgr hb knlgr hb tudgs kgokæotrfkgs, sb knlfbotno
knlfbotno bo ln rbifûo noulnr 82;3 `i/j
hb niun hbshb :5 µK jnstn >25 µK n prbsfûo kgostnotb hb > ntm. Lgs insbs knlfbotbs hb uo
bsknpb, qub tfbobo nprgxfmnhnmbotb lns mfsmns prgpfbhnhbs qub bl nfrb, botrno nl
fotbrknmdfnhgr bo kgotrnkgrrfbotb n ln tbmpbrnturn hb ;25 µµK
K y sn
snlbo
lbo n >92 µK. Ln supbrcfkfb tgtnl
Ng bs hb 64,6 m´. Hbsprbkfnohg pærhfhns hb knlgr, sb pfhb1
n) Bl knlgr fotbrknmdfnhg, bo Y.
d) Ln mbhfn lginrítmfkn hb ln hf
hfcbrbokfn
cbrbokfn hb tbmpbrnturns.
k) Bl kgbcfkfbotb tgtnl hb Rg hb trnoscbrbokfn hb knlgr, bo Y/m´¹@.
Hntgs1
Niun1
Knpnkfhnh knlgrícfkn bspbkícfkn hbl niun líqufhn1 Kp = 8,>:8
8,>:8 `A/
`A/`i
`i @
Botnlpín hb vnpgrfznkfûo n >55 µK1 ∃Jvnp = 85,32 `A/mgl.
Knpnkfhnh knlgrícfkn mglnr
m glnr mbhfn hbl ni
niun
un (ins) n >55 µµK1
K1 Kpm = ;;,:2 `A/`mgl @
Knpnkfhnh knlgrícfkn mglnr
m glnr mbhfn hbl ni
niun
un (ins) n >25 µµK1
K1 Kpm = ;8,52 `A/`mgl @
Nfrb1
Knpnkfhnh knlgrícfkn mglnr mmbhfn
bhfn n >92 µK1 Kpm = 46,;9 `A/`mgl @
Knpnkfhnh knlgrícfkn mglnr mmbhfn
bhfn n ;25 µK1 Kpm = 46,9: `A/`mgl @
Xbmpbrnturn hb rbcbrbokfn hb lns knpnkfhnhbs knlgrícfkns mglnrbs
m glnrbs mbhfns = 42 µK.
µK.
Tptns.1 n) 399 Y 0 d) >8> @ 0 k) 5,52>9 Y/m´¹@
>>. Ro fotbrknmdfnhgr hb knlgr kgostftufhg pgr hgs tudgs kgokæotrfkgs hb nkbrg hb 4” y ;” hb hfîmbtrg
ogmfonl, Knt. # 85, rbspbktfvnmbotb, bs utflfznhg pnrn bocrfnr >8555 `i/j hb uon sglukfûo hb
btnogl nl :5% bo pbsg ( Kp = 4,6; `A/`i @) hb :2 µ
µK
K n 82 µ
µK
K bo kgotrnkgrrfbotb kgo >3555 ``i/j
i/j hb

S->3

niun (K
(Kp = 8,>: `A/
`A/`i
`i @) qub fo irbsn n >2 µK. Bl niun cluyb pgr bl tudg fotbrfgr y sb kgosfhbrn qub
foirbsn
bl tudg bxtbrog bstî nfslnhg, hbsprbkfîohgsb lns pærhfhns hb knlgr bo bl fotbrknmdfnhgr.
Hbtbrmfonr pnrn bl fotbrknmdfnhgr sfmplb hb tudgs kgokæotrfkgs1
n) Ln tbmpbrnturn hb snlfhn hbl niun, bo µK.
d) Ln hfcbrbokfn hb tbmpbrnturns mbhfn lginrítmfkn, bo µK.
k) Bl îrbn hb trnoscbrbokfn kgo rbspbktg nl îrbn fotbrfgr hbl tudg hb 4”, bo m´.
h) Ln lgoiftuh tgtnl hbl fotbrknmdfnhgr hb knlgr, bo m.

Hntgs1
Kgbcfkfbotb ilgdnl hb trnoscbrbokfn hb knlgr pnrn bl îrbn fotbrfgr hbl tudg hb 4”1
Rf = 3325 `A/j¹m´
`A/j¹m´¹@.
¹@.
Tptns.1 n) ;6,2 µK 0 d) ;9,4 µK 0 k) 3,3; m 4 0 h) 885,
5,44 m
>4. Bo bl hfnirnmn nhauotg sb mubstrn uo sfstbmn hb fotbrknmdfnhgrbs hb knlgr qub gpbrno bo
kgotrnkgrrfbotb kgo vnpgr snturnhg n >35 µK pnrn knlbotnr >555 `i/jr hb uon sglukfûo nkugsn
hfluíhn hb sghn kîustfkn, hbshb 42 µK jnstn :5 µK. Xnotg bl cluag hb bstn sglukfûo kgmg bl hb
vnpgr sb hfvfhb bo pnrtbs fiunlbs notbs hb foirbsnr n lgs hgs fotbrknmdfnhgrbs. Bl vnpgr
kgohbosnhg snlb kgmg líqufhg snturnhg n 25 µK. Knhn fotbrknmdfnhgr bstî kgostftuíhg pgr uo
pnqubtb hb 45 tudgs hb nkbrg hb >½" hb hfîmbtrg bxtbrfgr y >55" hb lgoiftuh.
[b pfhb1
n) Bl kgbcfkfbotb ilgdnl hb trnoscbrbokfn hb knlgr (Rg) bo Y/
Y/m´¹
m´¹@.
@.
d) Bl cluag mîsfkg tgtnl hb vnpgr, bo `i/j, qub kf
kfrkuln
rkuln pgr bl sfstbmn hb fo
fotbrknmdfnhgrbs.
tbrknmdfnhgrbs.
Hntgs1
Knlgr bspbkícfkg hb snturnhg
ln sgl. nkugsn1 Kp
Botnlpín hbl líqufhg n 25 µK1 j=c 8.5 `A/`i
= 456. ;; @
456.;; `A/
`A/`i
`i
Botnlpín hbl vnpgr snturnhg n >35 µK1 ji = 492:492:.>
.> `A/
`A/`i
`i
Kgosfhbrnr pnrn lgs hgs fotbrknmdfnhgrbs bl mfsmg kgbcfkfbotb Rg
Hbsprbkfnr pærhfhns hb knlgr pnrn nmdgs fotbrknmdfnhgrbs

vnpgr snt.
>35 µK sgl. nk.
:5 µK

sgl. nk.
42 µK kgohbos.
25 µK

>;. Bo uo fotbrknmdfnhgr hb knlgr kgostftufhg pgr hgs tudgs kgokæotrfkgs, botrn 255 `i/j hb uo nkbftb
knlfbotb (Kp = >.::4 `A/`i @) n >2>255 µK y sb bocrín kgo niun jnstn >55 µK. Bl niun crín botrn n
85 µK y sb knlfbotn n :5 µK. [ndfbohg qub bl kgbcfkfbotb ilgdnl hb trnoscbrbokfn hb knlgr bs hb
;2> `A/j¹m4¹@, y bl cluag bs bo kgotrnkgrrfbotb, sb pfhb1
n) Bl knlgr fotbrknmdfnhg, bo `A.
d) Ln hfcbrbokfn mbhfn lginrítmfkn hb tbmpbrnturns.
k) Bl îrbn tgtnl hb trnoscbrbokfn, bo m4.
 h) Bl cluag hb niun hhbb bocrfnmfbotg, bo `i/j.

S->9

>
Tbsumbo hb cûrmulns hb Gpbrnkfgobs y Urgkbsgs Roftnrfgs

Xbmn Cûrmulns Unrîmbtrgs Rofhnhbs usunlbs [F

U Urbsfûo ndsglutn `Un
S Sglumbo L, m;
Lby hb insbs US = o T X o Oñmbrg hb mglbs mgl, `mgl
fhbnlbs
X Xbmpbrnturn ndsglutn @
T Kgostnotb uofvbrsnl :,;>8 `Un¹L/mgl¹@
xf Crnkkfûo mglnr ‛
of Uf Sf
Mbzklns hb xf = = = of Oñmbrg hb mglbs mgl
insbs oX UX SX Uf Urbsfûo pnrkfnl `Un
m;, L
M = ∞ xf M f Sf
M
Sglumbo
Mnsn mglnr
pnrkfnl
i/mgl, `i/`mgl
mv Uv >: mv Mnsn hb vnpgr hb niun `i
J = = Ù mN[ Mnsn hb nfrb sbkg `i
m N[ U ∔ Uv 46 mNJ Mnsn hb nfrb jñmbhg `i
m NJ = m N[ (> + J ) ov Oñm. mglbs hb vnpgr hb niun mgl, `mgl
ov Uv oN[ Oñm. mglbs hb nfrb sbkg mgl, `mgl
Jm = = oNJ Oñm. mglbs hb nfrb jñmbhg mgl, `mgl
o N[ U ∔ Uv Uv Urbsfûo pnrkfnl hb `Un
o NJ = o N[ (> + J m ) vnpgr hb niun
Uvs Urbsfûo hb vnpgr hb `Un
Jumbhnh >:
Uvs
Js = Ù niun snturnhg
hbl nfrb U ∔ Uvs 46 U Urbsfûo tgtnl `Un
Uvs J Jumbhnh `i niun / `i nfrb sbkg
J ms = Jm Jumbhnh mglnr mgl niun / mgl N.[.
U ∔ Uvs
Js Jumbhnh hb snturnkfûo `i niun / `i nfrb sbkg
J T = Uv Ù >55 Jms
JT
Jumbhnh rblntfvn
Jumbhnh mglnr hb snt. mgl
% niun / mgl N.[.
Uvs
JU Ugrkbotnab hb jumbhnh %
J (irnhg hb snturnkfûo)
JU = Ù >55
Js
Uuotg hb rgkíg XT ( Uvs , X = Uv, X ) XT Xbmpbrnturn g puotg hb rgkíg @, µK
T

vJ Sglumbo jñmbhg (bspbkícfkg) m; / `i nfrb sbkg

J Jumbhnh `i niun / `i nfrb sbkg
Sglumbo ⎐ > J ⎟ TX Kgostnotb uofvbrsnl :,;>8 `Un¹L /mgl¹@
vJ = ⎜ + ⎗Ù T
jñmbhg ⎝ 46 >: ⎥ U X Xbmpbrnturn ndsglutn @
(bspbkícfkg) S NJ = v J ⋂ m N[ U Urbsfûo ndsglutn `Un
SNJ Sglumbo hb nfrb jñmbhg m;
mN[ Mnsn hb nfrb sbkg `i
Knlgr jñmbhg k s = >,552 + >,:: ⋂ J
ks Knlgr jñmbhg (bspbkícfkg) `A / `i nfrb sbkg ¹ @
(bspbkícfkg) J Jumbhnh `i niun / `i nfrb sbkg
J Jumbhnh `i niun / `i nfrb sbkg
Js
ks Jumbhnh
Knlgr hb snturnkfûo
jñmbhg (bspbkícfkg) `i
`A /niun / `isbkg
`i nfrb nfrb¹sbkg
@
Bocrfnmfbotg ks
J ∔ Js = ∔ (X ∔ Xs ) ΰs Knlgr lntbotb hb bvnpgrnkfûo `A / `i
nhfndîtfkg ΰs @, µK
X Xbmpbrnturn (duldg sbkg)
Xs Xbmpbrnturn hb snturnkfûo @, µK
nhfndîtfkn (duldg jñmbhg)
mN J DJ Z Jumbhnh bo dnsb sbkn `i niun / `i [.[.
Z = = JDJ Jumbhnh bo dnsb jñmbhn %
m[[ >55 ∔ J DJ mN Mnsn hb niun `i
Jumbhnh mN Z m[[ Mnsn hb sûlfhgs sbkgs `i
bo sûlfhgs J DJ = Ù >55 = Ù >55
m [J >+ Z m[J Mnsn hb sûlfhgs jñmbhgs `i
m[J = m [[ (> + Z )